Designing a syllabus for grade 9 students at nguyen tri phuong junior high school in hue city for a star scholarship english test preparation

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HUE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
---------------------o O o---------------------

DESIGNING A SYLLABUS FOR GRADE 9 STUDENTS AT
NGUYEN TRI PHUONG JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
IN HUE CITY FOR A* STAR SCHOLARSHIP
ENGLISH TEST PREPARATION

FIELD OF STUDY: THEORY AND METHODOLOGY
OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
CODE: 60.14.10

MASTER IN EDUCATION

Hue, 2011


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
Pages
SUB COVER PAGE
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLES OF CONTENTS .................................................................................... 1
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................ 4
LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS ....................................................................... 5
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 8
1.1. Rationale .......................................................................................................... 8

1.2. Research aims ................................................................................................ 10
1.3. Research questions ........................................................................................ 10
1.4. Research significance .................................................................................... 10
1.5. Structure of the thesis .................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................ 12
2.1. Previous studies ............................................................................................. 12
2.2. Syllabus ........................................................................................................ 14
2.2.1. Difference between syllabus and curriculum ........................................... 14
2.2.2. Types of syllabus ...................................................................................... 16
2.2.2.1. Functional/ notional syllabus ............................................................... 16
2.2.2.2. Structural/ grammatical syllabus ......................................................... 17
2.2.2.3. Situational syllabus .............................................................................. 18
2.2.2.4. Task-based syllabus ............................................................................. 18
2.2.2.5. Skill-based syllabus ............................................................................. 19
2.2.2.6. Content-based syllabus ........................................................................ 19
2.2.2.7. Mixed/ layered syllabus ....................................................................... 20
2.2.2.8. Theme-based syllabus ......................................................................... 21
2.2.3. Syllabus design ......................................................................................... 23
2.3. Needs analysis ............................................................................................... 24
2.3.1. The process of needs analysis................................................................... 26
2.3.2. Kinds of needs .......................................................................................... 26
2.3.2.1. Target needs ......................................................................................... 27
2.3.2.2. Learning needs ..................................................................................... 28
2.3.3. Effects of needs analysis on ESP syllabus ............................................... 29
2.4. Selecting themes and planning thematic units .............................................. 29
2.4.1. Topics or Themes selection ...................................................................... 30


2.4.2. Topics or Themes grading ........................................................................ 31
2.4.3. Thematic units planning ........................................................................... 32

2.5. Material design .............................................................................................. 33
2.6. A* Star Scholarship and the structure of the selection test ........................... 34
2.6.1. A* Star Scholarship .................................................................................. 34
2.6.2. The structure of the selection test ............................................................. 34
CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES ............................... 36
3.1. Research approach ......................................................................................... 36
3.2. Research subjects and site ............................................................................. 36
3.3. Methods of data collection ............................................................................ 37
3.3.1. Questionnaires .......................................................................................... 38
3.3.2. Interview ................................................................................................... 41
3.3.3. Class observation ...................................................................................... 41
3.4. Data analysis .................................................................................................. 42
3.5. Procedures ..................................................................................................... 42
3.5.1. Questionnaires administration procedure ................................................. 42
3.5.2. Interview procedure .................................................................................. 43
3.5.3. Research steps…………………… .. ……………………………………43
3.6. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER 4 - FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ............................................. 45
4.1. Data analysis from teachers ........................................................................... 45
4.1.1. Teachers’ perceptions of the tests and students’ performance ................. 46
4.1.1.1. Teachers’ perceptions of students’ listening and speaking skill…… . 47
4.1.1.2. Teachers’ perceptions of the reading comprehension texts................. 48
4.1.1.3. Teachers’ perceptions of the writing skill ........................................... 48
4.1.2. Teachers’ advice for students on the four skills ....................................... 50
4.2. Data analysis from students ........................................................................... 52
4.2.1. Students’ perceptions of the A* Star selection test .................................. 52
4.2.2. Students’ difficulties in doing the selection test ....................................... 53
4.2.3. Students’ experience and preparations for the test. .................................. 54
4.2.3.1. Students’ experience and preparations for the Listening and
Speaking skill . ..................................................................................................... 55

4.2.3.2. Students’ experience and preparations for the reading skill................ 55
4.2.3.3. Students’ experience and preparations for the writing skill ................ 56
4.2.3.4. Students’ experience for the overall preparation ................................. 56
4.3. Interview…………………………………………………………………….57
4.3.1. Teachers’ responses to the English selection test ..................................... 57
4.3.1.1. Students’ common mistakes in the interview ...................................... 57
4.3.1.2. Teachers’ suggestions .......................................................................... 59


4.3.2. Students’ responses to the English selection test ..................................... 62
4.3.2.1. The difficulties students met during the test ......................................... 62
4.3.2.2. Students’ suggestions ............................................................................ 64
4.4. Sample syllabus for grade 9 gifted students at NTP School………….…....66
4.4.1. Target learners and other contextual factors…………………………… 66
4.4.2. Approaches, goals, objectives of the syllabus………………………… .. 67
4.4.3. The syllabus for grade 9 gifted students ................................................... 68
4.4.4. Sample units for grade 9 gifted students .................................................. 70
4.4.5. Description of experimental teaching ....................................................... 70
4.4.5.1. Responses of teachers ......................................................................... 71
4.4.5.2. Responses of students ......................................................................... 74
CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS ............................... 80
5.1. Research questions ........................................................................................ 80
5.2. Summary of key findings .............................................................................. 80
5.3. Implications ................................................................................................... 83
5.3.1. For administrators at NTP School ............................................................ 83
5.3.2. For teachers at NTP School ...................................................................... 84
5.3.3. For grade 9 students .................................................................................. 85
5.4. Contributions of the Study............................................................................. 85
5.5. Limitation of the Study .................................................................................. 86
5.6. Further study .................................................................................................. 87

5.7. Concluding reflection .................................................................................... 87
REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 88
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Questionnaire for teachers
Appendice B: Questionnaire for students
Appendice C: Feedback sheet
Appendix D: Questions for interview
Appendix E: Observation sheet
Appendix F: Sample units
Appendix G: Reliability analysis of the questionnaires for teacher
Appendix H: Reliability analysis of the questionnaires for students


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ESP
QA
QB
QC
TOEFL
IELTS
NTP
RI
MCQs:
N

: English for Specific Purposes
: Questionnaire A
: Questionnaire B
: Questionnaire C
: Test of English as a Foreign Language

: International English Language Testing System
: Nguyen Tri Phuong
: Raffles Institution
: Multiple choice questions
: Number

SPSS

: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

SD
M ean

: Standard Deviation
: Mean Score

SEAMEO

: The Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization


LISTS OF FIGURES

Page
Figure 2.1. Needs analysis……………………………………………………
Figure 2.2. The Needs Assessment Cycle………………………………………
LISTS OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Research subjects .......................................................................................
Table 3.2: Research methods ......................................................................................
Table 3.3: Summary of clusters for teachers ..............................................................

Table 3.4: Summary of clusters for students ..............................................................
Table 4.1: The reliability of the questionnaire………………………………………
Table 4.2: The mean score of the questionnaire for teacher ......................................
Table 4.3: Teachers’ perceptions of the tests and students’ performance ..................
Table 4.4: Teachers’ perceptions of students’ listening and speaking skill ...............
Table 4.5: Teachers’ perceptions of the reading comprehension texts ......................
Table 4.6: The mean score of teachers’ advice for students…….………………….
Table 4.7: Teachers’ advice for students on the four skills ........................................
Table 4.8: Mean score of questionnaire for students……………………………….
Table 4.9: Students’ perception of the A* Star selection Test……………………
Table 4.10: Students’ experience and preparations for the listening and
speaking skill……………………………………………………………………
Table 4.11: Students’ experience and preparations for the writing skill…………
Table 4.12: Students’ experience for the overall preparation…………………..
Table 4.13: Target learners………………………………………………………
Table 4.14: The type of tests and evaluation…………………………………….
Table 4.15: The English Syllabus for grade 9 students at NTP School…………
Table 4.16: The viewpoints of NTP teachers on the lessons …………………
Table 4.17: Teachers’ suggestions to improve the quality of teaching and
learning…………………………………………………………………………….
Table 4.18: The level of English proficiency of grade 9 gifted students…………..
Table 4.19: The viewpoints of grade 9 gifted students on the lessons…………….


LISTS OF CHARTS
Chart 4.1: Teachers’ perceptions of the writing skill .................................................
Chart 4.2: Teachers’ advice for students on overall preparation ………………….
Chart 4.3: Students’ difficulties in doing the selection test………………………
Chart 4.4: Students’ experience and preparations for the reading skill…………..
Chart 4.5: Teachers’ comments on the experimental teachings …………………

Chart 4.6: Students’ suggestions to improve the quality of teaching and learning…..


ABSTRACT

This thesis aims to investigate the current needs of A* Star Scholarship in Singapore.
A syllabus is designed to meet the needs and then some thematic units for grade 9
gifted students at Nguyen Tri Phuong Junior High School are developed.
The data are collected by means of questionnaires and interviews. Seventy-five
questionnaires are delivered and returned, and nineteen interviews are conducted with
two groups of participants: 14 NTP students in Raffles and 5 Raffles teachers.
The findings reveal the purpose, the current needs of A* Star Scholarship, the format
and the themes frequently used in the tests. Besides, the ex-students and Raffles
teachers give worthy experiences and advice. After taking many factors into
consideration, theme-based syllabus is chosen as the most suitable to the current
needs for grade 9 students at NTP School.
Limitations and suggestions for further research are also included in the hope that
more convincing and reliable conclusion will be drawn out in the field of teaching
and learning English to take A* Star Scholarship in Singapore.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale
In the time of globalization, English is becoming the “accepted international language
of technology and commerce” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987, p23); people
everywhere are learning it enthusiastically. As Tran (2000) remarks, “more and more
countries are making their lingua franca to communicate with the rest of the worldnot only with native English-speaking but also non-native English speaking countries

in international setting” (p.26). In fact, English is so widely spoken and referred to as
the "lingua franca" of the modern era.
In Vietnam, since the economic open-door policy pursued by the Government has
increased the demand for English- speaking people who are expected to be the main
source to lead Vietnam keep up with developed countries in the world, English has
been stressed as one of the most important subjects in high school education in
Vietnam. Following with globalization, many students are also seeking for better
education in English-speaking countries namely the United States, United Kingdom,
Canada or Singapore, where the education systems have been recognized for years.
Thus, the need of learning English is even more emphasized. In an interview with
Vietnam News (2004) about the situation of English language education in Vietnam
and opportunities for Vietnamese students today, Assistant Professional Do Huy
Thinh, Director of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization
(SEAMEO) Regional Training Centre, claims that globalisation, since its interception,
has changed the world. Nations, cultures and races start mixing with the others, and
education is no exception. More and more chances are now opened up for students
from any countries to study in other more well-developed education environment.
This is incredibly popular in Vietnam nowadays.
Integrating with this trend, Nguyen Tri Phuong Junior High School in Hue City and
Raffles Institution in Singapore as premier secondary schools in Vietnam and

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Singapore respectively, have an added responsibility to develop students with a
global outlook.
Nguyen Tri Phuong Junior High School is one of the old famous schools that has
large number of intelligent students. It is the unique junior high school in Hue City
where students are carefully selected through a strict entrance exam and their
academic performance in their primary education.

Raffles Institution (RI) which was founded in 1823 grew to be a beacon of
educational excellence that attracted the best from all walks of life regardless of race
or creed in Singapore, and from overseas [72]. Thanks to the cooperation of Nguyen
Tri Phuong (NTP) Junior High School with Raffles Institution, many NTP students
have received the A* Star Scholarships to pursue their secondary education in
Singapore. According to the feedbacks from previous batches of students who are
studying in RI, the education in Singapore is indeed a good chance for Vietnamese
students as they integrate with many international friends and learn to be more
independent.
Albeit with the keen interest of the students in this scholarship as well as their effort
to prepare for the selection, only 25 students, including 16 boys and 9 girls, were
chosen in the past six years. This number is relatively low in comparison with other
cities like Hanoi, Da Nang or Ho Chi Minh City [73].
As a teacher at this school, who is doing research on A* Star Scholarship, I would
like to specially design an English syllabus which will help gifted students who are
potential but lack English proficiency to take up the scholarship. Basing on the
experience of the previous batches of students and teachers from Raffles Institution,
this research aims to design an appropriate syllabus which helps to boost the four
skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing – for the future students in order to
better prepare them for the selection of the A* Star Scholarship.
This research is carried out by investigating the current needs, to design an ESP
syllabus and to develop some sample units for grade 9 students at Nguyen Tri Phuong
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School. In addition, experimental teaching of the two sample units in a class at
Nguyen Tri Phuong will be done to gather feedback from students and work towards
more effective teaching methods and techniques.
1.2. Research aims
This study aims to:

- investigate the current needs for A Star* Scholarship English Test preparation
- explore the challenges that previous students faced in English Test.
- get information about themes, essential language skills and language focus for a
syllabus.
- find out how to design a theme-based syllabus and develop some theme-based
sample lessons for grade 9 gifted students to take A Star* Scholarship English Test.
- design a theme-based syllabus and develop some theme-based sample lessons as a
suggestive teaching and learning material for grade 9 gifted students at Nguyen Tri
Phuong School for A Star* Scholarship English Test preparation
1.3. Research questions
1. What are the current needs for an expected English syllabus for A Star*
Scholarship English Test preparation?
2. What should be included in an English syllabus for grade 9 students at Nguyen Tri
Phuong School?
3. What are the students and teachers‟ feedbacks on some sample lessons in the
suggested syllabus? What modifications should be made?
1.4 Research significance
It is hoped that the findings of the study will contribute to the teaching and learning
English at Nguyen Tri Phuong Junior High School in Hue City. A theme-based
syllabus constructed upon current needs and the experience and advice of previous
and teachers in Raffles Institution in Singapore will enhance students‟ knowledge and
skills English. It will provide NTP teachers with a syllabus that meets specific needs
of learners and some sample lessons as suggestive teaching materials. It is expected
4


that the students will get good results in taking the A Star* Scholarship English Test.
Moreover, for personal development, the researcher can gain valuable experience and
knowledge by doing this research.
1.5. Structure of the thesis

This thesis consists of five chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter introduces general information of the research consisting of rationale,
aims, importance, research questions and the organization of the study.
Chapter 2: Literature review
Chapter two presents relevant background theories as well as the researcher‟ point of
view on the examined issue.
Chapter 3: Methodology
In this chapter, the issues such as methodology, participants, procedures of the
research and data collection as well as explanations for the author‟s employment of
those instruments in the research are also given.
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussions
This chapter reports on the findings from questionnaires and interviews with teachers
and students at NTP School and Raffles Institution. The data collected will be
analyzed to answer the research questions of the research paper. Additionally,
discussion is conducted based on the data collected in the study. The ESP syllabus for
grade 9 students is presented. Finally, two sample thematic units for students and
comments on the experimental teaching of these two units are stated.
Chapter 5: Conclusion
Chapter 5 summarizes the results of the study. Implications and suggestions are also
included in this chapter.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

This current literature review focuses on a general understanding of syllabus design
employed for grade 9 students at Nguyen Tri Phuong School for A* Star Scholarship

English Test preparation. It begins with the definitions of syllabus and curriculum, the
notion of a syllabus and types of syllabuses. Besides, the theme-based syllabus, a discussion
of the advantages of using theme-based syllabuses as well as definition of needs analysis,
kinds of needs, effects of needs analysis on ESP syllabus are mentioned. The information of
the A* Star Scholarship and the structure of the selection test are also dealt with in this

chapter.
2.1 Previous studies
Up to now, there have been a lot of studies related to ESP designing syllabus and
teaching at ESP at colleges. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) studied the theories about
ESP and their application in designing the ESP materials, exploring the learners‟
needs and so on. Chen (2006) considers the process of designing ESP program for
learners of various disciplines within a Chinese industrial institution. Meanwhile
Kaur (2007) examines the matching of learners‟ needs to aims in ESP course design.
In Vietnam, Luu and Truong (2008) explored learners‟ needs of ESP electronic
students at Hue Industrial College and gave suggestions to English program for
electronic students. Nguyen (2009) designed an English syllabus for Buddhist
Novices at Hue School of basic Buddhist studies. Truong and Pham (2009) defined
ESP, analyzed ESP teaching methods and built ESP materials. Nguyen (2010)
designed a course outline for using SPSS software for MA students and gave
suggestions to facilitate the process of analyzing as well as interpreting research data
of MA students majoring in Theory and Methodology of ELT.
In the terms of course books for international examination preparation, TOEFL,
TOEIC as well as IELTS course book is the standardized syllabus by which the
6


English-language skills of non-native speakers are improved and evaluated. The
purposes of these syllabuses are to help students to achieve their potential for success
in the international examinations. Particularly, these syllabuses provide a studentcentred communicative approach to learning, motivating and contemporary topicbased units that cover the core skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking.

Jakeman (2011) is successful in designing Cambridge IELTS 8. Cambridge IELTS 8
contains four authentic IELTS papers from Cambridge ESOL, providing excellent
exam practice. This Self-study Pack provides students the format of the tests in order
to familiarize themselves with IELTS and to practice examination techniques using
authentic test material prepared by Cambridge ESOL. The Student‟s Book with
answers contains four complete tests for Academic candidates, plus extra Reading
and Writing modules for General Training candidates. A comprehensive section of
answers and tapescripts makes the material ideal for students working partly or
entirely on their own.
At present, one of the best sellers is “Prepare for IELTS Academic Practice Test”
written by Penny Cameron and Vanessa Tood. The book is divided into 4 sections:
Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing with test practice activities, texts and
instructions that closely follow the test format. Specially, this book supplies the oral
test samples which help students a lot in practice speaking.
In Vietnam, there have been many course books designed for national and
international examinations. Strong grammar syllabus which revises key structures, an
integrated Workbook with further practice in test questions, a study skills syllabus
and practice in the general English module are also mentioned in these syllabuses. Le
(2011) designed TOEFL Readings with the aim to serve as a reading practice book
for students of English who want to improve their scores in the TOEFL reading tests.
Different from other books, TOEFL Readings provides the reading strategies and tips
which are very useful in TOEFL tests. Bach and Nguyen (2007) designed 1200
multiple choice questions to prepare for TOEFL Tests. Besides, Nguyen (2006)
supplied 2000 English multiple choice questions to meet the Certificate A, B, C. In
7


these books, all grammar points, language focus are arranged from easy to difficult
questions. Another syllabus related to Certificate A, B, C is “Tai lieu luyen thi noi
chung chi Quoc Gia Tieng Anh”

with 20 speaking topics designed by Nguyen (2009). Additionally, many books for
high-stakes testing are also popular designed.
In sum, each book has its own advantages and disadvantages but we cannot use any
of them for our students apart from the reference or self-study. Although teaching
ESP is a challenge to the English teachers, the researcher finds it necessary to design
some new English units that completely based on the current needs and purpose of
the A* Star selection Test.
2.2. Syllabus
2.2.1. Difference between syllabus and curriculum
The terms "syllabus", "syllabus design" and "curriculum" have given rise to
confusion in terms of their definitions and use. In North America, the term "syllabus"
is often interchangeably used with "curriculum" (Yalden, 1996). Nevertheless,
Robertson (1971) comments that these terms are used to address language courses
given by private individuals, or groups that do not belong to any part of an education
institution.
The curriculum includes the goals, objectives, content, processes, resources,
and means of evaluation of all the learning experiences planned for pupils
both in and out of school and community through classroom instruction and
repeated programs. And the syllabus is considered as a statement of the plan
for any part of the curriculum, excluding the element of curriculum evaluation
itself.
(Robertson, 1971, p.566)

Robinson (1991) states that syllabus is a plan of work to be taught in a particular
course and is essentially for the teacher, as a guideline and context for class content.
There may be value in showing the syllabus to students, so that they can have a
8


“route map” of the course (Robinson, 1991, p.34). This view is accepted by many

authors, for example, Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p.80) define that “a syllabus is a
document which says what will (or at least what should) be learnt”.
According to Allen (1984) curriculum is a very general concept which involves
consideration of the whole complex of philosophical, social and administrative
factors which contribute to the planning of an educational program. Syllabus, on the
other hand, refers to that sub part of curriculum which is concerned with a
specification of what units will be taught (as distinct from how they will be taught,
which is a matter for methodology.
Allen (1984) points out the relationship between a curriculum and a syllabus. A
syllabus is a "subpart" of a curriculum, and is related to "the specification of what
unit will be taught" while the scope of a curriculum is broader as it refers to many
factors of planning an educational program. With this definition, Allen (1984) seems
to make a distinction between syllabus design and methodology, which is slightly
different from Yalden‟s (1987) view on syllabus: “A syllabus should be, in the first
instance, a statement about content, and only in a later stage of development a
statement about methodology and materials to be used in a particular teaching
context.” (Yalden, 1987, p.87).
Candlin (1984, pp. 8-10) also makes the distinction between a syllabus and a
curriculum. He states that “curriculum is concerned with making general statements
about language learning items and suggestions about how these might be used in
class". "Syllabus is based on accounts and records of what actually happens at the
classroom level as teachers and learners apply a given curriculum to their own
situation. These accounts can be used to make subsequent modifications to the
curriculum so that the developmental process is ongoing and cyclical". According to
Candlin (1984), a curriculum is above classroom level and focuses on the "general
statements about language learning" and the suggestions on how to use these ideas in
class, while a syllabus reflects what actually takes place in classroom based on the
suggestions of a curriculum in an actual circumstance.
9

Thus, a syllabus is obviously recognised as a sub-part of a curriculum. To sum up, a
syllabus can be considered as an arrangement concerning the teaching method of a
general main content for what should be taught and learnt in a course.
2.2.2. Types of syllabus
Types of syllabus have been classified and defined by many authors. Nunan (1988)
seems to generalize these types under two big categories: product-oriented syllabus
and process-oriented syllabus. While Hutchingson & Waters (1897, pp. 85-88) claim
that: “ one of the main purposes of a syllabus is to break down the mass of knowledge
to be learnt into manageable units. This breakdown has to be based on certain
CRITERIA ”.
Mckay (1978), Hutchinson and Water (1987), Richards (1990), Nunan (1991), Brown
(1995), Ur (1996) and Harmer (2001) classify syllabuses into:
* Functional/ notional syllabus
* Structural or grammatical syllabus
* Situational syllabus
* Skill-based syllabus
* Task-based syllabus
* Content syllabus
* Mixed or layered syllabus
* Topic-based/ theme-based syllabus
This part will focus on the notions of these different types of syllabuses based on the
definitions or clarifications of the authors above.
2.2.2.1. Functional/ notional syllabus
According to Brown (1995) the chief emphasis of this syllabus is upon the
communicative purpose and conceptual meaning of language i.e. notions and
functions. In other words, the content of the language teaching is a number of the
functions that are performed on using the language, or of the notions that language is
utilized to express. Functions can be exemplified by instances such as inviting,
10

requesting, agreeing, apologizing; and notions embrace age, color, size, comparison,
time, etc. Besides, grammatical items and situational elements are considered at
subsidiary level of importance. He also asserts that the author selects general notions
basing on their perceived utility, and then sequences them according to chronology,
frequency or the utility of the notions involved. An important point regarding
notional-functional syllabus is that the needs of the students have to be explored and
analyzed by different types of interaction and communication a learner may be
involved in. White (1988, p.77) claims that "language functions do not usually occur
in isolation" and there are also difficulties of selecting and grading function and form.
Clearly, the task of deciding whether a given function (i.e. persuading), is easier or
more difficult than another (i.e. approving), makes the task harder to approach. The
above approaches belong to the product-oriented category of syllabuses.
This type of syllabus is considered to be taken a broader approach than the
grammatical one.
2.2.2.2. Structural/ grammatical syllabus
Ur (1996) assert that a grammatical syllabus is based on the structures of a language.
It can be compared to other types of syllabus which base around tasks, vocabulary,
functions or topics. Learners learn grammatical structures in a sequence that reflects
their complexity, rather than their use in communication, leading to many artificial
contexts for practice, and perhaps an inability to transfer learning to real
communication. The purposes of this syllabus are to transmit knowledge of the
language system to the learners and to ensure that they master the grammar and
vocabulary of the language.
This is recognized as the traditional syllabus which is often organized along
grammatical lines giving primacy to language form. According to Nunan (1988), the
most common syllabus type is perhaps the grammatical syllabus in which the
selection and grading of the content is based on the complexity and simplicity of
grammatical items. The learner is expected to master each structural step and add it to

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the grammar collection. Mckay (1978) and Brown (1995) also agree that structural
syllabuses or grammatical syllabuses focus on grammatical forms such as
phonological and grammatical structures.
In other words, grammatical syllabus specifies structural patterns as the basic units of
learning and organizes these according to such criteria as structural complexity,
difficulty, regularity, utility and frequency. However, the weakness of this type is its
aim for the elite. Its aim is to teach the entire system regardless the fact that not all
parts of the system is useful for all learners.
2.2.2.3. Situational syllabus
With this type of syllabus, the essential component of organization is a situation. The
situation is presented to the students in form of dialog (usually at the beginning of the
lesson, and it includes listening, memorization as well as provides the students
models for student improvisation) and role plays (which are the students expected to
create, supply or fill in much of the language that occurs in the situation) the content
of situation can be created by materials writer or teachers or taken from real life. In
other words, it is designed in such a way to provide realistic situation basing on
broadly communicative view of language and experimental theory of learning. One
advantage of the situational approach is that motivation will be heightened since it is
"learner- rather than subject-centered" (Wilkins, 1976, p.16).
2.2.2.4. Task-based syllabus
A task-based syllabus is based on task-based learning, an approach where learners
carry out tasks such as solving a problem or planning an activity. The language learnt
comes out of the linguistic demands of the activity. A task-based syllabus is
structured around a series of these tasks. The students draw on a variety of language
forms, functions, and skills, often in an individual and unpredictable way, in
completing the tasks. Tasks that can be used for language learning are, generally,
tasks that the learners actually have to perform in any case. Examples include:

12


applying for a job, talking with a social worker, getting housing information over the
telephone, and so on (Mckay,1978).
With the same idea, Nunan (2001) states that task-based syllabuses represent a
particular realization of communicative language teaching. Instead of beginning the
design process with lists of grammatical, functional-notional, and other items, the
designer conducts a needs analysis which yields a list of the target tasks that the
targeted learners will need to carry out in the „real-world‟ outside the classroom.
2.2.2.5. Skill-based syllabus
The content of the language teaching is a collection of specific abilities that may play
a part in using language. Skills are things that people must be able to do to be
competent in a language, relatively independently of the situation or setting in which
the language use can occur.
Brown (1995, p.11) says: “An author who uses skill-based syllabus organized
materials around language or academic skills that he or she thinks students will most
need in order to use and continue to learn the language.” Clearly, while situational
syllabus groups functions together into specific settings of language use, skill-based
syllabus groups linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and
discourse) together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening to spoken
language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving effective oral
presentations, and so on. The primary purpose of skill-based instruction is to learn the
specific language skill. A possible secondary purpose is to develop more general
competence in the language, learning only incidentally any information that may be
available while applying the language skills.
2.2.2.6. Content-based syllabus
The primary purpose of instruction is to teach some content or information using the
language that the students are also learning. The learners are at the same time

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language students and learners of whatever content and information is being taught
(Krahnke, 1988).
The subject matter is primary, and language learning occurs incidentally to the
content learning. The content teaching is not organized around the language teaching,
but vice-versa. Content-based language teaching is concerned with information, while
task-based language teaching is concerned with communicative and cognitive
processes.
In his paper “An Overview of Syllabuses in English Language Teaching”
Mohammad Mohseni Far (2008), an ESP lecturer in Iran, gave an example of this
kind of syllabus, that is a chemistry class in which chemistry is taught in the language
the learners need or want to learn, possibly with linguistic adjustment to make the
chemistry more understandable.
2.2.2.7. Mixed/ layered syllabus
Mixed syllabuses occur when authors choose to mix two or more types of syllabuses
together into what looks like a different type of syllabus… Other authors may choose
to use layered syllabuses, secondary or tertiary syllabuses in layers that operate
underneath the primary syllabus
(Brown, 1995, p.12)

Ur (1996) agrees with Brown (1995) about these types of syllabus; however, she
labels them as mixed or „multi-strand‟ syllabuses. She points out that the purposes of
using these kinds of syllabuses is to increase the effectiveness of the syllabuses
because when different types of syllabuses are combined, they will maximize the
comprehension and usefulness to students. In these types of syllabuses, specification
of topics, tasks, functions and notions as well as grammar and vocabulary may be
found by learners.

Different from Brown (1995), Taba (1962) defines that it is a syllabus that integrates
aspects of all the three mentioned syllabuses. This integrated model is attempted to
synthesize the content-oriented model, the objective-oriented model and the processoriented model. It is also called “a proportional syllabus”.
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Whatever the definitions of syllabuses, teachers must be reflective, analytic, creative,
and open to new methods and new ideas. That is the most important issue.
To conclude, the above syllabuses are extensively discussed by many authors.
Although the types of syllabus content are defined here in isolated contexts, it is rare
for one type of syllabus or content to be used exclusively in actual teaching settings.
Syllabus or content types are usually combined in more or less integrated ways, with
one type as the organizing basis around which the others are arranged and related. In
discussing syllabus choice and design, it should be kept in mind that the issue is not
which type to choose but which types, and how to relate them to each other (Krahnke,
1988).
2.2.2.8. Theme-based syllabus
A theme-based syllabus, also known as a topical syllabus or a topic-based syllabus is
the one in which the language and skills are structured around a certain topic or
theme - not the topic around the skills. Examples of theme-based activities are given
in Heaton‟s (1994) paper: the topic might be presented in terms of information
gathering involving skimming and scanning a selection of materials for reading. The
topic and vocabulary might then be recycled in guided group discussions (speaking
practice) before students listen to a lecture or watch a video (listening
comprehension). A writing task taking the form of reports might conclude the themebased activities.
Regarding this syllabus, Hui-fang (2006) defines a theme-based syllabus is one of the
two models in the content-based instruction. In this type of model, selected topics or
themes provide the content for students to learn. From these topics, EFL teachers
should extract language activities which follow naturally from the content material.
For example, teachers can select the topic of “traveling around the world” and have

students engage in a variety of places and activities, such as writing about the most
impressive countries, the feeling after the trip, etc.
In this regard, Brown (1995, p.9) asserts, “typically, topics are selected by the
textbook author on the basis of his or her sense of the importance of the topics or
themes to the lives of students for whom the text is designed”. Nunan (1991, p.15)
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points out that “units of work are organized around topics which provide internal
coherence to the units of work”. Normally, based on their perception about the
importance of the themes or topics to learners, the syllabus designers or textbook
authors are those who pick up the topics or themes for this kind of syllabus. It seems
that EFL teachers must choose reading texts at an appropriate level of complexity and
the topic has to hold students‟ interest to increase their motivation for learning.
A theme-based syllabus consists of a series of units where a unit is taught for five or
six periods, which are formed by a topic or theme and specific contents integrated
with the language-based or skill-based activities. A theme-based syllabus not only
gives trainees a clear view on the objectives of the ESP classes but also eases the way
in which they are going to achieve these goals (Bonyadi, 2002).
It seems to me that theme-based syllabus is the most appropriate to my teaching
context for the following reasons:
Firstly, a theme-based syllabus enables learners to cover all the important subject
areas. They open up opportunities to use the target language. In his point of view,
Goodman (2005, p.1) asserts:
Using a topic-based syllabus as a framework, however, provides a natural
stimulation for language learning in a realistic context. By starting with a
topic of interest and then discussing or explaining an issue or opinion,
students will find out what they want to say and whether they can say it or
not. This, then, provides further objectives, whether they be grammatical,
lexical or pronunciation, to build the course.

Secondly, theme-based syllabus has the potential to tie together different skill areas
by means of a contextual theme. - It offers a large degree of flexibility and can
provide for different proficiency levels.
Thirdly, theme-based syllabus is interesting which provides a variety of activities.
Moreover, it is learner centered, which encourages students to participate in the
lessons through such communicative activities as role-play activities, group
presentations, writing memoranda, text summaries, etc. This can promote learners'
autonomy and can motivate learners in learning target language (Heaton, 1994 and
Shin, 2007).
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Finally, such theme-based work is essentially task-based, enabling students to put to
real use the study skills they are practicing - giving students a real purpose and
showing a direct application of the skills being acquired (according to Heaton (1994)).
Clearly, there is a vast amount of syllabuses to choose, to design. Thus, syllabus
designers need to consider the practicality of a particular syllabus by examining all
the possible factors that might affect effectively. As Hutchinson and Waters
(1987:51) suggest: “Does the syllabus specification include all aspects? If yes, how is
priority established?”
In short, the theme syllabus is the most appropriate one for the researcher. But how to
start and what to include in that syllabus? The following section will clarify these
issues.
2.2.3. Syllabus design
A language teaching syllabus involves the integration of subject matter (what to talk
about) and linguistic matter (how to talk about it); that is, the actual matter that makes
up teaching. Choices of syllabus can range from the more or less purely linguistic,
where the content of instruction is the grammatical and lexical forms of the language,
to the purely semantic or informational, where the content of instruction is some skill

or information and only incidentally the form of the language. To design a syllabus is
to decide what gets taught and in what order.
According to Mumby (1984) (cited in Kaur 1990, p.5), syllabus design is seen as "a
matter of specifying the content that needs to be taught and then organizing it into a
teaching syllabus of appropriate learning units." Nunan (1988, p.6) shares the same
view as he states: “a syllabus is a statement of content which is used as the basic for
planning courses of various kinds, and that the task of the syllabus designer is to
select and grade this content”
As for Webb (1976), syllabus design is understood as the organization of the selected
contents into an ordered and practical sequence for teaching purposes. His criteria for
syllabus design are as follows:
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* progress from known to unknown matter
* appropriate size of teaching units
* a proper variety of activity
* teachability
* creating a sense of purpose for the student.
From Webb's viewpoint (1976), the critical elements of a good syllabus are its
teachability and its suitability to the learners' purposes; thus, it must have a content
appropriate to the learners' language level and be developed from easy to difficult
levels, and have suitably sized teaching units with a proper variety of activities.
This follows very closely the general model advocated by Taba (1962) which gave
the following steps:
* needs analysis
* formulation of objectives
* selection of content
* organization of content
* selection of learning activities

* organization of learning activities
* decisions about what needs evaluating and how to evaluate.
From the above explanations on syllabus design, it can be concluded that the
important stages in syllabus design are needs analysis, and content specification and
syllabus organization.
Within the scope of this thesis, the researcher aims to investigate three main stages,
namely needs analysis, content selecting and grading, and material design.
2.3. Needs analysis
What is needs analysis? How is it completed? Why is it important?
A needs analysis is the process of shaping the needs for which a learner or a group of
learners requires a language and arranging the needs according to priorities.
Richards et al (1992, p.242)

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