a study on the meaning and structure of an english fairy-tale a systemic functional analysis = nghiên cứu về ngữ nghĩa và cấu trúc của một câu truyện cổ tiếng anh theo quan điểm của ngữ pháp chức năng hệ thống

iii



ABSTRACT



In this thesis I will study the meaning and structure of a chosen English fairy-tale as seen
from the systemic functional perspective. Systemic functional grammar is a very
powerful analytical tool for analyzing a text with the transitivity system, the mood, the
thematic pattern and the cohesion. Also, a fairytale may be very familiar with a lot of
people because they are told so many fairytales for many times when they are just little
boys and girls and until they are mature already; therefore the analysis of the meaning
and structure of a fairytale is useful in some ways














iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION i
ABSTRACT ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v


CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Rationale of the study 1
1.2. Aims of the study 2
1.3. Scope of the study 2
1.4. Methods of the study 2
1.5. Design of the study 2

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 3
2.1. Introduction 3
2.2. Systemic functional grammar 3
2.2.1. Introduction to systemic functional grammar 3
2.2.2. Clause and clause complex 4
2.2.3. The transitivity system 6
2.2.4. The mood structure 12
2.2.5. The thematic structure 14
2.2.6. Cohesion 15
2.3. Theoretical backgrounds of fairy tales 20
2.3.1. What is fairy tales? 20
2.3.2. History of English fairy tales 21
v

2.3.3. Features of English fairy tales 21

CHAPTER 3. THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF THE FAIRY-TALE
“CINDERELLA” 24

3.1. Introduction 27
3.2. The chosen text 29
3.3. Contextual configuration of the text 29
3.4. Clause and clause complex analysis 30
3.5. The transitivity pattern of the text 37
3.6. The mood pattern of the text 38
3.7. The thematic pattern of the text 39
3.8. The cohesion of the text 39
3.9. The structure of the fairy tale text 41

CHAPTER 4. CONCLUSION 43
4.1. Recapitulation 43
4.2. Implications for the study 43
4.3. Suggestions for further study 44

REFERENCES 45

APPENDIXES
1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Rationale of the study
There are many different approaches to describe the grammar of a language.
One approach sees grammar as a set of rules which specify all the possible grammatical
structures of the language where grammatical and ungrammatical sentences are
distinguished clearly and so, its main concern is the forms of grammatical structures
rather than with their meanings or their uses in contexts, therefore, the analysis of

Another approach sees language as a system of communication and analyses
grammar to discover by what means it allows speakers and writers to make and
exchange meanings. Its main focus is not a clear distinction between grammatical and
ungrammatical forms but on the appropriateness of a form for a particular
communicative purpose in a particular context. In this approach, the function of
structures is not concerned with their constituents and their meanings in context.
Grammarians who are interested in this kind of description is likely to use data from
authentic texts.
The two approaches are clearly different from each other: the former approach
refers to grammatical analysis and it is often called formal while the later one is called
functional. However, they are certainly exclusive.
For me, I find functional grammar very useful and interesting because it offers
us an analytic tool of looking at the whole text. Functional grammar is a complex but
comprehensive model. Although it has been studied by many famous linguists in the
world, such as M. A. K. Halliday (1961, 1967, 1970, 1978, 1985, 1994), it has not been
studied much in Vietnam. Up to now, there have been only two grammarians studying
the functional approach: Cao    
 
.
2

Being a teacher of English, I want to contribute something to this field. I would
   A study on the meaning and structure of an English fairy tale: a

systemic functional analysis, u
theoretical framework.
1.2. Aims of the study
This thesis attempts to study the meaning and the structure of an English fairy
tale as seen from the systemic functional perspective.
1.3. Scope of the study
This study does not mention all aspects of meaning and structure of the fairy tale
but only some precious features are discussed. They are the transitivity, the mood, the
theme pattern and the cohesion of the text.
1.4. Methods of the study
The methods used in the study are descriptive and analytic.
Descriptive method is concerned with the description of main areas of functional
grammar and analytic method is concerned with the analysis of the text.
1.5. Design of the study
This thesis is divided into 4 chapters:
- Chapter 1: Introduction  presents the rationale of the study, the aims, the scope,
the methods and the design of the study.
- Chapter 2: Literature Review provides the theoretical background of the study.
Its focus is on introducing important concepts in systemic functional linguistics
relevant to the topic of the study and knowledge surrounding the kind of fairy
tales.
- Chapter 3: The meaning and structure of an English fairy tale Cinderella 
analyzes the fairy tale as seen from the systemic functional point of view
- Chapter 4: Conclusion  summarizes the results of the study, suggests some
implications for discourse analysts, students and teachers of discourse analysis
and then presents some suggestions for further research.

3

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction
In this chapter we will present background knowledge on systemic functional
grammar and overview some aspects of this theory (the transitivity system, the mood
structure, the thematic structure and cohesion)
2.2. Systemic functional grammar
2.2.1. Introduction to systemic functional grammar
Systemic functional grammar is a grammatical model developed by M.A.K.
Halliday. In his book An introduction to Functional Grammar (1994), Halliday

which it is based is a functional one rather than a formal one. It is functional in three
distinct although closely related senses: in its representation (1) of texts, (2) of the
system, and (3) of the elemenHalliday, 1994). According to
Halliday, language is functional in sense that it is designed to account for how language
is used and language has evolved to satisfy human needs. Therefore, the fundamental
components of meaning in language are functional components and each element in a
language is explained by reference to its function in the total linguistic system.
   also called systemic because he developed the detailed
system networks named mood type for many areas of English grammar.
Hoang Van Van states that systemic functional grammar 
of analytical instruments which help researchers tackle not only phonological but also
         Hoang Van Van
2006: 161). This theory encompasses all levels of language: phonology, lexico-
grammar, semantics and context of situation where language occurs. In terms of
phonology, it studies the resources of intonation, rhythm, and syllabic and phonemic
articulation. Lexico-grammar includes lexis or vocabulary and grammar in a unified
system. Semantics is concerned with the system of meaning. Unlike other grammatical
theories, this theory develops a model for contextual analysis which consists of three
4

components or parameters: field, tenor, and mode. His model can be represented as
follows:
 Field: refers to what it is happening, to the nature of the social action that
is taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which the
language features as some essential components?
 Tenor: refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statuses
and roles: what kind of role relationships of one kind or another, both of the
types of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue and the whole cluster
of socially significant relationships in which they are involved?
 Mode: refers to what part the language is playing, what it is that the participants
are expecting the language to do for them in that situation: the symbolic
organization of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context,
including the channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two?)
and also the rhetorical mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of such
categories as persuasive, expository, didactic and the like.
(Halliday in Halliday and Hasan 1989: 12)

2.2.2. Clause and clause complex
2.2.2.1. Clause complex
In Hallntence can be interpreted as a
clause complex: a Head clause together with other clauses that modifying it. There is
the same kind of relationship between sentence and clause as there is between group and
word: the sentence has evolved by expansion outwards from the clause. However, we
can not account for all of sentence structure simply in terms of Head + Modifier because
there are a lot of kinds of modifying and also other similar relationships.
With the notion of clause complex, we are able to account in full for the
functional organization of sentences. A sentence can be defined as a clause complex.
The clause complex will be the only grammatical unit which we shall recognized above
the clause. Therefore, there i           

grammatical category.
5

          
component of the linguistic system: the functional-semantic relations that make up the
logic of natural language. There are two systemic dimensions in the interpretation: one
is interdependency including parataxis and hypotaxis which is general to all complexes-
word, group, phrase and clause alike, and the other is the logico-system of expansion
and projection, which is specifically an inter-clausal relation.
2.2.2.2. Types of relationship between clauses
2.2.2.2.1. Type of interdependency

is not the only relationship that may obtain between the members of a complex. Where
one element modifies another, the status of the two is unequal; the modifying element is
dependent on the modified. But two elements may be joined together on an equal
footing, neither being dependent on the other.
Hypotaxis:
The general term for the modifying relation is Hypotaxis. Hypotaxis is the
relation between a dependent element and its dominant, the element on which it is
dependent. The dominant element is free, but the dependent element is not.
Hypotaxis will be represented by the Greek letter notation already used for
modification on the structure of the group
Parataxis:
Parataxis is the relation between two like elements of equal status, one initiating
and the other continuing. Paratactic structures are presented by a numerical notation 1 2

stand as a functioning whole.
2.2.2.2.2. Type of logico-semantic relation
In this type of logico-semantic relation, there is a wide range of different logico-
semantic relations any of which may hold between a primary and a secondary member

of a clause nexus and it is possible to group these into a small number of general types,
based on the two fundamental relationships of Expansion and Projection.
6

Expansion: the secondary clause expands the primary clause, by elaborating it,
extending it, or enhancing it.
Projection: the secondary clause is projected through the primary clause, which
instates it as a locution or an idea.
Within the general categories of expansion and projection, we recognized first of
all a small number of subtypes: three of expansion, and two of projection. The names
these, with suggested notation, are as follows:
(1) Expansion:
- elaborating = (equal)
- extending + (is added to)
- enhancing x ( is multiplied by)
(2) Projection:
- locution 
- idea 
These symbols combine with those for parataxis and hypotaxis:
=2  +2  x2     
Elaborating: one clause expands another by elaborating on it (or some portion of
it): restating in other words, specifying in greater detail, commenting, or exemplifying.
Extending: one clause expands another by extending beyond it: adding some
new element, giving an exception to it, or offering an alternative.
Enhancing: one clause expands another by embellishing around it, qualifying it
with some circumstantial feature of time, place, cause, or condition.
Locution: one clause is projected through another, which presents it as a
locution, a construction of wording.
Idea: one clause is projected through another, which presents it as an idea, a
construction of meaning.

2.2.3. The transitivity system
According to Halliday (1970), language has three functions: ideational,
interpersonal, and textual. Each of the three metafunctions is about a different aspect of
the world, and is concerned with different mode of meaning of clauses and all these
functions are reflected in the structure of the clause. The ideational metafunction, which
7

includes experiential function and logical function is about the natural world, including
our own consciousness, and is concerned with clause as representation. The
interpersonal metafunction is about the social world, especially the relationship between
speaker and hearer, and is concerned with clause as exchange and the third metafunction
textual metafunction is about the verbal world, and is concerned with clause as
messages.
Experiential meanings are realized through the system of TRANSITIVITY and
the transitivity construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process types.
In the transitivity system of English, six process types are recognized: Material, Mental,
Verbal, Behavioural, Relational, and Existential.
2.2.3.1. Material process
Material process is the process of doing or action/ event such as running,
walking, catching, kicking, etc. The basic meaning of material process is that some
entity does something or undertakes some actions, so to realize this type of process we
often ask 
There may be one, two or even three participants in this process but there must
be an obligator one which is Actor. The Actor is the doer of the action. When a process
has only one participant (Actor), it is called intransitive. When there are two
participants, the process is called transitive and these transitive clauses are probed by
What did X do to Y and in this case, these roles are referred to respectively as Actor
and Goal (one that is affected by the action). In some material processes, there appears
the third participant which is called Receiver, which is the one benefiting from the
process. The following examples reflects the material process.

(e1)
He
is running
Actor
Material Process

(e2)
The lion
caught
the tourist
Actor
Material Process
Goal
8

(e3)
Mary
gave
her brother
a book
Actor
Process: material
Goal
Receiver

The representation of a material process can come either the active form or the
passive form. The examples above are in active form and the following example is in
active form.

(e4).

The tourist
was caught
by the lion
Goal
Process: material
Circumstance

2.2.3.2. Mental process
Mental process is the process of sensing such as thinking, loving. It is divided
into four main types: cognition (thinking, knowing, realizing), perception (hearing,
sensing, feeling), affection (loving, hating, adoring, pampering) and desideration
(wanting, desiring, wishing). In this process, we do not talk about what we are doing but
about what we think or feel. Therefore, we do not probe mental process by asking
What did X do to YWhat do you think/ feel/ know about XIn
mental processes, there are often two participants: Sensor (one who senses, feels, thinks,
or wants ) and Phenomenon (one that is sensed, felt, thought of, and wanted).
(e5)
I
know
the city
Sensor
Process: mental
Phenomenon

2.2.3.3. Relational process
Relational process is the process of being, being at, or having. It consists of three
main subtypes: the intensive, the circumstantial and the possessive.

9

               
about, along, etc)

Each of these comes in two modes: attributive and identifying.
Attribu

When a relational process is in the attributive mode, it has one participant
referred to Carrier and the quality or the thing showing that the Carrier belongs to a
class of things, which is usually realized by an adjective or an indefinite nominal group,
is usually referred to as Attribute. The participants in identifying process are called
Token and Value or sometimes they are called Identified and Identifier.

For example,
(e6)
Sarah
is
wise
Carrier
Process: relational
Attribute

(e7)
The piano
is

Token
Process: relational
Value

2.2.3.4. Behavioural process

Behavioural process is the process of physiological and psychological behaviour
such as crying, breathing, drinking, coughing, laughing, and dreaming. Halliday

process. The meanings it realizes are midway between the material on the one hand and
the mental on the other hand. They are in part about action, but it is action that has to be
experienced by a conscious being. Usually there is only one participant in a behavioural
process which is called Behaver, and typically a conscious being, and not a lifeless
thing.
For example,
10

(e8)
She
laughed
Behaver
Behavioural Process

She laughedThe door laughedThe tree laughed.
Behavioural process can contain a second participant that is like a Range (a restatement
of the process). This participant is called Behaver.
For example,
(e9)
He
smiled
a broad smile
Behaver
Process: behavioural
Behaviour

If the second participant is not a restatement it is called a Phenomenon

(e10)
Peter
sniffed
the soup
Behaver
Process: behavioural
Phenomenon

2.2.3.5. Verbal process
Verbal process is the process of saying such as saying, telling, talking, speaking.
The typical participants in this process are Sayer (the one who does the verbalization),
Receiver (the one to whom the saying is addressed, Target (the one that the
verbalization is directed to), and the Verbiage (the message itself).
For example,
(e11)
He
told
me
a ghost story
Sayer
Verbal Process
Receiver
Target

As with all processes, Circumstance can occur in verbal process, mostly is manner.
(e12)

11

They

are talking
about this problem
Sayer
Process: verbal
Circumstance: manner

2.2.3.6. Existential process
Existential process is the process of existing, indicating that something or some
natural force exists. It has normally one participant called Existent and some
circumstantial elements. In an existential clause, the s There   
although it does not receive any functional label in an existential process.
(e13)
There
is
a man
in the room

Process: existential
Existent
Circumstance

These process types can be summarized in the table below:

Process type
Category meaning
Participants
Material
action
event




Actor, Goal, Recipient
Behavioural

Behaver,
Mental
perception
affection
cognition




Sensor, Phenomenon
Verbal

Sayer, Target, Verbiage, Recipient
Relational
Attributive
Identification



Carrier, Attribute
Identified/ token
Identifier/ Value
Existential

Existent

Table 1: Process types, their meanings and key participants
(Source: Halliday 1994: 143)
12

2.2.4. The mood structure
An obvious thing is that people use their language to communicate with each
other, to exchange information, or to influence their behaviour and get something done.
When one uses a language he plays a role such as questioner or an informant. The roles

conversation. And the language here has an interpersonal metafunction.
Interpersonal metafunction is concerned with the interaction between speaker
and hearer or writer and reader. The functions within this component include giving or
demanding information, expressing intention, expressing attitude, etc. These functions
have more to do with social interaction than with content. It is concerned with the clause
as exchange.
As an exchange or an interactive event, a clause consists of two components: the
Mood and the Residue. The Mood is 
72). Its function is to carry the argument forward. The Mood comprises of two
functional elements: the Subject and the Finite. The Subject is a nominal group and the
Finite is a verb element which has the function of making the proposition finite. The
Residue is the remainder of the clause. It consists of three functional components: the
Predicator, the Complement, and the Adjunct. The Predicator is presented in all non-
elliptical major clauses, and it is realized by a verbal group; the Complement is an
element within the Residue that has the potential of being Subject, and is typically
realized by a nominal group; and the Adjunct is an element that has not got the potential
of being a subject, and it is realized by an adverbial group or a prepositional phrase.
For example,
(e14)
The duke
has

given
that teapot away
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement
Mood
Residue

As we know all the roles of speech are traced back to a form of either giving or
demanding and these roles are simultaneously related to the two general things of
commodity negotiated between people goods-&-services, or information, for example
13

giving information is a statement and demanding goods-&-service makes up a
command, etc. Giving information is typically realized by a declarative clause;
demanding goods-&-services is typically realized by an imperative clause and
demanding information is typically realized by an interrogative clause. Therefore, we
have different types of Mood which are represented in the figure below:

Mood indicative interrogative
declarative
imperative inclusive
exclusive
Figure 1. A fragment of the Mood system in English
Also we have different types of Modality such as ability (e.g., I can swim),
possibility (e.g., Can I have an English book, please?), supposition (e.g., He must be the
thief), permission (e.g., May I go out?), etc.
2.2.5. The thematic structure
As mentioned above, textual metafunction is about the verbal world and it is

concerned with clause as message. When we look at the clause from the perspective of
what is being talked about we are turning to examine aspects which can only be
properly understood by looking at the clause in its context in the rest of the language
around it.
Seeing language from the point of view of the textual metafunction, we are
trying to see how speakers build up their messages in a way which makes them fit

message is represented through the thematic structure.    
   s relevant to the
context. Relevant to the realization of the system of theme are two elements: Theme and
Rheme.
The Theme serves as the departure of the message, which coincides with the
initial elements of the clause in English. The Rheme is the remainder of the message.
The theme can be realized by a nominal group, an adverbial group or a prepositional
14

phrase. It may be si

1994: 40). On the contrary, a multiple theme is the one that has a further internal
structure of its own. Here we distinguish between Topical theme, Textual theme and
Interpersonal theme. A topical theme is the one that is conflated with an experiential
element of the clause. It means that the theme ends with the first constituent that is
either participant, circumstance, or process. A textual theme is any combination of
continuative (yes, no, now), structure (and, but ), conjunctive (also, next, ).
And within interpersonal theme, we may have a modal, the finite verbs (in Yes/No
interrogative clause) and also a vocative element.
In the declarative clause, an unmarked theme      
s 
(Halliday 1994: 44) such as Complement, Adjunct, or even Predicator.
Below are some examples to illustrate the thematic structure of the clause.

(Source: Halliday 1994: 55)
My mother usually gets up early.
Unmarked Theme
On Monday we have three lessons
Marked theme
Another perspective on the clause as a message is concerned with the
information structure or the Given New structure. Given information is the information
which has already introduced into the text and the New is the information which is
introduced into the text for the first time.
Well
but
then
Ann
surely

the best idea
be to join
the group
continuative
structural
conjunctive
vocative
modal
finite
topical
Rheme
Textual
Interpersonal
experiential

Theme
15

2.2.6. Cohesion
2.2.6.1. The concept of cohesion
The concept of cohesion is a semantic one which refers to relations of meaning
that exists within the text, and that defines it as a text. Cohesion occurs where the
interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another. The one
presupposes the other, in the sense that it can not be effectively decoded except by
recourse to it. When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements,
the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a
text.
There are four ways by which cohesion is created in English: by reference,
ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical organization. We will mention these types of cohesion
in the next parts.
2 2.6.2. Reference
According to Halliday,       
               
Reference expresses the relationship of identity which exists between units in discourse.
Reference can be divided into anaphoric reference, cataphoric reference, exophoric
reference, personal reference, demonstrative reference, and comparative reference.
Anaphoric Reference 
(Halliday 1994: 312).
For example,
This lady is a professor. She works in a large university in New York.
Cataphoric reference is a cohesive device which points the reader or listener
forwards it draws us further into the text in order to identify the elements to which the
reference items refer.
For example,
He coughed all night. The boy has been got a cold.

Exophoric reference 

16


E.g.: The spaceship flew around the new planet several times
Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation,
through the category of person.
E.g. The two astronauts put on their space suits.
Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale of
proximity. It is expressed through determiner: this, that, these, those and adverbs here,
there.
Comparative reference is expressed through adjectives and adverbs and serves
to compare items within a text in terms of identity or similarity. Any expression such as
the same, another, similar, different, as small, smaller, less small, and related adverbs
such as likewise, differently, equally, presumes some standard of reference in the
preceding textation of

E.g. He then bought a smaller house
2.2.6.3. Substitution
According to Halliday and Hasan (1997), s    

one item by another at a particular place in discourse. There are three types of
substitution: nominal substitution, verbal substitution, and clausal substitution.
Nominal substitution is the use of a substitute word to replace the Head of a
corresponding nominal group. The noun which is functioned as the Head is always a
countable noun. In English, nominal substitution is often realized by items such as one,
ones and same.
For example,
I like the blue hat. I do not like the red one

Verbal substitute in English is do. This functions as head of a verbal group, in
the place that is occupied by the lexical verb. Its position is always at the end of the
group.
17

Edo.
Clausal substitution t an element
 130). The words are
used as clausal substitute are so and not.
E.g. so
Will it rain tomorrow?  I think not
2.2.6.4. Ellipsis
Another form of cohesion is ellipsis. Ellipsis can be thought of as the omission
of an item within the text. Like substitution, ellipsis can be studied in terms of nominal
ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis.
Nominal ellipsis, at the experiential level, is typically realized by the structure of
Deictic + Numerative + Epithet + Classifier +  (Halliday 1994: 180), for
example, the two floppy cotton hats. When the Thing is omitted, the Head will be taken
on by the one of the other element.
E.g. - I like the blue shirt.
- I like the green + ( 0)
Verbal ellipsis means ellipsis with in the verbal group.
E.g.  What are you doing?
 ( 0 ) watching TV.
Clausal ellipsis is related to the questionanswer process in dialogue. There are
two kinds: Yes/No ellipsis and Wh elipsis .Besides, there may be ellipsis of the whole
clause or just one part of it.
E.g.  Mary broken this teapot.
 ( 0).
2.2.6.5. Conjunctive cohesion

Conjunction is different from reference, substitution and ellipsis in that it is not a
device for reminding the reader or listener of previously mentioned entities, actions, and
states of affairs. Conjunction is a type of cohesion t  
18

between two clauses (Halliday 1994: 180). In English, four types of conjunction are
recognized: adversative, additive, temporal, and causal. Each of them will be discussed
as follows.
Adversative
Adversative sense is expressed by a number of words, such as although, though,
however, yet, but, in spite of, in contrast, contrary to, adversely, nevertheless, despite.
            
expectation may be derived from the content of what is being said, or from the
communication process, the speakerhearer situation.
Additive
The additive relation is often expressed by and at the beginning of new sentence
is somewhat different from coordination proper, although it is no doubt derivable from
it. The coordination holds the structural relations within a sentence and additive relation
holds the relation within or between sentences. However, when we are considering
cohesive relations, we can group both of the two types that appears structurally in the
or
The distinction between these two is not of primary significance for purposes of textual
cohesion; and in any case, it is not the same distinction as that which is found between
them in coordination. The position of the two related items are interchangeable in most
cases.
Temporal
There are three types of temporal relation: simple temporal relation, complex
temporal relation, and conclusive temporal relation.
Simple temporal relation refers to the relation between two events, one of which
may be an earlier event and the other the later event (sequential relation), or the second

event refers to the previous event (preceding relation). This kind of relation is expressed
by simple temporal markers such as then, next, after that, subsequently, then, at the
same time, earlier, before, then/that, previously, simultaneously.
With complex temporal relation, the meaning is more specific, often in
conjunction with some additional elements. Temporal relation may be immediate,
interrupted, repetitive, specific, durative, terminal, and punctiliar. These relations are
realized by conjunctives such as at once, on which, just before, after a time, next time,
19

on another occasion, this time, meanwhile, by this time, until then, at this moment/point,
presently, the previous moment and so on.
Conclusive relation differs from those mentioned above in the sense that it is one
directional, for example, the event is subsequent to all events in a particular passage. In
English this type of temporal relation is realized by conjunctive such as finally, at last,
in the end, eventually, to conclude with, to sum up with, in short, to resume, to get back
to the point, etc.
Causal
The causal relation in English is expressed by so, thus, hence, therefore,
nevertheless, however, consequently, accordingly and a number of expressions like as a
result, in consequence, because of that, etc. The causal relation must consist of two
elements: cause and effect. Logically, a cause precedes an effect, but sometimes people
start with the effect and then find its root in the cause. And parallel to the causal
relationship, there is a conditional relation 
2.2.6.6. Lexical cohesion
          

classify lexical cohesion into two main types: reiteration and collocation. Under
reiteration there are five subtypes: repetition, synonymy, antonymy, superordinate, and
general word.
Repetition refers to the same lexical item with the same meaning happening

more than one in the same discourse/text. For example: Yesterday, I met a boy. The boy
is at the same age with my son.
Synonymy refers to the choice of a lexical item that in some sense bears the same
meaning or nearby the same meaning with a preceding one. For example, Last night I
was woken up by a loud sound. It is the noise of trotting horses.
Antonymy refers to the lexical items which are opposite in meaning.
E.g. I often get up late in the morning but my parents often get up early.
Superordinate can be understood to be synonyms of some higher level of
generality. In this type of cohesion, there are two other items which are particular
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variants of synonymy: hyponymy and meronymy. Hyponymy present a specific/general
relationship. The relation between the two lower terms is that of co-hyponym. For
example:
Vehicle: car, bus, motorbike, coach.
Tree: oak, pine,
Meronymy presents a part/whole relationship. The relation between two parts is
that of co-meronym. For example:
Tree: trunk, branch, leaf, root.
General word
According to Halliday and Hasan (1997), a general noun a small set of noun
          n 

The boy is climbing the old oak. This old thing is not safe for such a boy to
climb.
Collocation          
lexical items that regularly co- There are three
kinds of collocation: resultative, modificational, and contextual. Resultative collocation
refers to the relation of one item leading to the outcome of another item such as kill-die,
dark-night. Modificational collocation refers to the relation holding between an item

and one of its inherent qualities such as rain- heavily; run- fast/slowly and contextual
collocation refers to the co-occurrence of words in one context but in other context they
are not related, for example, student- learn/ study.
2.3. Fairy tales
2.3.1. What is fairy tales?
According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia a fairy tale is a type of short
narrative that typically features such folkloric characters, such as fairies, goblins, elves,
trolls, dwarves, giants or gnomes, and usually magic or enchantments. However, only a
small number of the stories refer to fairies. The stories may nonetheless be distinguished
from other folk narratives such as legends (which generally involve belief in the
veracity of the events described)  and explicitly moral tales, including beast fables.
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2.3.2. History of fairy tales
Fairy tales are found in oral and in literary form. The history of the fairy tale is
particularly difficult to trace, because only the literary forms can survive. Still, the
evidence of literary works at least indicates that fairy tales have existed for thousands of
years, although not perhaps recognized as a genre. The name "fairy tale" was first
introduced by Madame d'Aulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of today's fairy tales
have evolved from centuries-old stories that have appeared, with variations, in multiple
cultures around the world. Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still
written today.
In cultures where demons and witches are perceived as real, fairy tales may
merge into legends, where the narrative is perceived both by teller and hearers as being
grounded in historical truth. However, unlike legends and epics, they usually do not
contain more than superficial references to religion and actual places, people, and
events; they take place once upon a time rather than in actual times
Roots of the genre come from different oral stories passed down in European
cultures. The first significant person to record fairy tales was Charles Perrault who
recorded stories such as Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella in his book of Mother Goose

fairy tales. The fairy tale emerged as an unquestioned genre in the works of the Brothers
Grimm, who recorded various tales from different cultures and revised many of
Perrault's. The first edition (1812- 1815) of Brother Grimm remains a treasure for
folklorists to rewrite the tales in later editions to make them more acceptable, which
ensured their sales and the later popularity of their work.
Originally, adults were the audience of a fairy tale just as often as children.
Literary fairy tales appeared in works intended for adults, but in the 19th and 20th
centuries the fairy tale became associated with children's literature. In the modern era,
fairy tales were altered so that they could be read to children. Sexual references were
eliminated violence in later fairy tale revisions were cut out.
2.3.3. Features of English fairy tales
In general, most fairy tales have the same features of characters and motif.
22

/
/   Once there was  
ons that often appear at the beginning of an English fairy tale.
The setting and details about when events took place are nearly always vague.
Time and place in fairy tales are undefined. You know that it took place no where near
here and now.
At the end  
 
adversaries and girls marry the prince of their dreams, for examples.
There are often two groups of characters in a fairy tale which is opposite to each
other: good and bad. The good are usually poor, kind and beautiful but unhappy or
unlucky in their life or they are treated badly or had problems. The evil characters are
often the rich, the mean, witches/ wizards, stepmothers or stepsisters. Fairy tales always
ends with the ending that the good would have a happy life and the evil would be
defeated. Moreover, in fairy tales, characters have no need to develop. For example,
Cinderella has one good night, but you never find out how it ends, except that they live

"Happily ever after." She never does learn to stand up to her evil stepsisters; she simply
marries a prince and moves away. So does Snow White, Sleeping Beauty and the chick
in the tower with the long hair.
There is always a magical element in fairy tales, which makes up them as fairy
tales. Magic often happens when the good need the help or get problems such as a
magic coach, broomstick, a wand by a fairy godmother, a wish made possible by a fairy,
the kiss of a handsome prince.
There is often transformation in fairy tales. Cinderella is transformed into a
princess; the frog is transformed into a prince, the beast is transformed into a man. They
can be under a spell which was cast by a villain, or brought on by their own selfish
behavior (as in Beauty and the Beast, wherein the lord of the house was unkind to an old
woman who asked for his help.)
A         

Royalty, castles, palaces with kings, queens, princes and princesses usually
present in fairy tales.