lexical and structural ambiguity in treasure island by robert louis stevenson = sự mơ hồ nghĩa từ vựng và cấu trúc trong truyện đảo giấu vàng của robert louis stevenson

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
ABSTRACT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
ABBREVIATION vi
PART A: INTRODUCTION 1
1. Rationale 1
2. Aim of the Study 1
3. Scope and method of the study 2
4. Organization of the study 2
Part B: DEVELOPMENT 4
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 4
1.1. Basic Concepts of English Ambiguity 4
1.1.1. Definition of Ambiguity 4
1.1.2. Differences between Ambiguity and Vagueness 5
1.2. Cases of Ambiguity 5
1.2.1. Lexical Ambiguity 6
1.2.1.1. Ambiguity caused by Homonymy and Polysemy 7
1.2.1.2. Ambiguity caused by Obscure References 10
1.2.1.3. Ambiguity caused by Intensions and Extensions 11
1.2.2. Structural Ambiguity 12
1.2.3. Semantic scope ambiguity 13
1.2.4. Phonological Ambiguity 14
1.3. Ambiguity and Literature 14
1.4. Summary 16
CHAPTER 2: LEXICAL AND STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITY IN “TREASURE
ISLAND” 17

2.1. Lexical ambiguity 17
2.1.1. Metaphor 17
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2.1.2. Metonymy 22
2.1.3. Idioms 27
2.2. Structural ambiguity 28
2.2.1. Comparative clause 28
2.2.2. Relative clause 29
2.2.3. Modification of adjective 30
2.2.4. Prepositional phrases 31
2.2.4.1 Adjectival phrase 31
2.2.4.2. Adverbial clause 32
2.3. Data analysis and findings 34
2.4. Summary 35
PART C: CONCLUSION 36
1. Summary of the study 36
2. Some implications for teaching foreign languages to Vietnamese learners 36
3. Limitations and suggestions for further studies 37
REFERENCES I



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ABBREVIATION

R.L. Stevenson: Robert Louis Stevenson

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PART A: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale
Language can be considered as the most wonderful invention and greatest
achievement of human beings which distinguished man and animal. Language is not just
about word and means of communication, but deep inside is magnificence thanks to the
creation of mankind in the process of development and evolution. At the center of that
development, human being has turned the complicated things into an art, including the art
of using language. To be good at using language, people must have a good knowledge of
it. Knowing a language is not just knowing its single words, but knowing how to put words
together to form sentences and utterances that express ideas and thoughts meaningfully and
clearly. Language is created to help people communicate. However, people from different
countries that have different languages and even those from one country can have
difficulties in communicating because of misunderstanding in meanings of words and
structures. Sometimes, people are not sure about the message they receive or they are
concerned about getting their own messages across to others. Therefore, Semantics was
born as one of the tools to meet the demand of investigating and knowing more about
meaning. According to Kreidler, C.W. (1998), Saeed, J.I. (2003), Nguyễn, H. (2004), what
Semantics does is studying meaning systematically. One aspect semantics studies is
ambiguity which can arise from some sources. Reality has shown that ambiguity is one of
the reasons why people, especially foreigners, often misunderstand each other.
Misunderstanding in meaning can lead to the interruption of conversation or a work,
especially a literature one cannot be understood totally, hence, it may lost its value.
With the personal interest in linguistics, I myself want to find out more about
meaning of sentences and utterances. In the process of finding the problem, the attraction
of ambiguity caught my eyes and my mind. But in such limited time and capacity, I can
only devote to analyze ―Treasure Island‖ by Robert Louis Stevenson to address this
problem.
2. Aims of the study

Lexical and structural ambiguity makes a contribution to create the attraction to a
story which often receives great care from readers. However, it is the most common form
which often cause difficulties for readers. ―Treasure Island‖ is an interesting story but
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employs language arts which include ambiguity; hence, readers can have difficulties in
understanding fully the whole story. Therefore, the study aims at analyzing lexical and
structural ambiguity in the story as examples to help readers know more about ambiguity
in literature works, documents and real conversation caused by vocabulary and structures.
Regarding the aim of the study,
Research questions is:
What are the roles of lexical and structural ambiguity in ―Treasure Island‖ by Robert
Louis Stevenson?
Hypothesis:
Lexical and structural ambiguity makes a great contribution to the attraction of
―Treasure Island‖ by Robert Louis Stevenson.
3. Scope and method of the study
―Treasure Island‖ contains words and structures which can be ambiguous to readers
when reading the story. However, it cannot be denied that ambiguity makes the story more
attractive because readers can stretch their imagination. Therefore, the study is confined to
analysis of two kinds of ambiguity: lexical and structural ambiguity.
In the process of the research writing, first, the content analysis method is employed.
The study goes deeper into each chapter to find and analyze lexical and structural
ambiguity. Then, the data are grouped in categories based on the theory. After that,
possible and adequate interpretations are suggested and finally, analyses of the roles of
lexical and structural ambiguity are proposed.
4. Organization of the study
The study consists of three parts:
Part A is the Introduction which deals with the reasons for choosing the topic, the
aims, the scope, methods and organization of the study.

Part B is the Development which includes two chapters. Chapter 1 deals with the
Literature review which is used as the theoretical background for the author‘s study view
on English ambiguity in general and English lexical and structural ambiguity in particular.
In this chapter, the concepts and cases of English ambiguity are taken into consideration.
Chapter 2 deals with the main purpose of the study. The author goes deeper into each
chapter of the story to find out and analyze the roles of the lexical and structural ambiguity.
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Finally, Part C is the Conclusion of the study. This closes the study in reviewing the
content of the research and gives some suggestions for further study.
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PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1. Basic Concepts of English Ambiguity
1.1.1. Definition of Ambiguity
The investigation into English ambiguity has shown that this issue receives much
attention from linguists in different times. It has been discussed in many linguistic books.
Cann, R. (1993) shares the same ideas as Hurford, J.R. & Heasley, B. (1983) about
ambiguity. Cann, R. (1993: 8) states: "A sentence is said to be ambiguous whenever it can
associated with two or more different meanings.‖ Hurford, J.R. & Heasley, B. (1983:121)
say: "A word or a sentence is AMBIGUOUS when it has more than one sense. A sentence
is ambiguous if it has two (or more) paraphrases which are not themselves paraphrased of
each other.‖. In other words, ambiguity is the property of being ambiguous, where a word,
term, notation, sign, symbol, phrase, sentence, or any other form used for communication
can be interpreted in more than one way. For example:
They found hospitals and charitable institutions.
(Lyons, J., 1995:56)
The word ―found‖ here is ambiguous because it can be the past simple tense of

―find‖ which means ―to discover, to come across‖ or the present simple tense of ―found‖
with the meaning of ―to establish, to set up‖. Therefore, this sentence can be interpreted
into:
(a) They found hospitals and charitable institutions, which have brought a lot of
benefit to the local residents.
vs. (b) They found hospitals and charitable institutions on the way they headed to the
city center.
Another example is:
Flying planes can be dangerous.
(Palmer, F. R., 1981:107)
The structure here permits more than one interpretation. ―Flying planes‖ has two
possible grammatical structures: ―the act of flying planes‖ and ―planes that are flying‖. In
this way, the original sentence can be interpreted into:
(a) Planes that are flying can be dangerous.
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vs. (b) To fly planes can be dangerous.
1.1.2. Differences between Ambiguity and Vagueness
Ambiguity is to be distinguished from vagueness. Ambiguity is context-dependent:
the same linguistic item (be it a word, phrase, or sentence) may be ambiguous in one
context and unambiguous in another context. For a word, ambiguity typically refers to an
unclear choice between different definitions as may be found in a dictionary. A sentence
may be ambiguous due to different ways of parsing the same sequence of words.
According to Quine, W. (1960:29), "vague terms are only dubiously applicable to
marginal objects, but an ambiguous term such as "light" may be at once clearly true of
various objects (such as dark feathers) and clearly false of them.". A term is vague if and
only if there are cases in which it is unclear whether or not the term applies. For example,
whether or not a child will be referred as a ―baby‖ depends on criteria such as the age of
the child or its development stage. What a person consider a baby may differ from others‘
opinion. Therefore, the denotation of ―baby‖ has flexible boundaries. In the view of

Lobner, S. (2002:45), ―Vagueness can be observed with all concepts that depend on
properties varying on a continuous scale‖. A vague term is not ambiguous as far as it fails
to have two or more distinct meanings, however, many terms are both vague and
ambiguous. A term is vague just in case there are cases in which it is unclear whether or
not the term applies. In other case, some term is vague because there are borderline areas in
a continuum, where it is unclear whether or not the term applies. For example, ―red‖ has a
vague meaning because it is conceived as a continuum with fuzzy transitions. Another
example is ―mountain‖ and ―hill‖ (Hurford, J.R. & Heasley, B., 1983: 123). There is no
absolute distinction between ―mountain‖ and ―hill‖. What can be referred as ―mountain‖ in
one situation may be considered ―hill‖ in other situations.
Other term is vague because there are several criteria for application of the term with
no standard of how many of the criteria need be fulfilled and to what degree.
E.g. philosophy, religious (person), resident, adult and tree.
Hence, vagueness is not the same things as ambiguity.
1.2. Cases of Ambiguity
There are many ways to categorize ambiguity. Some linguists share the same ideas as
others about the causes of ambiguity and some have different ideas.
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Stageberg, N.C. (1964: 111) looks at ambiguity as an issue caused by obscure
references and sentence structures.
In the viewpoint of Palmer, F. R. (1981: 102, 192), English ambiguity may result
from polysemy and homonymy, from intension and extension.
According to Cann, R. (1993: 8), there are three reasons which cause ambiguity. It
can arise if a single word has multiple meanings, a sentence has different syntactic
structures or certain expressions have different semantic scope.
Roach, P. (1983:109) discusses ambiguity as the problem caused by sound links.
Hurford, J.R. & Heasley, B. (1983: 129) agree with Palmer, F. R. (1981) and Cann,
R. (1993) that ambiguity may arise from polysemy and homonymy and structures.
1.2.1. Lexical Ambiguity

―Any ambiguity resulting from the ambiguity of a word is as LEXICAL
AMBIGUITY.‖ (Hurford, J.R. & Heasley, B., 1983:128). Cann, R.‘s (1993) definition of
lexical ambiguity seems to be clearer than that of Hurford, J.R. & Heasley, B. (1983). He
says that lexical ambiguity can occur when "an expression is associated with two or more
unrelated meaning.‖ (Cann, R., 1993:8).
Lexical ambiguity, as mentioned above, arises when a word or a phrase could, in the
context of a particular sentence, refer to two or more properties or things, typically caused
by homonymy and polysemy. Take the example below:
Guy struck the match.
vs. The match was a draw.
(Curse, D.A., 1986:55)
These two sentences are ambiguous because of Polysemy of the word ―match‖.
However, one might suggest ―lucifer‖ as a synonym of ―match‖ in the first sentence, and
―contest‖ as a synonym in the second sentence.
Egyptian cotton shirt
(Palmer, F., 1984: 125)
Ambiguity may arise in this sentence because of modification. The proper noun
―Egyptian‖ may modifies the compound noun ―cotton shirt‖ or the compound noun
―Egyptian cotton‖ may modify ―shirt‖. Therefore, this sentence can be interpreted into:
(a) A cotton shirt made in Egypt.
vs. (b) A shirt made of Egyptian cotton.
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In the view of Kreidler, C.W. (1998), a longer linguistic form which has a literal
sense and a figurative sense can cause ambiguity. For example:
There‘s a skeleton in our closet.
(Kreidler, C.W., 1998: 55)
―Skeleton in the closet‖ can mean ―an uncomfortable event that is kept a family
secret‖. With this meaning, ―skeleton in the closet‖ is a single lexeme; with its ―literal‖
meaning, it is a phrase composed of several lexemes. Lexical ambiguity in this case can

cause lots of difficulties for readers, especially foreigners because if they lack background
knowledge, they cannot understand the hidden meaning.
There are some sources of lexical ambiguity. They will be discussed more below.
1.2.1.1. Ambiguity caused by Homonymy and Polysemy
a. Homonymy
Definition of Homonymy
Nguyễn, H. (2004: 68) says that if different words accidentally have the same forms,
they are homonymous. Take the following example of homonymy:
―Mine is a long and sad tale‖ said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and singing.
―It is a long tail, certainly,‖ said Alice looking down with wonder at the Mouse‘s tail,
―But why do you call it sad?‖
(Quoted from Nguyễn, H., 2004:69).
The ambiguity here is caused by ―tale‖ and ―tail‖. In the story, /teil- tale/ can be both
long and sad, but as /teil- tail/ it is hard to imagine it as ―sad‖. The ambiguity arises from
the homonymy of ―tale‖ and ―tail‖.
Kinds of Homonymy
Homonymy can be classified into absolute and partial homonym.
Absolute homonyms should satisfy three conditions:
i. They will be unrelated in meaning
ii. All their form will be identical
iii. The identical forms will be grammatically equivalent
(Nguyễn, H., 2004:70)
bank (n): a financial institution vs. bank (n): the bank of the river
(Nguyễn, H., 2004:70)
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According to Nguyễn, H. (2004: 70, 71), partial homonyms can be classified into
three smaller groups based on the sameness of forms which include pronunciation and
spelling:
a) Full homonyms are ones identical in pronunciation and spelling:

bark (n): outer covering of a tree and bark (v): noise made by a dog
b) Homophones are ones identical in pronunciation
air and heir
c) Homographs are one identical in spelling
wind /wind/ (n): a current of air and wind /wind/ (v): to empower a clock
Sources of homonymy
In the viewpoint of Nguyễn, H. (2004:70), homonyms can arise from three sources:
i. Disintegration or split of polysemy. The Latin ―buxus‖ results in some English words:
box (a kind of small evergreen bus), box (a receptacle made of wood), box (v, to put in a
box), box (a slap with the hand on the ear), box (a port tem).
ii. Convergent sound development: ―sound- healthy‖ from zesund (healthy) and ―sound-
strait‖ from sund (swimming).
iii. Borrowing: race vs. race, sound (from French- sonus- to measure the depth).
b. Polysemy
Definition of Polysemy
Polysemy refers to a word that has two or more meanings. For example:
I run home vs. I run this office
Kinds of Polysemy
According to Lobner, S. (2002), Metaphor and Metonymy can cause Polysemy.
Metaphor
Nguyễn, H. (2004: 105) states: ―Metaphor, from the Greek for ―transpherence‖, is
the transference of meaning (name) from one object to another based on similarity between
these two objects, i.e. we call one object by the name of another because we compare these
objects and find some common features between them.‖. For example: ―John is a snake‖
does not mean there is a snake named John but it means a dangerous and hidden person.
Nguyễn, H. (2004:108) also mentions about the transpherence which may be based
on the similarity of:
i. Shape: head of a cabbage, crane bulb, the teeth of the saw
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ii. Position: the tail of the procession, the foot of the mountain
iii. Movement: caterpillar of a tank, to worm
iv. Function: finger of instrument, the key to the mystery
v. Color: orange, rose
vi. Size: midget, elephantine
According to him, metaphor may be:
a. Living metaphor is a word used in unusual, novel meaning and metaphor is felt as such.
For example: Peace is our fortress
b. Faded metaphor is the one which has lost its freshness because of long use and became
habitual. For example: golden youth, to fall in love…
c. Dead metaphor is the word which has lost its metaphoric meaning and is used only
figuratively. For example: to ponder, capital…
(Nguyễn, H., 2004:109)
Metonymy
In the viewpoint of Nguyễn, H. (2004:110), metonymy occurs when one word can
substitute for another with which it is associated. In other words, instead of the name of
one object or notion, we use the name of another because these objects are associated and
closely related. For example:
The White House announced a press conference for four o‘clock today.
―The White House‖ here is used instead of the US government.
Nguyễn, H. (2004:111) states that the basis of the transference is Material, causal or
conceptual relation:
i. Place can be used for the institution:
E.g. The White House objected to the plan.
ii. Thing can be used for perception:
E.g. There goes my knees. (pain in the knee)
iii. Object can be used for possessor:
E.g. The Crown was angry with the PM‘s proposal.
iv. Part can be used for whole:
E.g. We don‘t hire long hairs.

v. Place can be used for event.
E.g. Watergate strikes at the heart of the American political system.
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Cases of metonymy
In classic tradition, the following cases of metonymy are often presented:
i. The name of the container is used instead of the thing contained.
E.g. to drink a glass
ii. Parts of human body can be used as symbols.
E.g. kind heart, clever head
iii. The concrete is used instead of the abstract.
E.g. from the cradle to the grave
iv. Materials can be used instead of the things made of the materials.
E.g. glass, iron, gold, bronze
v. Name of the author is used instead of his works.
E.g. Picasso, Dickens
vi. Part can be used for the whole and vice versa.
E.g. living in the same roof, wearing a fox
(Nguyễn, H., 2004:113)
1.2.1.2. Ambiguity caused by Obscure References
Ambiguity often occurs when the pronoun ―he, she, it‖ is employed to refer to either
of two nouns in a sentence. For example:
Donald told Edward that he really ought to go.
(Stageberg, N.C., 1964:111)
In this sentence, it can be confused to identify whether the pronoun ―he‖ refers to
Donald or Edward. To address the problem, the author can use a direct quotation:
Donald told Edward: ―I really ought to go‖.
Or Mary said to Anne that she thought she was in love
(Stageberg, N.C., 1964:111)
Ambiguity appears in this sentence because the word ―she‖ can refer to either Mary

or Anne. This sentence can be corrected as:
Mary said to Anne: ―I think you are in love‖.
The relative pronouns ―who, which‖ sometimes can cause ambiguity. For example:
―He held a flag over his head which he shook defiantly‖.
(Stageberg, N.C., 1964:111)
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This sentence can be clarified by placing the relative clause next to the noun it
modifies: ―Over his head he held a flag which he shook defiantly.‖ (Stageberg,N.C.,
1964:111)
It is clear that pronouns can be used to avoid repetition. However, in some situation
like the examples mentioned above, they can cause ambiguity; thus, users should know
when and where it is appropriate to use pronouns as obscure references to avoid ambiguity.
1.2.1.3. Ambiguity caused by Intensions and Extensions
Other sources of lexical ambiguity are extension and intension. The extension of an
expression is the set of entities that expression denotes while the intension is the set of
properties shared by all members of the extension. An example to illustrate is that the
extension of ―cow‖ is the set of all the cows in the world, but its intension is the property
that is described as ―bovine‖ (Palmer, F. R., 1981: 190).
Knowing the meaning of an expression, however, cannot be equivalent to knowing
its extension. For example, two expressions ―the morning star‖ and ―the evening star‖ have
the same extension but different intensions. Lacking of knowing the correct extension,
people may not know that the two expressions are the same which is ―Venus‖.
In other cases, the extension can change while the intension remains the same
(Kreidler, C.W., 1998: 133). The extension of the referring expression ―the Prime Minister
of Great Britain‖ is a single person. The intension of the same expression is ―is the Head of
Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom ‖. If the present Prime Minister will be
another person in the future, the extension changes but the intension remains the same.
With different readings, it is the extension and intension of an expression that cause
the ambiguity. For example, in the sentence:

John believes that Smith’s murderer is insane.
(Palmer, F. R., 1981: 192)
the extension of ‗Smith‘s murderer‘ is either someone, a certain person e.g., Jones, who
actually murdered Smith, or to someone else, e.g., Black, who is believed to have
murdered Smith. The intension is, meanwhile, the person who murdered Smith, whoever
he might be (and it may not be known who he is). There is also ambiguity in:
Bill is looking for the Dean.
(Palmer, F. R., 1981: 192)
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Since this means either that Bill is looking for Professor Green who is actually the
Dean, or that he is looking for the person, whoever it might be, who is the Dean. It would
appear that this is a matter of the extension and intension of the expression ‗the Dean‘.
Nevertheless, it may not be irrelevant that ‗look for‘ also seems to provide opaque
contexts. With expressions like ‗look for‘ there is a very similar ambiguity when we have
indefinite rather than definite expressions. Therefore, the sentence:
I am looking for a pencil.
(Palmer, F. R., 1981: 192)
may mean either ―I am looking for a particular pencil‖ or that ―any pencil will do‖. The
difference here is usually treated in linguistics in terms of specific and non-specific/
generic use of the indefinite expressions, of which grammatical words – those in the
closed-item class – are a component. Obviously, the extensional and intensional meanings
of expressions are the origin of ambiguity in communication.
To sum up, there are different sources of lexical ambiguity in English: homonymy,
polysemy, obscure references, and extension and intension. In order to communicate well
in English, learners or communicators should master these sources and avoid creating
ambiguity which may result in misunderstanding or communication breakdown.
1.2.2. Structural Ambiguity
Structural ambiguity is another source which causes ambiguity. Matthews, P. (2000),
Cann, R. (1993), Hughes, W. & Lavery, J. (2004) share the same idea that different

interpretations of a sentence in syntax lead to structural ambiguity. In the viewpoint of
Cann, R. (1993:9), if a single grammatical string of words can be interpreted into at least
two syntactic structures, structural ambiguity will occur. In other words, if listeners or
readers can interpret and understand one sentence into at least two different ways because
its structure is not clear, this sentence is ambiguous. For example:
The strike was called by radical lecturers and students.
(Cann, R., 1993:8)
 (a) The strike was called by lecturers who are radical and by students.
vs. (b) The strike was called by lecturers who are radical and by students who are radical.
In the above example, what is at issue is the scope of the adjective ―radical‖. In the
first interpretation, ―radical‖ modifies and has scope over the noun ―lecturers‖ while in the
second interpretation, its scope is the nominal phrase ―lecturers and students‖.
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I read the book on the floor
(Matthews, P., 2000:165)
 A book was on the floor and that was the one I read
vs. I was on the floor while reading the book
Hughes, W. & Lavery, J. (2004:126) use a sentence from news report in England to
illustrate:
Lord Denning spoke against the artificial insemination of women in the House of
Lord.
 In the speech presented in the House of Lord, Lord Denning spoke against the
artificial insemination of women.
vs. Lord Denning spoke against the artificial insemination of women occurring in the
House of Lord.
More specifically, Hurford, J.R. & Heasley, B. (1983:128) mentions about individual
words, not just about structures: ―A sentence which is ambiguous because its words relate
to each other in different ways, even though none of the individual words are ambiguous,
is STRUCTURALLY (or GRAMMATICALLY) AMBIGUOUS.‖. For example:

Visiting relatives can be boring
(Hurford, J.R. & Heasley, B., 1983 :121)
It can be boring to visit relatives
vs. Relatives who are visiting can be boring
1.2.3. Semantic scope ambiguity
If structural ambiguity depends directly on the syntactic structure of a sentence,
semantic scope ambiguity depends indirectly on it (Cann, R., 1993). Such ambiguity
usually involves negation (not), quantification (every, some) and other elements like tense,
which do not vary their syntactic position according to the reading of the sentence. For
example:
Every good politician loves a cause.
 Every politician loves a cause and that is their own career.
vs. Every good politician loves a cause and each one loves a cause that everyone else
loathes.
(Cann, R., 1993:9)
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There is a difference between the two interpretations above. In the first one, there is
only one cause that every good politician loves while in the second interpretation, each
politician may love different cause. The original sentence is usually only assigned a single
surface constituent structure, so that this ambiguity cannot be directly attributed to a
syntactic source and is referred to as a semantic scope ambiguity.
1.2.4. Phonological Ambiguity
Phonological ambiguity can arise from sound links or juncture. This phenomenon
often happens in real conversation. Interlocutors, especially foreigners, have to cope with a
lot of difficulties in understanding linking words, hence, they often misunderstand other
people. For example:
I scream /ai skri:m/ and Ice cream /ais kri:m/
(Cook, G.,1989: 132).
Other examples are:

He lies /hi : laiz/ and heal eyes /hi : laiz/
Keep sticking /ki : p stiking/ and keeps ticking /ki : ps tiking/
(Roach, P., 1983:111)
Of course, ambiguity in such situations can be addressed by its context. However,
there is a number of difficulties in understanding connected speech or sound link of speech
because the way words are pronounced in isolation is different from that in the context of
connected speech. Therefore, to overcome this problem, English learners should bear in
mind the problem and practice phonetics including rhythm and sound links.
1.3. Ambiguity and Literature
People often think of language as a clear and literal vehicle for accurately
communicating ideas. However, sometimes, even when language is used literally,
misunderstanding can arise and meanings can shift and thus, have bad effects on
communication. People can be intentionally or unintentionally ambiguous when using
language. Some authors share the same idea that ambiguity is very curial in language,
especially in academic language.
When analyzing the roles of grammatical structures which include those causing
ambiguity through some literature works, Eagleson, R.D. & Kramer, L. (1977:52) asserts
that this language device can enable authors ―to pack a vivid image into a small space‖.
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Genette‘s (1988) sense of the ambiguity of literature is similar to Jakobson‘s (1960),
in which essay he writes "Ambiguity is an intrinsic, inalienable character of any self-
focused message, briefly a corollary feature of poetry‖ (cited in Lodge, D., 1988: 49-50).
Therefore, Jakobson (1960) certifies that at the heart of the poetic function is ambiguity.
Quiroga-Clare, C. (2010) states ―ambiguity in language is an essential part of
language‖, hence ―Ambiguity is a poetic vehicle‖.
According to Bartoloni, P. & Stephens, A. (2010), ambiguity in literature has been
positively marked and striven for periods. It is worth to note that ambiguity is still expected
and esteemed until now because the legacy of European Symbolism, originated in late
nineteenth- century in France, ―is still the dominant influence of Western literary values‖.

Ambiguity is especially highly appreciated in literature due to the fact that it can
work alternatively to entertain, evoke, and stimulate thought or to distract and mystify.
More specifically than these two authors, Harrison, M. (2010) mentions the role and
usefulness of ambiguity in language. In his viewpoint, along with irony, paradox,
ambiguity is a ―part and parcel of those means which characterize the poet as a creative
artificer and not just as a communicator or edifier — characteristics such as the preference
for symbol over abstraction, the preference for suggestion rather than explicit statement,
the preference for metaphor over judgment.‖. Moreover, ambiguity in its own way ―brings
about a type of definiteness in the play of forces in poetic language, ensuring that poetic
utterance is never seen transparently or understood in an unconsciously direct way‖.
From the opinions of these authors, it can be realized that language has its own
mysteries and ambiguity makes a great contribution into the mysteries. Ambiguity can be
an instrument for an author to show his talents and it is also a tool to attract readers‘ minds.
It brings a new wind to a literature work and a new way for readers to perceive the
creation. However, Harrison, M. (2010) does not only share the same idea as other authors
about ambiguity in literature, he also suggests a different thought about ambiguity. In his
point of view, the necessarily multiple relationships between perceiving subject and thing
which is a feature of cognition creates complexity and such complexity can be simplified
linguistically and reductively by some tools including ambiguity. It is doubtful whether
ambiguity can fulfill such a duty when it normally creates complexity. This viewpoint
itself is contrary to Harrison, M.‘s (2010) previous opinion when he says ambiguity
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ensures ―that poetic utterance is never seen transparently or understood in an
unconsciously direct way‖.
1.4. Summary
To sum up, this chapter has reviewed the basic concepts of English ambiguity and
sources which can cause ambiguity. This language device can be resulted from lexical,
structural, semantic scope or phonological ambiguity. Moreover, the theoretical part also
reviews some authors‘ opinions about the relationship between ambiguity and literature.

There is an agreement that ambiguity plays important roles in literature. The following
chapter will analyze lexical and structural ambiguity to illustrate this point of view.
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CHAPTER 2: LEXICAL AND STRUCTURAL
AMBIGUITY IN “TREASURE ISLAND”

2.1. Lexical ambiguity
2.1.1. Metaphor
In chapter 1 ―The old sea- dog at the Admiral Benbow‖, there is lexical ambiguity
which can cause readers difficult in understanding.
―True sea- dog‖ and ―real old salt‖ can be interpreted in two ways. Because the local
people are afraid of the captain and his terrified stories, they may call him these names to
show that they consider him as little things of the sea such as an animal or salt. Other
meaning is that he is a veteran of many years sailing on ships or boats and he knows many
things.
In chapter 2 ―Black Dog appears and disappears‖, some lexical ambiguity has
appeared.
The first attention is paid to ―brown‖ in ―all the brown had gone out of his face‖.
―Brown‖ here is not about the color, but it is the scare. So is ―blue‖ in ―his nose was blue‖.
All the colors in these two sentences were used to show the captain‘s scare.
Another ambiguity is ―keyholes‖ in ―none of your keyholes for me‖. Here,
―keyholes‖ is not the plural form of ―keyhole‖ which means ―the hole in a lock into which
a key fits‖ but the speaker does not need the hearer to do anything else.
In chapter 4 ―The sea- chest‖, as the story goes on, ―The more we told of our
troubles, the more- man, woman and child- they clung to the shelter of their house‖ also
has its hidden meaning. ―Clung to the shelter of their house‖ implies that everyone was
very scared when they heard about the story.
In chapter 6 ―The captain‘s papers‖, lexical ambiguity can be found in the sentence
―This lad Hawkins is a trump‖. Here, Stevenson uses metaphor to express that Hawkins is

an amazing and good boy.
In chapter 7 ―I go to Bristol‖, in the sentence ―…she is a woman of colour…‖, the
author employs metaphor to imply that the woman or Silver‘s wife is a thoughtful woman,
she understands his dreams and let him go.
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Chapter 8 ―At the sign of the Spy- glass‖ has some lexical ambiguity. The first one is
the word ―swab‖ in ―One of those swabs‖ and ―I‘ve seen the swab‖. Here, the word ―swab‖
is the metaphor of the buccaneers. The speaker considers the buccaneers cheap and little-
used things as swabs.
The sentence ―The man‘s a perfect trump‖ also has a metaphor in it. The speaker
wants to compare ―the man‖ or Silver as a surprising and helpful person.
In chapter 9, in the sentence ―It was something to see him wedge the foot of the
crutch against a bulkhead, and propped against it,…‖, ―the foot of the crutch‖ is the
position- a basic transference of metaphor.
Other metaphor lies in ―…,and always a barrel of apples standing broached in the
waist for anyone to help himself that had a fancy.‖. ―Waist‖ here is one side of the ship.
Chapter 11 ―What I heard in the apple barrel‖ has seen lexical ambiguity. The first
one is ―the flower of the flock‖ which lies in ―He was the flower of the flock, was Flint.‖.
The purpose of this sentence is to honor Flint as a good, skilled and experienced pirate.
The second one is ―lambs‖ in ―LAMBS wasn‘t the word for Flint‘s old buccaneers.‖.
―Lambs‖ here does not mean a kind of animal but the timid and inexperienced.
In chapter 12 ―Council of war‖, the meaning of the sentence ―If I risk another order,
the whole ship‘ll come about our ears by the run‖ is quite difficult to understand. ―The
whole ship‖ here represents for all sailors on boat, therefore, the meaning of this sentence
is all pirates on board will cause a mutiny if the captain risk another order.
In chapter 14 ―The first blow‖, ―gold dust‖ in ―it‘s because I thinks gold dust of
you…‖ does not have its usual meaning as the particles and flakes (and sometimes small
nuggets) of gold obtained in placer mining. In this sentence, it implies that the speaker
highly appreciates the listener.

The phrase ―lent me wings‖ in ―…this sound of danger lent me wings‖ is a living
metaphor. It shows that seeing the danger, the speaker runs fast as if he had wings.
One of the basic transference of metaphor is position and it appears in ―I had drawn
near to the foot of the little hill…‖.
In chapter 15 ―The man of the island‖, the sentence ―I was within an ace of calling
for help‖ is difficult to understand. ―An ace‖ here does not have the meaning of a playing
card. In this sentence, it means the speaker is in a very dangerous situation and needs help.
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Chapter 19 ―Narrative resumed by Jim Hawkins: The garrison in the stockade‖
contains some ambiguity. R. L. Stevenson uses metaphor in the sentence ―Wild horses
wouldn‘t draw it from you?‖. ―Wild horses‖ is employed to refer to Silver and his fellows.
Another sentence may receive readers‘ notice too: ―A man who has been three years
biting his nails on a desert island, Jim, can‘t expect to appear as sane as you or me.‖. The
action ―biting his nails on a desert island‖ does not mean that the man here does something
with his nails on the island, but that he was left there alone for three years.
Chapter 24 ―The cruise of the coracle‖ embraces some word phrases which can cause
ambiguity. The author uses metaphor in the sentence ―And I had hardly moved before the
boat, giving up at once her gentle dancing movement, ran straight down a slope of water so
steep that it made me giddy, and struck her nose, with a spout of spray, deep into the side
of the next wave‖. ―Her nose‖ is the symbol of the foremost part of the coracle.
In this chapter, the author also uses metaphor in ―I was on the summit of swell…‖.
This sentence means that the speaker of Jim Hawkins is risking his life and he is in a very
dangerous and urgent situation.
Chapter 26 ―Israel Hands‖ has seen lexical ambiguity. The first one can be found in
―…there‘s a pet bit for to beach the ship in‖. The noun phrase ―pet bit‖ implies a nice, safe
and quiet place to beach the ship in.
Other ambiguity is in ―Fine flat sand, never a cat‘s paw…‖. The phrase ―never a cat‘s
paw‖ means this is a safe and quiet place.
The next one lies in ―My new employment struck Hands all of a heap; he began to

see the dice going against him…‖. The word ―the dice‖ implies the situation, thus, the
sentence means that Hands realizes that the situation is not as good as before and he is
having difficulties.
One more ambiguity is in ―I was drinking his words…‖. ―Drink‖ means that Jim
Hawkins enjoys Hands‘ words. These words make Jim happy and he enjoys this moment.
In chapter 28 ―In the enemy‘s camp‖, readers can also find it is ambiguous when
reading the sentence ―I always wanted you to jine and take your share, and die a
gentleman, and now, my cock, you‘ve got to‖ because of the word ―cock‖. In this situation,
Silver uses ―cock‖ to talk about Jim Hawkins with the meaning that Jim is brave,
intelligent and obstinate like a cock.
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Ambiguity also can be sought in ―you‘re his last card‖. Metaphor is used in this
sentence in the word ―card‖ to show that Silver thinks Jim Hawkins is the last and most
important person who can save him.
In chapter 29 ―The black spot again‖, readers can have difficulties in understanding
some sentences. When Silver and Jim may risk their lives because of other pirates, Silver
says ―I‘ve still a shot in my locker‖. This sentence does not merely mean he has a shot in
his locker but he has ways to deal with them.
When George complains: ―We‘ll all swing and sun- dry for your bungling‖, he wants
to say that he and other pirates may risk their lives and die because of Silver.
Chapter 30 ―On parole‖ contains some lexical ambiguity. When the Doctor visits the
pirates and comes into the stockade, the author describes: ―He seemed under no
apprehension, though he must have known that his life, among treacherous demons,
depended on a hair…‖. The clause ―his life…depended on a hair‖ means that the Doctor is
risking his life and may be killed by these pirates.
When the Doctor, Silver and Jim meet at the stockade, Silver talks about his help
towards Jim and says: ―Doctor, when a man‘s steering as near the wind as me- playing
chuck- farthing with the last breath in his body…‖. The clause ―when a man‘s steering as
near the wind as me‖ means that Silver has to deal with a dangerous situation to save his

life and Jim‘s.
One more time, metaphor is used in ―Now, right before us the anchorage was
bounded by a plateau from two or three hundred feet high, adjoining on the north the
sloping southern shoulder of the Spy- glass and rising again towards the south into the
rough, cliffy eminence called the Mizzen- mast Hill‖ through the phrase ―shoulder of the
Spy- glass‖. The basic transference of metaphor in this case is shape.
Chapter 32 ―The treasure hunt- the voice among the trees‖ embraces lexical
ambiguity. To describe the fear of the pirates when they hear the voice which they think it
is Flint‘s, the author writes: ―The buccaneers remained rooted to the ground, their eyes
starting from their heads‖. The word ―rooted‖ implies that these pirates are very afraid of
the sound and they cannot move to other places.
In the last chapter- chapter 34 ―And last‖, shape which is one of the basis of
transference of metaphor is used in ―At last- I think it was on the third night- the doctor
and I were strolling on the shoulder of the hill where it overlooks the lowlands of the isle,
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when, from out the thick darkness below, the wind brought us a noise between shrieking
and singing‖. The shape in this sentence is ―the shoulder of the hill‖.
The author of ―Treasure Island‖ uses metaphor to serves some purposes. Firstly,
metaphor is employed to map visual images rather than concept. For example, the images
of ―True sea- dog‖ and ―real old salt‖ in chapter one are replaced for an experienced sailor.
Other examples can be found in chapter six or seven. Thanks to a number of metaphors
used in the story, the author is successful in creating a strong impression on the readers.
Secondly, metaphors used in the story can reflect the author‘s individual styles and
worldview. It is interesting to see that the author employs the first- person narration for his
story. He plays the character of Jim Hawkins who mainly narrates the whole story. This
character takes actions, makes judgments and has opinions. Therefore, what the author
thinks and perceives are presented in the eyes of Jim Hawkins. This role of metaphor leads
to the close relationship between the author and readers. By using figurative meaning, the
author makes readers to make their minds up as to the meaning conveyed to them. In doing

so, the writer is also establishing their relationship with his readers. They follow, feel and
share with the author. It cannot be denied that the important point about metaphor in
literature is that it can make readers think because the author does not express straightly
what exactly he is getting at. The author identifies his readers when he conducts to story.
As a result, the device of figurative language helps the readers realize their relationship
with the author and helps them be aware of their contribution to the construction of
meaning. One more noticeable thing is that Stevenson‘s fiction is very fast-paced for the
era, filled with romanticism, and that he has astute observations of human nature. This
story is famous for made- up pirate language and its trademark can be realized in the words
he uses. Moreover, interestingly, metaphor also contributes to convey the themes of the
story. One of the main themes in ―Treasure Island‖ is the coming-of-age of Jim Hawkins.
At the beginning of the novel, Jim is a young boy living with his parents in a quiet country
inn. He knows little of the outside world. By the end, he is a young man who has
encountered death, sailed the high seas, experienced mortal danger on several occasions,
killed a man in self-defense, used his ingenuity and courage to survive, and been rewarded
with a share of treasure that anyone of his age would envy. During his voyage, he has met
many people and little or much has been influenced by them. However, he can identify
who are the good men for him to follow to be mature. Other theme of the story is the
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honor. There is much made of the concept of honor in Robert Louis Stevenson's novel.
Whether it is the honor of gentlemen or the honor of thieves and pirates, this concept is
interwoven throughout the story. Even though the pirates in this story steal other people's
fortunes, killing many sailors and villagers in the process, they have a code of conduct and
are expected to obey that code or lose honor among their peers. In brief, the use of
metaphor in ―Treasure Island‖ helps the readers imagine, feel, see and understand not only
the story but also about their relationship with the author as well as his talents.
2.1.2. Metonymy
The author uses metonymy in the story and they play decisive roles in the story.
In chapter 2 ―Black dog appears and disappears‖, metonymy can be found in

―dragged your headforemost out of the grave‖. ―Headforemost‖ is used instead of life and
―the grave‖ is employed for ―the death‖. The whole sentence is to save someone‘s life from
the death.
The word ―wig‖ in ―I stake my wig‖ also has its hidden meaning. ―Wig‖ does not
simply mean an artificial covering of human or synthetic hair worn on the head for
personal adornment, as part of a costume, or to conceal baldness. It is the position of a
magistrate.
In chapter 3 ―The black spot‖, ―The lubbers is going about to get the wind of me‖
means the captain is threatened and can be killed by cruel people. ―Wind‖ here does not
mean the direction from which a movement of air comes but it implies the captain‘s life.
Chapter 4 ―The sea- chest‖ also has something interesting when looking at its lexical
ambiguity.
―Soul‖ in ―No soul would consent to return with us to the Admiral Benbow‖ is used
as a replacement for person. Therefore, this sentence means no one would consent to return
with Jim and his mother to the Admiral Benbow.
It is also necessary to pay attention to chapter 5 ―The last of the Blind man‖ when
analyzing lexical ambiguity. In ―sheltering my head behind a bush of broom‖, ―my head‖
is the metaphor of the speaker himself. Other examples are ―you have your hands on it‖,
―you have your hands on thousands‖ or ―you hang your leg‖. In these sentences, ―hands‖
and ―leg‖ are used to imply that the hearers themselves have participated in this business
and similar things.