metaphors used in inaugural addresses made by the us presidents = ẩn dụ trong các bài phát biểu nhậm chức của các tổng thống mỹ

ViETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY , hANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES ANDINTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES





PHẠM THỊ MAI OANH




METAPHORS USED IN INAUGURAL ADDRESSES MADE
BY THE US PRESIDENTS

(ẨN DỤ TRONC CÁC BÀI PHÁT BIỂU NHẬM CHỨC CỦA
CÁC TỔNG THỐNG MỸ)

MINOR M.A THESIS







Field : English Linguistics
Code: 60 22 15

Supervisor: Dr. Hà Cẩm Tâm








Hanoi - 2011



v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration …………………………………………………………………………
i
Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………………
ii
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………
iii
Abbreviations used in the thesis ……………………………………………………
iv
Table of contents……………………………………………………………………
v
PART A: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale …………………………………………………………………………
1
2. Aims of the study……………………………………………………… ………

3. Scope of the study………………………………………………………………….
4. Methods of the study ……………………………………………………………
5. Design of the study………………………………………………………………
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 1: Theoretical background
1.1. The simile theory by Aristotle ……………………………………
1.2. The interaction theory by I.A Richard and Max Black ………………………
1.3. The classical cognitive metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson ……………
1.3.1. What is metaphor? …………………………………………………….
1.3.2. The nature of conceptual metaphor………………………………………….
1.3.3. Components of conceptual metaphor………………………………………
13.4. Classification of conceptual metaphor………………………………………
1.3.4.1. Ontological metaphor……………………………………………………….
1.3.4.1.1. Container metaphor ………………………………………………………
1.3.4.1.2. Substance metaphor ………………………………………………………
1.3.4.1.3. Entity metaphor …………………………………………………………
1.3.4.2. Orientational metaphor……………………………………………………
1.3.4.3. Structural metaphor ………………………………………………………
Chapter 2: The study
2.1. Research Questions……………………………………………………………
2.2. Data collection …… …………………………………………………………
2.3. Analytical framework…………………………………………………………
1
1
2
2


3
4

5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
11

12
12
12


vi
2.4. Data analysis and discussion ………….………………………………………
2.4.1. Ontological metaphors ……………………………………………………….
2. 4 .2. Structural metaphors ………………………………………………………
2.4.3. Orientational metaphors …………………………………………………….
PART C: CONCLUSION
1. Major findings …………………………………………………………………….
2. Implications ………….……………………………………………………………
3. Suggestion for further studies…………………………………………………….
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………
13
14
32

38

40
40
40
42


APPENDIX I
APPENDIX II
APPENDIX III
APPENDIX IV
















iv

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE THESIS

Sub. Met: Substance metaphor
Ent. Met: Entity metaphor
Con. Met: Container metaphor
per./ Per. Met : personification metaphor
Obj. Met : As object metaphor












1
PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
Metaphor – the best well – known form of figurative - is widely used in
different types of texts like literature, science, journals, advertisement, religion, politics
or everyday language. The use of metaphor as a part of figurative language aims to
help the listeners to visualize what is meant by a phrase or expression. In fact,
politicians use language to persuade people that their thoughts, aims and ideas are
equitable and to make their point clear and vivid to the people. It is proved that the use

of metaphor is one of the most prominent tools for persuasion and an effective
instrument for propaganda in political language. The president‘s inaugural addresses
are delivered to show the president‘s responsibility for the people‘s desires and
demands, to gain the people‘s support for the new government. Therefore, presidents
have to use rhetorical strategies to convince their citizens and metaphor is one of the
rhetorical strategies which are found to be commonly used in inaugural addresses.
Thus, I would like to conduct a study on the use of metaphor in inaugural addresses
made by the US presidents to find out what types of metaphor are commonly used and
how effective they are.
2. Aims of the study
This study was conducted to fulfill the following aims:
- to provide knowledge about conceptual metaphor from Lakoff and Johnson‘s
perspective.
- to investigate the use of conceptual metaphor in inaugural addresses made by
the US presidents and the implicit emotional influence of these metaphors on the
audience.
These aims of the study were achieved via the following research question:
What types of conceptual metaphors are used in inaugural addresses made by
the US presidents?
3. Scope of the study
Within this paper, I would like to focus my attention on theories of metaphor.
Cognitive theory about metaphor developed by Lakoff and Johnson will be presented
in details in terms of definition, nature, components and classification. Then four
inaugural addresses made by George H. W. Bush (1989), William Bill Clinton


2
(1993), George W. Bush (2001) and Barak Obama (2009) are analyzed using Lakoff
and Johnson‘s theory to find out typical conceptual metaphors in these speeches.
4. Methods of the study

A combination of both descriptive and explanatory methods was applied to
carry out this study. These two methods were used to collect data different books and
other sources available, describe the collected information and analyze the inaugural
addresses. The study was conducted as follows:
Firstly, data was collected from different books, websites about metaphor in
English.
Secondly, the collected information was synthesized and categorized.
Finally, the inaugural addresses were analyzed in terms of metaphor.
5. Design of the study
This study consists of three parts. Part A, entitled ―INTRODUCTION‖,
presents the rationale, aims, scope, methods and design of the study. Part B, entitled
―DEVELOPMENT‖ comprises two main chapters. Chapter 1 deals with theoretical
background of the study including different theories of metaphor. Chapter 2 presents
the study of conceptual metaphors used in four inaugural addresses, possible
emotional effect the used metaphors may have on the audience. Part C Conclusion
focuses on major findings, implications and suggestions for further studies.

3
PART B: DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1: THEORITICAL BACKGROUND
1.1. The simile theory by Aristotle
Aristotle‘s theory about metaphor is said to be the oldest theory until recently. The
word metaphor in Greek meant "carry across" or "transfer", and is normally used to refer to
the method of comparing two different items based on resemblance or similarity. From
Aristotle‘s point of view, metaphor is based on ―seeing resemblances‖ in things.
According to Aristotle, metaphor is defined as a ―transfer of a name belonging elsewhere‖
(cited in Michiel Leesenberg, 2001:33). Here Aristotle limits metaphorical expressions to
words or even single noun ―a name‖. Metaphor is merely a substitute for some other
expressions, which expresses the same ―cognitive content‖ if it is literally used. ―Thing‖
here refers not only to physical objects but also to any topic or thought. ―Name‖ here
cannot be used in the sense of proper or common names but must be understood as any
sign.
Additionally, Aristotle privileges metaphor as the more generic figure of speech
and states that simile is actually the longer form of metaphor. In other words, metaphors
are ―compressed‖ or ―abbreviated‖ similes. Therefore, the meaning of a metaphor is
identified with that of the corresponding simile. As a result, metaphor ―A is B‖ is
understood as ―A is like B‖.
In general, the theory of metaphor by Aristotle has both intuitive and
methodological motivations. First, it seems that some sorts of comparisons are made in
metaphor. Furthermore, this theory seems to account for our conflicting intuitions about
metaphor‘s truth values. For example, the sentence ― Mary is a rose‖ is false if it is literally
interpreted because ―Mary‖ – a person- is clearly not a rose, but the simile that gives the
sentence‘s metaphorical meaning is true : ―Mary is like a rose‖. To some extent, this theory
explains the meaningfulness of metaphor.
However, we cannot either describe with certainty Aristotle‘s theory as either

semantic (i.e., involving words and their meaning) or pragmatic (i.e., involving the use of
language). Significantly, his definition of metaphor does not involve ‗referents‖ (things) or
―meanings‖ (concepts). On his view, metaphors just involve a relocation of words, and his


4
definition does not yet yield any precise doctrine as to how the interpretation of metaphor
works.

1.2. The interaction theory by I.A Richard and Max Black
The interaction theory of metaphor is one of the earliest modern alternatives to the
simile theory by Aristotle. By this theory, two authors mean that metaphor does not only
express similarities but also creates similarities. The traditional rhetoric considers
metaphor in word level. On the contrary, metaphor is considered existing at sentence level
in this theory. More importantly, metaphor is seen as a cognitive phenomenon rather than
a purely rhetorical device. This cognitive phenomenon is made by the interaction between
different cognitive systems. This theory will be discussed in details as following.
I.A Richards is the first person to develop the interaction model of metaphor. In his
book ―The philosophy of rhetoric‖ (1936), he indicates that metaphor is a cognitive
phenomenon that works not on the level of word combination but it arises from the
interactions between the conceptual structures underlying words. Metaphor is considered a
cognitive phenomenon involving concepts. In this theory, metaphor is moved from word
level to level of concepts. Moreover, the meanings of concepts are traded to each other.
Specifically, two concepts can be combined to create a concept without changing the
original concepts if they are literally used but if they are metaphorically used, they form a
new concept. For example, in the literal language ―good‖ and ‗marriage‖ are combined to
form the new concept ‗good marriage‖ which conveys the meaning of both original
concepts. In contrast, in the metaphorical language ―nightmare‖ and ―marriage‘ are
combined to form a new concept ―nightmare marriage‖ which means ―marriage as
nightmare‖.

These views of Richards are further developed by Max Black. According to Max
Black, metaphor is not an isolated item but it is considered a sentence. A metaphorical
sentence involves two subjects which are identified as the principal and the secondary.
The primary subject is the frame which is the literal surrounding. The secondary (the
metaphor) entails the focus-a system of associated commonplaces of the metaphorical
word. The secondary subject (the metaphor) connects a system of associated
commonplaces (or a system of associated stereotyped information) to the frame which is
the primary subject.


5
The metaphoric interaction between the focus and frame will be more clarified in
the following diagram.








METAPHORICAL MEANING OF SENTENCE
To sum up, this theory offers three new points. Firstly, metaphor creates
similarities. Secondly, metaphor is considered to possess ―cognitive content‖ existing at
sentence level. Finally, this cognitive content is produced by the ―interaction‖ between
different cognitive systems. By this theory, metaphors are proved to function as powerful
cognitive tools. However, there are still some problems with this theory. This theory is
criticized for its analysis in terms of ‗interaction‖ and ‗filter‖, which are also metaphors;
therefore, it does not solve the problem.

1.3. The classical cognitive metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson
1.3.1. What is metaphor?
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson claim that metaphor is primarily an issue of
conceptualization. Metaphors are defined as ―mappings across conceptual domains‖ in
which ‗the image- schemata structure of the source domain is projected onto the target
domain in a way that is consistent with inherent target domain structure‖ (Lakoff,
1993:245). In other words, metaphor allows one to understand a relatively abstract and
unstructured subject matter in terms of a more concrete and structured subject matter
through image- schemata. In ―Metaphors We Live By‖ by Lakoff and Johnson (1980)
metaphor is seen as a process by which we conceive ―one thing in terms of another and its
primary function is understanding‖. In fact, metaphor is considered the interaction between
a source domain and a target domain in the conceptual process rather than the interaction
FRAME
Literal surrounding
(primary subject)
FOCUS
Associated
commonplaces
(secondary subject)
)

Interact


6
between two words only. Thus, metaphor from the perspective of Lakoff and Johnson is
also called conceptual metaphor.

1.3.2. The nature of conceptual metaphor
From a number of their works about metaphor, two crucial points can be drawn.

First, they claim that metaphors are pervasive everywhere. Secondly, they figure out that
metaphors are based on our bodily experience.
First of all, metaphors are proved to be pervasive everywhere. At that time,
metaphors were seen as a matter of language but not of thoughts. Thus, metaphoric
expressions are assumed to be outside the domain of ordinary everyday language.
However, Lakoff realizes that metaphor does not only exist in poetry but we use them all
the time and use them in a far more encompassing manner. Metaphors are a part of
everyday language, integral and important to understanding because ―most of our ordinary
conceptual system is metaphorical in nature‖ (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:4). ―Metaphor is a
tool so ordinary that we sue it unconsciously and automatically, with so little effort that we
hardly notice it……….It is conventional. Metaphor is an integral part of our everyday
thought and language‖ (Lakoff and Turner, 1989: xi). Obviously, metaphor is pervasive
and people use metaphors without noticing it.
Secondly, metaphor is claimed to be based on embodied human experience. We
make sense of less directly apprehensible experiences on the basis of more directly
apprehensible experiences. From cognitive perspective, language is not structured
arbitrarily. It is motivated and grounded more or less directly in experience, in our bodily
physical, social, and cultural experiences. Mental and linguistic categories are abstract,
disembodied. People create them on the basis of their concrete experiences and under the
constraints imposed by their bodies. For example, the conceptual metaphor ―AFFECTION
IS WARMTH‖ is created on the basis of our childhood experiences between the loving
embrace of our parents and the comforting bodily warmth that accompany it.

1.3.3. Components of conceptual metaphor
According to Lakoff and Johnson, metaphor is seen as a cognitive mechanism
whereby one conceptual domain is partially mapped onto a different conceptual domain.


7
The second domain is partially understood in terms of the first one with the linguistic

metaphor deriving from those domains.
The domain that is mapped is called the source domain/ donor domain.
The domain onto which it is mapped is target domain/ recipient domain.
E.g. Argument is war.
Argument: target domain
War: source domain

1.3.4. Classification of conceptual metaphor
Lakoff and Johnson classify metaphor into three main types including ontological,
orientational and structural metaphor.
1.3.4.1. Ontological metaphor
Lakoff and Johnson reasoned that ontological metaphors occurred when our
experience of physical objects and substances provided a further basis for understanding.
This means that we understand many abstract experiences (such as events, activities,
emotions and ideas) in terms of concrete substances, objects and processes. Therefore,
ontological metaphors involve ways of viewing intangible concepts as entities. Identifying
these abstract and indefinable non-entities as substances or entities make it possible too
―refer them, categorize them, group them, and quantify then- and by this means reason
about them‖ (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 25). One thing to notice is that because most
ontological metaphors are so fundamental to out thought and language, they are not often
identified as metaphors anymore. Therefore, for example, expressions of ontological
metaphor WEALTH IS A HIDDEN OBJECT in everyday language is not considered
metaphor by most people.
He‘s seeking his fortune.
He‘s flaunting his new found wealth.
He‘s a fortune hunter.
She‘s a gold digger.
He lost his fortune.
He‘s searching for health.

8
As ―seek‖, ―search for‖, ―found‖, ―lost‖ are quite familiar, people do not think them
as metaphors. However, they are metaphors in fact and they help us understand ―wealth‖-
an abstract concept easier and more clearly.
In short, ontological metaphors help us to represent an abstract thing in terms of
something concrete such as an object, substance, container or person. In more details,
ontological metaphor is subdivided into container metaphor, substance metaphor and entity
metaphor.

1.3.4.1.1. Container metaphor
Container metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which some concept is
represented as
- having something inside and outside
- being capable of hiding something else
This means that non-physical objects are transformed into physical objects with
define boundaries. Examples of this kind of metaphor are shown in expressions of
metaphor LIFE IS A CONTAINER.
I‘ve had a full life.
Life is empty for him.
There‘s not much left for him in life.
His life is scrammed with activities.
Get the most out of life.
His life contained a great deal of sorrow.
Live your life to the fullest.

1.3.4.1.2. Substance metaphor
Substance metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which an abstraction such as an
event, activity, emotion or idea is represented as material substance. Examples of this kind
of metaphor can be shown in expressions of metaphor VITALITY IS A SUBSTANCE.

She‘s brimming with vim and vigor.
She‘s overflowing with vitality.
He‘s devoid of energy.
I don‘t have any energy left at the end of the day.


9
I‘m drained.
That took a lot out of me.

1.3.4.1.3. Entity metaphor
Entity metaphor is created when an abstraction is presented as a concrete physical
object. The following expressions are examples of metaphor LOVE IS A PHYSICAL
FORCE (ELETROMAGNETIC, GRAVITATIONAL ETC.)
I could feel the electricity between us.
There were sparks.
I was magnetically drawn to her.
They are uncontrollably attracted to each other.
They gravitated to each other immediately.
The atmosphere around them is always charged.
There is incredible energy in their relationship.
They lost their momentum.
A subtype of entity metaphor is personification in which a thing or abstraction is
represented as a person. Here, human characteristics are imposed on inhuman experiences.
E.g. His religion tells him he can‘t drink wine.
Here, religion is personified as a person who tells other people to do something.
In short, ontological metaphor is a metaphor in which an abstraction such as an
activity, an emotion, state or idea is represented as something concrete such as an object,
substance, container or a person.

1.3.4.2. Orientational metaphor
Orientational metaphor is a metaphor in which concepts are spatially related to each
other. Orientational metaphor organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to
another. Orientational metaphor explains a concept in terms of space or ―give a concept a
spatial orientation‖ ( Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 15). Most of orientational metaphors relate
to spatial orientation such as up-down, in-out, deep-shallow, on-off, central-peripheral.
Orientational metaphors are not arbitrary. They have a basis in our physical and
cultural experience. Followings are some common orientational metaphors:



10
E.g.1. HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN.
I‘m feeling up. That boosted my spirit. My spirits rose. You are in high spirits.
Thinking about her always gives me a lift.
I‘m feeling down. I‘m depressed. He‘s really low these days. I fell into depression.
My spirit sank.
These metaphors are created on the basis that drooping posture typically goes along
with sadness and depression while erect posture often goes with a positive emotional state.
E.g. 2. MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN.
The number of books printed each year keeps going up. His draft number is high.
My income rose last year.
The amount of artistic activity in this state has gone down since last year. The
number of errors made by him is incredibly low. His income fell last year. He‘s underage.
If you are too hot, turn the heat down.
These metaphors are based on physical experience, that is if we add more substance
of physical subject to a container or pile the level goes up
E.g.3. CONSCIOUS IS UP, UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN.
Wake up. He rises early in the morning.
He fell asleep. He dropped off to sleep. He‘s under hypnosis. He sank into a coma.

The physical basis of these metaphors is that human and other mammals in general
lie down when they sleep and stand up when they awaken.
E.g.4. GOOD IS UP, BAD IS DOWN
Things are looking up. We hit a peak last year, but it‘s been downhill ever since.
Things are at an all-time low. He does high-quality work.
The physical basis of these metaphors is that positive things are often associated
with high position while negative things are often associated with low position.
Although the polar oppositions are physical in nature, the orientational metaphors
based on them are not always the same from culture to culture. For example, in some
cultures future is seen as ahead of us but it is viewed as behind us in other cultures.
Lakoff and Johnson emphasize the importance of orientational metaphor ―
spatialization is so essential a part of a concept that is difficult for us to imagine any
alterative metaphor that might structure the concept‖ ( Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 19).


11
Moreover, orientational metaphors do not simple structure our thinking about one
concept but they structure our thinking about systems of concepts. For example, GOOD IS
UP gives an UP orientation to general well-being, and this orientation is coherent with
special cases like HAPPY IS UP, ALIVE IS UP, HEALTH IS UP, and CONROL IS UP.

1.3.4.3. Structural metaphor
Structural metaphors are said to be the biggest group of metaphorical concepts.
They concern characterizing the structure of a concept by comparing it to the structure of
another concept. In other words, a structural metaphor is created when one concept is
understood in terms of another structured, sharply defined concept. According to Lakoff
and Johnson, structural metaphors are considered the most complex type of conceptual
metaphor because they require readers and hearers to transfer one basic domain of
experience to another basic domain. This process is called ―a cross-domain mapping in the
conceptual system‖. The mapping happens between the source domain and the target

domain. For example, the structural metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY will consist of a
source domain (journey) and a target domain (life) and a mapping between these domains (
the person leading a life correspond to traveler ; the life goals correspond to destinations on
the journey; difficulties in life correspond to impediments to travel). Thus, the following
expressions are examples of this metaphor.
He‘s got a head start in life. He‘s without direction in his life.
I‘m where I want to be in life.
I‘m at a crossroads in my life.
He‘ll go places in life.
He‘s never let anyone get in his way.
It is said that this kind of metaphor is ―embedded in the conceptual framework of
our culture‖. This mean that structural metaphors are results of how we view the world
around us.
In summary, Lakoff and Johnson‘s contributions play an important role in the
development of cognitive theory about metaphor. Their theory about conceptual metaphor
has been the basis for a number of studies on metaphor. An analysis of conceptual
metaphors used in inaugural addresses made by the US presidents will be clearly presented
in the next chapter in the light of this theory.


12
CHAPTER 2: THE STUDY
2.1. Research questions
The study was conducted to answer the following question:
What types of conceptual metaphors are used in inaugural addresses made by the
US presidents?
2. 2. Data collection
Data were collected from four inaugural addresses made by George H.W Bush
(1989), Bill Clinton (1993), George W. Bush (2001) and Barack Obama (2009).
2.3. Analytical framework

The analytical framework used in this study is based on classical cognitive theory
of metaphor by Lakoff and Johnson as follows
Kinds of metaphor
Description
Examples
1.Ontological
metaphor
Con. Met
Non-physical objects
are transformed into
physical objects with
define boundaries.
1. I‘ve had a full life.
2. Life is empty for him.

Sub. Met
An abstraction such as
an event, activity,
emotion or idea is
represented as a
material substance.
VITALITY IS A SUBSTANCE.
1. She‘s overflowing with vitality.
2. I don‘t have any energy left at
the end of the day.
Ent. Met
An abstraction is
represented as a
concrete physical object
or a person.

1. I was magnetically drawn to
her.
(LOVE IS A PHYSICAL
ELETROMAGNETIC FORCE)
2. His religion tells him he can‘t
drink wine.
(RELIGION AS A PERSON)
2.Orientational metaphor
Concepts are spatially
related to each other.
HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN
1. I‘m feeling up.
2. My spirit sank.


13
3.Structural metaphor
One concept is
understood in terms of
another structured,
sharply defined
concept.
LIFE IS A JOURNEY
I‘m at a crossroads in my life.


2.4. Data analysis and discussion
In the following section, the four inaugural addresses are analyzed in terms of
ontological metaphor, structural metaphor and orientational metaphor from Lakoff and
Johnson‘s perspective. In terms of meaning interpretation, only metaphors which are used

twice or more and can create emotional effect on the audience are discussed. The others
metaphors are listed in the appendices.

Table 1: Conceptual metaphors in four inaugural addresses
Types of metaphor


Addresses
Ontological
metaphors
Structural
metaphors
Orientational
metaphors
1. By George H.W Bush (1989)
62
8
3
1. By William Bill Clinton (1993)
60
10
1
2. By George W. Bush (2001)
69
11
0
3. By Barack Obama (2008)
85
8
1

Total
276
37
5

Table 1 describes the number of conceptual metaphors including ontological
metaphor, structural metaphor and orientational metaphor. As can be seen, ontological
metaphors are used with the highest frequency (276 metaphors). Orientational metaphors
are employed with the smallest number (5 metaphors). Thus, the next part will deal with
the analysis of conceptual metaphors with the following order. Ontological metaphors with
the biggest number will be discussed in details first. Secondly, structural metaphors are


14
interpreted. Lastly, orientational metaphors with the smallest number will be briefly
discussed.

2.4.1. Ontological metaphor
Table 2: Ontological metaphors in four inaugural addresses


Addresses
Ontological metaphor

Ent. Met

Sub. Met

Con. Met
1. By George H.W Bush (1989)

52
7
3
1. By William Bill Clinton (1993)
55
3
2
2. By George W. Bush (2001)
56
8
5
3. By Barack Obama (2008)
80
4
1
Total
243
22
11
Total number of Ont. Met : 276


Table 2 presents the number of ontological metaphors used in four inaugural
addresses. As can be seen, entity metaphors are used the most. The number of entity
metaphors in Barack Obma‘s address is the biggest and that of the three other addresses is
relatively the same. Container metaphors are rarely used with the smallest number.
Substance metaphors are not favourably used by four presidents. All four presidents use
entity metaphors the most to conceptualize abstract things as concrete physical objects or
person. This helps make it easier for audience to imagine and understand the speeches.
Thus, the implicit meaning of the addresses is clearly conveyed.

Ontological metaphors will be analyzed in the order of entity metaphor, substance
metaphor and then container metaphor. Being used with the greatest number, entity
metaphor will be discussed in details in terms of as object and as person. Of all entity
metaphors, metaphors which appears twice or more will be analyzed to reveal the implicit
meaning.





15
Table 3: Entity metaphors in four inaugural addresses



Addresses
Entity metaphor

As object

As a person
1. By George H.W Bush (1989)
36
16
1. By William Bill Clinton (1993)
32
23
2. By George W. Bush (2001)
32
24

3. By Barack Obama (2008)
47
33

Table 3 presents the number of entity metaphors. As can be seen, a great number of
abstract concepts are conceptualized as objects. The concepts including time, will,
engagement, politics, ideal, life, success, faith, interest, spirit, challenge, strength,
ambition are frequently conceptualized as objects. Furthermore, a great number of
personification metaphors are also exploited in four addresses. Nation as a person, world
as a person, time as a person, idea as a person metaphors are used with the highest
frequency. The meaning of these typical metaphors will be discussed in each address as
follows.
Table 4: “As object” entity metaphors in four inaugural addresses

Concepts
―As object‖ entity metaphor
George H.W
Bush‘s address
Bill Clinton‘s
address
George Bush‘s
address
Obama‘s
address
Time
4
2


Will

3



Engagement
3



Politics
1
3
1

Ideal


3
1
Life


1
2
Success


1
2

16
Table 4 (continue)

Concepts
―As object‖ entity metaphor
George H.W
Bush‘s address
Bill Clinton‘s
address
George Bush‘s
address
Obama‘s
address
Faith
1

1

Interest


2

Spirit

2

Challenge

2


Strength


2
1
Ambition



2

Table 4 mentions the number of as object metaphors which are used twice or more
in terms of each concept. Next, these metaphors will be discussed in details,
Gorge H.W. Bush uses time as object metaphor four times. This metaphor is used
the first time in ―I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with
promise‖. By using this instance, he would like to emphasize that the time when he takes
office is a good time with a lot of advantages. His new government and all Americans
should make use of it.
The second instance of this metaphor is ―The totalitarian era is passing, its old
ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient lifeless tree.‖ H.W Bush aims to claim that
totalitarian time which is not good for the country‘s development is over. A new better
time is coming and people should welcome it.
The third instance is found in the sentence ―there are times when the future seems

thick as a fog: you sit and wait, hoping the mists will lift and reveal the right path‖. Here
future is considered as thick as a fog. He wants to reveal that a bright future for America is
a real thing that Americans can possess but it is not smooth way to the future. They have to
overcome obstacles on their way.
In the fourth instance, ―but this is a time when the future seems a door you can
walk right through into a room called tomorrow‖, the future here is conceptualized as a
door that all the US people can see, touch and open. Bright future is achievable for
everyone who finds the right way to reach the ―door‖, open it and walk into the room


17
called ―tomorrow‖. Under the rule of his government, all the US people will be offered real
good opportunities to be successful in life. The metaphor brings people optimism about the
future of the US country under Gorge H.W Bush‘s leadership.
Bill Clinton uses time as object metaphor two times. The first time is seen in
―Thomas Jefferson believed that to preserve the very foundations of our nation, we would
need dramatic change from time to time. Well, my fellow citizens, this is our time. Let us
embrace it‖. By using this metaphor, Bill Clinton emphasizes this time is American
people‘s opportunity and they should grasp it. He implies that actions need to be taken
whenever there is a good chance. Time is considered as object in ―And so today, we pledge
an end to the era of deadlock and drift- a new season of American renewal has begun.‖.
Bill Clinton implies that the good time for renovating the country is now. People should
grasp and take advantage of this time.
By using time as object metaphor, both George H.W Bush and Bill Clinton aim to
reveal that the good time for changing America and developing America is coming. The
new government and all the citizens must catch it and make necessary changes to develop
the country.
Will as object metaphor appears two times in George H.W Bush‘s address. They
are seen in ― We know how to secure a more just and prosperous life for man on Earth
through free markets, free speech, free elections and the exercise of free will unhampered

by the state‖ and in ―Our challenges are great, but our will is greater‖. He emphasizes the
strong will of American people. They are strong-willed enough to overcome challenges.
This encourages people to make more effort to the development of the country.
In George H.W Bush‘s address, three instances are found using engagement as
object metaphor including ―I am speaking of a new engagement in the lives of others, a
new activism…‖, ―We need a new engagement, too between the Executive and the
Congress‖ and ―To the world, we offer new engagement and a renewed vow: we will stay
strong to protect the peace.‖ By using this metaphor, he calls for participation and mutual
support between the Executive and the Congress, which lead to strong leadership of the
new government. He also claims that America will maintain the world peace and
encourages other country to take part in the process of maintaining the world peace.
Politics as object metaphor is also frequently used in three out of four addresses.
George H.W Bush uses this metaphor in ―For democracy belongs to us all, and freedom is


18
like a beautiful kite that can go higher and higher with the breeze‖. Democracy and
freedom is the goals to be achieved by the government. They are considered as real things
to imply that these things can be easily achieved under the leadership of the new
government.
Politics as object metaphor is also employed in Bill Clinton‘s in three instances.
With two instances in ―Our democracy must be not only the envy of the world but the
engine of our renewal.‖ and ―To renew America, we must revitalize our democracy‖. Bill
Clinton plays a stress on the great importance of the US‘s democracy. It is the ―engine‖-
the most important part of the country‘s renovation. This entails the importance of
revitalizing the democracy. It must be the first mission of the new government and he calls
for the support from other politicians and American people for changing the democracy for
the better.
In the third instance ―Americans deserve better, and in this city today, there are
people who want to do better. And so I say to all of us here, let us resolve to reform our

politics, so that power and privilege no longer shout down the voice of the people‖, Bill
Clinton consider politics as a real object that can be changed to make it better. He and his
new government will be responsible for reforming politics with the support from people.
George W. Bush uses one politics as object metaphor in his speech that is
―President Clinton, distinguished guests and my fellow citizens, the peaceful transfer of
authority is rare in history, yet common in our country‖. Bush emphasizes that political
transfer is common in the US because the country is having a peaceful politics. This
peaceful politics is the result of the effort of previous governments and his new
government will maintain this.
Ideal as object metaphor is used in three instances in George W. Bush. By using
this metaphor in ―it is the American story- a story of flawed and fallible people, united
across the generations by grand and enduring ideals‖, ― the grandest of these ideals is an
unfolding American promise that everyone belongs, that everyone deserves a chance, that
no significant person ever born.‖ and ―Every child must be taught these principles. Every
citizen must uphold them. And every immigrant, by embracing these ideals, make our
country more not less, American‖, George W. Bush implies that American ideal is great
and is a promise for a better future for American people. This helps to unite different


19
generations in America. This metaphor encourages American people to maintain the grand
American ideal.
In Obama‘s speech, ideal as object metaphor is used once in ―as for our common
defense, we reject as false the choice between our safety and our ideals… those ideals still
light the world, and we will not give them up for expedience‘s sake.‖ Ideal is
conceptualized as an object that can light the world. Obama implies that the American
ideals and decisions are proper. They can help solve problems of both America itself and
the whole world.
Life as object metaphor is used in George W. Bush and Obama‘s speeches. Life is
conceptualized as an object in ―Encouraging responsibility is not a search for scapegoats, it

is a call to conscience….we find the fullness of life not only in options, but in
commitments.‖ in George W. Bush‘s speech. George W. Bush wants to emphasize that
people‘s commitments in actions are the key to a happy life. Obama uses this metaphor
two times in ―For us, they packed up their few worldly possessions and traveled across
oceans in search of a new life.” and ―Time and again these men and women struggled and
sacrificed and worked till their hands were raw so that we live a better life.‖ He aims to say
that the life that American people are having is the result of sacrifice and hard work. Thus,
they must protect what they are enjoying and try their best to make their life better and
better.
Success as object is the other kind of entity metaphor that is used by George H.W
Bush and Obama. In George H.W Bush‘s speech, it is found in ―if he can celebrate the
quieter, deeper successes that are made of not of gold and silk, [ ]‖.Success in this speech
is a concrete thing that can be measured. Therefore, it is easy for the new president to
achieve. He is sure about that. People can trust him and his new government.
Obama employs this metaphor two times in ―The success of our economy has
always depended not just in the size of our gross domestic product, but on the reach of our
prosperity; on our ability to extend opportunity to every willing heart …but because it is
the surest route to our common good.‖. This metaphor is aimed to encourage people to
increase domestic productivity and make their best effort to develop the country‘s
economy.
George H.W Bush and George Bush exploit faith as object metaphor. This
metaphor is found in George H.W Bush‘s address in the instance ―Heavenly Father we


20
bow our heads and thank You for Your love. Accept out thanks for the peace that yields
this day and the shared faith that makes its continuance likely.‖ The Americans share the
same faith in Heavenly Father and in the leadership of the new government. This faith
plays an important role in the development of the country. Hopefully, this faith is
maintained forever.

This metaphor is seen in ―Though much of the last century, America‘s faith in
freedom and democracy was a rock in raging sea. Now it is a seed upon the wind, taking
part in many nations.‖ in George W. Bush‘s address. He aims to indicate that American
people never lose their faith in freedom and democracy created by the government. His
new government continues to maintain this American faith.
Interest as object metaphor is used two times in George Bush‘s address. ―Our
public interest depends on private character, on civic duty and family bonds and basic
fairness, on uncounted, unhonored acts of decency.‖ and ―I will live and lead by these
principles: to advance my convictions with civility, to pursue the public interest with
courage, to speak for greater justice and compassion, to call for responsibility and try to
live it as well.‖ He would like to express that he will try his best to satisfy the people‘s
interest. However, this interest can also be achieved by people themselves, their duty and
close-knit family relationship. He calls for the cooperation between people and the
government to satisfy people‘s needs in life.
He also uses spirit as object two times in his speech. This metaphor can be found
in ―Americans are generous and strong and decent, not because we believe in ourselves,
but because we hold beliefs beyond ourselves. When this spirit of citizenship is missing, no
government program can replace it. When this spirit is present, no wrong can stand against
it.‖ Here, spirit is considered as a real thing that exists in real life and can miss. He aims to
enhance good qualities of American people such as generosity, strength and decency. If
these qualities are maintained, American people can overcome any obstacles.
Challenge and strength as objects are used two times in Bill Clinton‘s address.
They are seen in ―though our challenges are fearsome, so are our strengths.‖, ―To renew
America, we must meet challenges abroad as well at home‖ and ―but our greatest strength
is the power of our ideas which are still new in many lands.‖ By using this metaphor, he
emphasizes that the difficulties facing the US are real. On the other hand, American people
possess strength that can defeat any challenges abroad or at home. This encourages people


21

to devote themselves to the country. Obama uses challenge as object metaphor in ―Today I
say to you that the challenges we face are real. They are serious and they are many.‖ with
the same meaning.
Ambition as object metaphor is used twice in Obama‘s speech in ―They saw
America as bigger than the sum of our individual ambitions; greater the than differences of
birth or wealth or faction.‖ and ―Now, there are some who questions the scale of our
ambitions- who suggest that our system cannot tolerate to many big plans. Their memories
are short. For they have forgotten what this country has done‖. Obama reveals a fact that
every American has his own ambition. And all these ambitions are joined together to make
America with great ambition. America has already fulfilled its great ambition and it
continues to do better in the future.

Table 5: “As person” entity metaphors in four inaugural addresses

Concepts
―As person‖ entity metaphor
George H.W
Bush‘s address
Bill Clinton‘s
address
George Bush‘s
address
Obama‘s
address
Nation
7
8
10
8
World

2
1


Time



4
Idea


4


The following part will discuss nation as a person, world as a person, time as a
person, idea as a person metaphors in four inaugural addresses.
George H.W Bush uses nation as a person metaphor seven times in his speech.
These metaphors have great emotional influence on the audience.
In the first instance ―American is never wholly herself unless she is engaged in high
moral principle.‖, H.W Bush conceptualizes the nation as a woman because women are
generally seen as superior and women are seen as being innately serene and good. In
matters of taking action and being strong, the nation is probably a man, but when it comes
to moral engagement America is a woman. It is understood that American is in fact a
nation-person with high moral principles and this is emphasized by the concept of a female