Tài liệu ôn thi cao học chuyên ngành giảng dạy tiếng anh english syntax

i
Tài liệu ôn thi cao học chuyên ngành Giảng dạy Tiếng Anh
- English syntax
C
O
NT
E
NT
S
Content
i
Preface vii
Outline for
revision ix
Table of notational symbols
xii
S e

c ti o

n
o

n e

: WORD CLASSES
1 Parts of speech, word classes and grammatical categories
1
2 Classification of word classes
2
2.1 Major classes vs. minor classes

2
2.2 English major classes

3
2.2.1 English form classes

4
2.2.2 English positional classes

6
2.3 English minor classes

10
2.4 Word-class exercises

10
2.4.1 Exercises for form
c
l
asses

10
2.4.2 Exercises for
positional c
l
asses


12

S e

c ti o

n
t w

o

: TYPES of PHRASES, CLAUSES and SENTENCES
3 Phrases vs.
c
l
auses

15
4 Adjective phrases vs. adverb phrases

15
5 Attributive vs. predicative
adjectives/adjective
phrases

17
6 Noun phrases vs. verb phrases

18
7 The N-bar (N’) as a level of NP-structure that is
int
e

r
m
e
di
a
t
e
b
e
t
w
ee
n
the phrasal (NP) level and the lexical (N) level

20
8 Types of pre-nominal
modifiers

21
8.1 Determiners

21
i
8.2 Quanyifying adjectives

23
8.3 Adjective phrases

26

8.4 Pre-modifying nouns

27
8.5 Possessive common nouns

28
ii
8.6 Verb participles

29
8.7 Gerunds

30
8.8 Restricters

31
9 Types of post-nominal
modifiers


32
9.1 Prepositional phrases

32
9.2 Adjective phrases

33
9.3 Participial phrases

35

9.4 Infinitive phrases

35
9.5 Subordinate adjective clauses

36
10 Noun
c
omplements
vs.
optional post
-nominal
modifiers

36
11 Classification of English
verbs/verb phrases

38
11.1 Intensive
verbs/verb phrases

39
11.2 Complex transitive
verbs/verb phrases

40
11.3 Ditransitive
verbs/verb phrases

43
11.4 Monotransitive
verbs/verb phrases

47
11.5 Prepositional
verbs/verb
phrases

51
11.5.1 Monotransitive Prepositional
verbs/verb
phrases

51
11.5.2 Ditransitive Prepositional
verbs/verb
phrases

53
11.6 Intransitive
verbs/verb phrases

55
11.7 Summary of the classification of English
verbs/verb
phrases

57
11.8 Troublesome verbs

59
12 Types of clause l
inks


61
13 Types of
c
l
auses


62
13.1 Finite clauses vs. non-finite clauses

62
13.2 Independent clauses vs. dependent clauses

63
13.3 Subordinate clauses vs. embedded clauses

64
14 Covert subjects vs. overt subjects

66
15 Types of finite dependent
clauses

67

15.1 Nonimal clauses

67
15.2 Relative clauses

67
iii
15.3 Adverbial clauses

68
15.4 Reporting clauses

68
15.5 Comment clauses

68
16 Types of non-finite clauses

69
16.1 Infinitive non-finite clauses

69
16.2 Gerund non-finite clauses

69
16.3 Participial non-finite clauses

70
16.4 Verbless clauses

71
17 Classification of sentences according to their structures

71
17.1 Simple sentences

71
17.2 Compound sentences

72
17.3 Complex sentences

72
17.3.1 Embedded nominal clauses

73
17.3.1.1 As the
subject

73
17.3.1.2 As the
direct object/the predicator
complement

78
17.3.1.3 As the
indirect
object

89

17.3.1.4 As the subject(ive) complement

90
17.3.1.5 As the object(ive) complement

91
17.3.1.6 As the complement of a preposition

94
17.3.2
Subordinate
/
embedded
adjectival clauses

95
17.3.3
Subordinate
/
embedded
adverbial clauses

96
17.4 Compound-Complex sentences

97
Se

ctio

n
th

r

ee

: GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS
18 Structure
99
19 Endocentric structures vs. exocentric structures
99
20 Types of syntactic structures

100
20.1 Structures of modification

100
20.2 Structures of complementation

101
20.3 Structures of coordination

101
20.4 Structures of predication

103
iv
21 Constructions vs. constituents
104

22 Immediate constituents vs. ultimate constituents
104
23 Immediate constituents of a sentence
105
24 Intervening level of organization between
word
and sentence
106
25 Modifiers vs.
comp
l
ements

106
26 Types of adjective
comp
l
ements

108
27 Pre-adjectival modifiers vs. post-adjectival modifiers
108
28 Adjective
complements
vs.
optional post
-adjectival
modifiers

109

29 Classification of English adjectives according to their post-modifiers
111
30 Types of adverbial
adjuncts
112
31 Noun phrase
ana
l
yses

123
32
Mis-diagraming
125
33 Structural ambiguity in
English
noun
phrases

126
33.1 Define a structurally ambiguous noun phrase
126
33.2 Explain structurally ambiguous noun phrases
128
33.3 Disambiguate structurally ambiguous noun
phrases 134
33.4 Account for structurally non-ambiguous noun phrases
138
34 Verb phrase analyses
140

34.1 Noun phrases as the sP/sC of an intensive verb or as the dO
o
f
a monotransitive verb
140
34.2 NP direct objects of a monotransitive verb or NP adverbial
adjuncts of an intransitive
verb
141
34.3 Prepositional phrases as the sP/sC of an intensive verb or
a
s
the optional adverbial adjunct of any verb
142
34.4 IntransVAC vs. intransV—Adv
143
34.5 MonotransVAC—NP vs. intransV—PP
144
34.6
MonotransVAC—NP
vs. monotrans-prepV—prepO
146
35 Sentence analyses
147
35.1 Identify the syntactic function of a PP
147
35.2 Decide whether a PP is part of the complementation of
a
ditransitive verb
148

v
35.3 Explain the difference between two sentences
151
35.4 Re-analyse sentence pairs, using tree-diagrams
154
36 Structural ambiguity in
English
verb phrases
157
37 Phrase
structure
162
37.1
Definition
162
37.2 How to
determine
phrase structure?
162
37.2.1 Substitution
162
37.2.2 Conjoinability
165
37.2.3 Movement
166
37.2.4 Checking the
antecedent
for a pro-form
167
37.3 Phrase structure exercises

167
38 Phrase structure rules
170
39 Surface structures vs. deep
structures
172
40 Signals of syntactic
structures
174
40.1 Word order
174
40.2 Function words
174
40.3 Inflection
175
40.4 Derivational contrast
176
40.5 Prosody
176
41 What is syntax?
177
S e

c ti o

n
fo

u r

: SAMPLE TESTS IN ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
178
B
i
b
li
o
g
r
a
ph
y



197
viii
1. L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
c
s
(a)
S

e
m
a
n
t
i
c
s
- The expression of meaning in English at the word and sentence
l
e
v
e
l;
- The relations of different kinds of
m
e
a
ning;
- Meaning shifts or w
o
r
ds;
- Use of language in social
int
e
r
a
ction
.

(b)
Sy
n
t
a
x
- Word
cl
a
ss
e
s;
- Grammatical
r
e
l
a
tions;
- Types of phrases, clauses &
s
e
nt
e
nc
e
s
.
2. Academic W
r
i

t
i
n
g
Write an essay of 250 - 300 words on an issue of second
l
a
ngu
a
g
e
teaching and
l
e
a
r
ning
.
R
E
F
E
R
E
N
C
E
S
Fromkin V. et al (1988) An
Introduction

to Language.
Sydney: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston
.
Hurdford, J. R. & Heasley, B. (1984)
Semantics.
A
Course
Book.
Cambridge: Cambridge University P
r
e
ss
.
Jordan, R.R. (1990)
Academic Writing Course
.
Collins ELT. A Division of
Harper Collins Publishers.
Kaplan, J.P. (1989)
English Grammar. Principles
and Facts.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
I
nc
.
ix
x
S
E

M
A
N
T
I
C
S
GUIDELINES FOR REV
I
E
W
I. Semantic Properties and Semantic F
i
e
lds
II.
Reference
and S
e
ns
e
III. Denotation and
Connot
a
tion
IV. Taxonomy—Hypernyms and H
yponyms
V. Multiple Senses of Lexical
I
t

e
ms
* Primary S
e
ns
e
* Secondary Senses
(
polys
e
my
)
* Figurative Senses (metaphors, similes, metonymy,
syn
e
cdoch
e
,
euphemism, hyperbole, litotes, alliteration, assonance,
conson
a
nc
e
)
VI. Synonymy vs.
A
ntonymy
VII. Homonyms (homophones and homograph), acronyms,
a
nom

a
ly
VIII. Speech
A
cts
P
r
opositions
-
U
tt
e
r
a
nc
e
s
-
S
e
nt
e
nc
e
s
Performative
s
e
nt
e

nc
e
s
Presuppositions and
I
mplic
a
tu
r
e
s
Felicity
conditions
Speech
e
v
e
nts
Deixis (time, place,
p
e
r
son
)
Pragmatic
m
e
a
ning
Maxims of

conv
e
r
s
a
tion
Maxims of
polit
e
n
e
ss
xi
ENGLISH
S
YNT
A
X
In
t
r
o
du
c
t
i
o
n
• Syntax: “the study of how words combine
to

form sentences and the rules which govern
th
e
information of sentences” (Richards, Platt
&
W
e
b
e
r)
• Traditional grammar — Structural grammar
—
Transformational
g
r
a
mm
a
r
Five signals of syntactic structures: Word
o
r
d
e
r
,
Prosody, Function words, Inflections,
a
nd
Derivational contrast (Francis, 1958:

234
)
Word classes: open ad closed
c
l
a
ss
e
s
• Open classes: Nouns, Verbs,
A
dj
e
c
tiv
e
s
,
Adverbs (Jackson,
1980
)
•
Closed classes: Pronouns, N
um
e
r
a
ls
,
Determiners, Prepositions, C

onjun
c
tions
(Jackson,
1980
)
•
Chapters 1 & 2 in
J
a
c
kson
(
1980
)
•
Chapter 5 in Francis
(
1958
)
•
“The Grammar of English”
by
Heatherington, in Clar et
a
l
(1981:
329
-
42

)
• What do native speakers
kno
w
about their
l
a
ngu
a
g
e
?
by Jacbs and R
os
e
nb
a
um
,
in Clark et al (1981:
343
-
49
)
IC’s in
S
y
n
t
a

x
Four basic types of syntactic s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
s
:
modification, predication, c
ompl
e
m
e
nt
a
tion
,
and coordination (Francis,
1958
)
Endocentric and exocentric
c
o
ns
t
r

u
c
t
i
o
ns
(Bloomfield, 1933; Nida,
1966
)
•
Chapter 6 in Francis
(
1958
)
• Chapter 6 in Fromkin et
a
l
(
1990
)
•
Chapter 1in Nida
(
1996
)
• John Lyons
(
t
r
a

nsl
a
t
e
d
version) pp.
368
-
70
Noun
ph
r
a
s
e
s
Types of modifiers in noun
ph
r
a
s
e
s
• Premodification: identifier,
num
e
r
a
l/qu
a

nti
f
i
e
r
,
adjective, noun
modi
f
i
e
r
• Postmodification: relative clauses,
non
-f
init
e
clauses, prepositional
ph
r
a
s
e
s
Chapter 3 in Jackson
(
1980
)
Verb phrases: tense, aspect, mood,
voi

c
e
Chapter 4 in Jackson
(
1980
)
Adjective phrases, adverb phrases, a
nd
prepositional
ph
r
a
s
e
s
Chapter 5 in Jackson
(
1980
)
C
l
a
u
s
e
s
•
Structures and
typ
e

s
•
Dependent c
l
a
us
e
s
Chapter 6 & 7 in Jackson
(
1980
)
Phrase structure rules & Transformational
r
u
l
e
s
Chapter 5 in Fromkin et al
(
1990
)
xii
NOTATIONAL SYMBOLS
Most of the symbols used in this text follow conventions, but since conventions
vary, the following list indicates the meanings assigned to them here.
A = adjective
Adv = (general) adverb
ART = article
AP = adjective phrase

AdvP = adverb phrase
C = complement
ComN = compound noun
Co

mp = complementizer
complex = complex transitive verb
Conj = conjunction
Co-P = a coordination of Prepositions
Co-PP = a coordinate Prepositional
phrase
Co-NP = a coordinate noun phrase
Co-AP = a coordinate adjective phrase
DEG = degree adverb
DEM = demonstrative
DET = determiner
dO = direct object
ditrans = ditransitive verb
ditrans-prep = ditransitive
prepositional verb
EmACl = embedded adjective clause
EmAdvCl = embedded adverbial clause
EXCLAMATORY DET = exclamatory
determiner
[E] = empty/covert/zero/implicit subject
H = the head
headN = the head noun headPRO =
the head pronoun headPropN = the
head proper noun headA =
t

h
e

h
e
ad adjective
headGer = the head gerund
IC = immediate constituent
InfP = infinitive phrase
intens = intensive verb
intrans = intransitive verb
intransVAC = intransitive verb-
adverbial composite
iO = indirect object
M = modifier
ModN = pre-modifying noun
monotrans = monotransitive verb
monotrans-prep = monotransitive
prepositional verb
monotransVAC = monotransitive verb-
adverbial composite
N = noun
N’ = N-bar
nC = noun complement
NP = noun phrase
NUM = numeral/number
opA = optional adverbial adjunct
obA = obligatory adverbial adjunct
oC = object(ive) complement
oP = object-predicative POST-

MOD = post-modifier POST-
DET = post-determiner PRE-
MOD = pre-modifier
PRE-DET = pre-determiner
PRO = pronoun
PropN = proper noun
Poss = possessive
PossA = possessive adjective PossPropN
= possessive proper noun PossCommN =
possessive common noun PossMarker =
possessive marker PossNP = possessive
noun phrase
predC = predicator complement
P = preposition
prep = prepositional verb
prepO = prepositional object
prepC = complement of a preposition
PP = prepositional phrase
PartP = participial phrase
Q = quantifier
QA = quantifying adjective
RESTRIC = restricter
S = sentence
xiii
S’= S-bar
sC = subject(ive) complement
sP = subject-predicative
SubACl = subordinate adjective clause
SubAdvCl = subordinate adverbial clause
VP = verb phrase

Vgrp = verb group
V-Part = verb participle
V-Ger = gerund
Prt = adverbial particle
VAC = verb-adverbial composite
* = unaccepted form
? = doubtfully acceptable form
[ ] = embedded unit
/ = or
φ
= unfilled
⇒
= one-way dependence
⇔
= two-way dependence
SECTION 1: WORD CLASSES
1 Parts of speech, word
classes
and
grammatical
categories
1
“The traditional term ‘parts of speech’ is puzzling; it’s not clear w
hy
kinds of words — really, classes of words — would be ‘parts’ of speech
any more than, say, phonemes, allophones, morphemes, allomorphs,
o
r
even phrases or sentences. In fact, instead of ‘parts of speech,’
linguists

usually employ the terms ‘word class’ or ‘grammatical category.’
T
h
e
term ‘grammatical category’ is a useful one, since it captures an
impo
r
t
a
nt
aspect of a ‘part of speech,’ namely, that all tokens of a particular part
o
f
speech share important grammatical characteristics that other parts of
sp
ee
ch
lack. The term ‘word class,’ however, is valuable in its simplicity and
is
certainly an improvement over ‘part of speech’.” [Kaplan, 1989:
105
]
1
“The syntactic categories of words and groups of words are revealed
by
the way they pattern in sentences. If you didn’t have knowledge of
th
e
s
e

syntactic categories, you would be unable to form grammatical sentences
o
r
distinguish between grammatical and ungrammatical sentences.”
[
F
r
omkin
et al, 1988: 214] For example, the
child
belong to a family that includes the
police officer, your neighbour, this yellow cat, he, and countless
oth
e
r
s
.
Each member of this family can be substituted for the child w
ithout
affecting the grammaticality of the sentence, although the meanings
o
f
course would
ch
a
ng
e
.
“A family of expressions that can substitute for one another
without loss of grammaticality is called a syntactic category.”

[
F
r
omkin
and Rodman, 1993:
79
]
1
2 Classification of word classes
2.1 Major classes vs. minor classes: Kaplan, [1989: 106] divides word
classes
into t w o m ain g

r o up

s—major and minor.
major
c
l
asses
minor
c
l
asses
1. The major classes — nouns,
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
—
have a great many members, e.g.
a
hundred thousand

nouns
.
1. The minor classes — pronouns,
numerals, determiners, prepositions,
conjunctions, and so on — have
f
e
w
members. It’s easy to list all the
articles of English: a, an, and the.
There are maybe 70 prepositions
a
nd
approximately a dozen
s
ubo
r
d
i
na
t
e
conjunctions: when, since, b
ec
au
s
e
,
after, before, while, although, as,
e

tc
.
2. Major class words tend to
h
a
v
e
referential meanings, since
th
e
y
involve, or allow,
reference
to
a
ctu
a
l
things, actions, events, or
p
r
op
e
r
ti
e
s
,
e.g. “Horse means that kind
o

f
animals.” uttered while pointing to
a
ho
r
s
e
.
2. Minor class words tend not to
have
referential meanings. That is
th
e
i
r
meanings are not easily specified
by
means of a neat definition, e.g.
ho
w
would you define the or of? In
oth
e
r
words, “the open classes bear
th
e
greatest load in terms of meaning,
in
the sense of refrence to things in

th
e
world while the function of
clos
e
d
classes is oriented
more
to
w
a
r
ds
internal
linguistic
r
e
l
a
tionships
.
”
3. Major classes are receptive to n
e
w
members. As a result, major classes
are also called open classes
[
J
a

ckson
,
1980: 7]. Originating in slang
o
r
casual contexts are the following
n
e
w
nouns, verbs, and adjectives
(
n
e
w
adverbs are harder to come up w
ith
)
:
teflon, yuppie, nerd (nouns);
s
c
am
,
boot up, book (verbs); rad, gna
r
d
l
y
,
killer, tubular,

(
a
dj
e
ctiv
e
s
).
3. Minor classes are not receptive
t
o
new members; they are closed.
It’s
unlikely you can think of any last
n
e
w
slangy article, conjunction,
p
r
onoun
,
or preposition you’ve
l
e
a
r
n
e
d

.
2
2.2 English major classes: In defining major/open classes,
S
t
a
g
e
b
e
r
g
[1965: 191-219] presents a double-track classification, one by form and the
other by position
2
.
2
1. House and Harman [1965] a

l s

o classifies major/open classes according to
t
h
e
i
r
m

e

a

n
i

n
g

.
“According to the meaning they represent, nouns may be divided into
s
e
v
e
r
a
l
classes: common or proper, concrete or abstract, collective, individual, mass,
material, etc.” [House and Harman, 1965:
22
]
“When classified as to meaning, adjectives are descriptive or definitive,
some of each class having definite and some indefinite application.” [House
a
nd
Harman, 1965:
73
]
2. Fromkin et al [1988, 214-215] present three types of criteria to

d
e
f
in
e
major/open
c
l
a
ss
e
s:
- F orm

: The class of a word may be apparent from its form. C
e
r
t
a
in
inflectional and derivational morphemes are associated with certain word c
l
a
ss
e
s
.
- Fun c

t io

n: The class of words may be indicated by the way it functions in a
phrase or sentence. For example, in the
s
e
nt
e
n
c
e
He will not score any more runs unless he runs
f
a
s
t
e
r
.
The first runs is recognized as a

noun and the second as a

verb because
o
f
their
f
un
c
tion

.
-
Mea

ni

ng

: Some words are commonly classified according to
their
semantic
type, such as abstract nouns (truth, kindness, beauty) and stative verbs
(
b
e
,
appear,
r
e
s
em
b
l
e
)
.
Unfortunately meaning is n o

t a reliable guide because there are many w
o

r
ds
which belong to more than one word class (kick, love, drink), but those w
hos
e
meaning remains essentially the same. Meaning is therefore best regarded as a
secondary criterion, to be used to check the purely grammatical criteria of form
and function.
3. Kaplan [1989:108] points out that o

ne p

r o

b l e

m with the traditional definition
of noun and verb since it is meaning-based (a noun is a word that names a person,
place, or thing; a verb is a word that names an action or state), it ought to
b
e
universal — valid in all languages, that is. But concepts that are
e
n
c
od
e
d
linguistically as nouns in one language may be encoded as verbs or adjectives
in

others. In English, for example, we normally say I’m hungry, using a

n

a

d

j e c

t i

ve
to
describe how we feel; but in Spanish one says tengo hambre — literally, “I have
hunger”, using a n

oun, hambre, to describe the same
f
ee
ling
.
3
Stageberg’s four form classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives,
a
nd
adverbs. Each form-class has its correlative position class, which will
b
e
later labelled as

nominals
,
verbals
,
adjectivals
,
or adverbials.
2.2.1 English form classes
2.2.1.1 Nouns
Noun are

i d e

n tifi e d

as

n

o un

s by two aspects of form, their
inflectional morphemes
,
and their
derivational
morphemes.
2.2.1.1.1 The t w o noun
inflectional suffixes
in English

a
r
e
:

The noun plural morpheme {–S
1
}: book–s, apple–s, box–es,
e
tc
.

The noun possessive morpheme {–S
2
}: man–’s, girl–’s,
s
t
ud
e
n
t
s
–
’
,
Alice–’s,
e
tc
.
2.2.1.1.2 Nouns are identified not only by inflectional

morphemes but also by noun-forming derivational suffixes added
to
verbs, adjectives, nouns, and bound forms: accept → acceptance, big →
bigness, book → booklet, dent- → dentist,
e
tc
.
2.2.1.2
V
e
r
b
s
Verbs are

i d en

tif i e

d

as

ve

r b

s by two aspects of form, their
inflectional morphemes
,

and their
derivational
morphemes.
2.2.1.2.1 The f o u

r
verb inflectional suffixes
in English
a
r
e
:

The verb third person singular present tense morpheme
{
–
S
3
}:
walk–s, find–s, mix–es,
e
tc
.

The verb present participle morpheme
{
–
ing
1
}:

play–ing, typ(e)–ing, dig(g)–ing,
e
tc
.

The verb past simple morpheme
{
–
D
1
}:
flow–ed, work–ed, creat(e)–ed, drank, broke, thought, show–ed,
e
tc
.

The verb past participle morpheme
{
–
D
2
}:
flow–ed, work–ed, creat(e)–ed, drunk, broken, thought, show–n,
e
tc
.
2.2.1.2.2 Verbs are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes but also by verb-forming derivational affixes added
to
nouns or adjectives: knowledge → acknowledge, bath → bathe, ripe → ripen,

large → enlarge,
e
tc
.
4
2.2.1.3
A
d
j
e
c
t
i
v
e
s
Adjectives are

i d e

n t ifi e

d

as

a d

j e

c ti v e

s by two aspects of form, their
inflectional morphemes
,
and their
derivational
morphemes.
2.2.1.3.1 The t w o
adjective inflectional suffixes
in English
a
r
e
:

The adjective comparative morpheme {–er
1
}:
small–er, saf(e)–er, thinn–er,
e
tc
.

The adjective superlative morpheme {–est
1
}:
small–est, saf(e)–est, thinn–est,
e
tc

.
2.2.1.3.2 Adjectives are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes
but also by
adjective-forming derivational
suffixes
3
a
dd
e
d
to nouns or verbs: athlete → athletic, child → childish, collect → collective,
read → readable,
e
tc
.
In short, “a word which is inflected with –er and –est and which
is
capable of forming adverbs with –ly and/or nouns with –ness is called an
adjective.” [Stageberg, 1965:
202
]
Or, “an adjective will be any word which has one or more of
th
e
following positive
a
tt
r
ibut

e
s:
i. it can occur between Article and
N
oun
.
ii. it can occur in the slot (Art) N is


.
iii. it can occur before (or contains) –er and –est, or after more and mo
s
t.
and in addition has all of the following negative
a
tt
r
ibut
e
s
.
i. it cannot occur with a p
l
u
r
a
l.
ii. it cannot occur with a po
ss
e

ss
i
ve
.
iii. it cannot occur in the slot (Art) N Verb.” [Kaplan, 1989:
116
]
3
There is a group of about seventy-five, mostly of two syllables, which begin w
ith
the prefix a-: afoot, aground, awake, agape, aloud, afresh, alert, adroit,
e
t
c
.
“These are uninflected words (UW’s) because they take no inflectional endings.
Although they do have the prefix a- in common, it seems unwise to label
th
e
m
formally as either adjectives or adverbs since positionally they appear in
both
adjectival and adverbial slots.” [Stageberg, 1965:
206
]
5
2.2.1.3.4
A
d
v

e
r
b
s
2.2.1.3.4.1 The t w o
adverb inflectional suffixes
in English
a
r
e
:

The adverb comparative morpheme {–er
1
}: fast–er, hard–er,
e
tc
.

The adverb superlative morpheme
{
–est
1
}: fast–est, hard–est,
e
tc
.
2.2.1.3.4.2 Adverbs are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes
but also by the

adverb-forming
derivational suffix {–ly
1
}
4
added to adjectives: just → justly, beautiful→ beautifully,
e
tc
.
2.2.2 English
positional
classes
According to Stageberg [1965: 196-219], the four positional classes
in English are the nominal, the verbal, the adjectival and the adverbial.
2.2.2.1 “Any word, whatever its form-class (noun,
verb
,
comparable, pronoun, uninflected word) will be tabbed a
nominal if
it
occupies one of the seven noun positions” [Stageberg,1965:196]
listed
b
e
lo
w
:
1.
The position of
the subject

:
-
Up

stai

rs
IS
the safest hiding
pl
a
c
e
.
4
“In the word-stock of English there are many uninflected words often
e
mploy
e
d
in the adverbial
positions:
1.
Uninflected words
used both as
adverbials
and
prepositions
: above, about,
after, around, before, behind, below, down, in, inside, on, out, outside, since,

t
o
,
under, up.
2. “-ward” series, with optional –s: afterward, backward, downward,
f
o
r
w
a
r
d
,
homeward, inward, northward, outward, upward, w
i
nd
w
a
r
d
.
3. “Here” series: here, herein, hereby, heretofore,
h
e
r
e
a
ft
e
r

.
4. “There” series: there, therein, thereby, theretofore,
t
h
e
r
e
a
ft
e
r
.
5. “-where” series: anywhere, everywhere, somewhere, nowhere.
6. “-ways” series: crossways, sideways; also, anyway.
7. “-time” series: meantime, sometime, anytime,
s
o
me
ti
me
s
.
8. Miscellaneous: today, tonight, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, seldom,
s
till,
yet, already, meanwhile, also, too, never, not, forth, thus, sidelong, headlong, maybe,
perhaps, instead, indeed, henceforth, piecemeal, nevertheless, downstairs,
i
ndoo
rs

,
outdoors, offhand, overseas, unawares, besides, furthermore, always.”
[
S
t
a
g
e
b
e
r
g
,
1965:215
]
6
- F o

r G

le n d

a t o s t e a

l t h

e
di

a mo

n d
WOULD BE a
sh
a
m
e
.
2.
The position of
the
direct
object
:
I HATE
telli

ng li

es
.
I
WANT to thi

nk cri

ti

ca

lly

.
3. The position of the
indirect
object:
She
GAVE
wh

om

ever

sh

e m

et
different
o
ff
e
r
s
.
She
GAVE no

bod

y
a hand
sh
a
k
e
.
4. The position of the
retained
object:
We WERE GIVEN t h e t hi

nnest.
5. The position of the
subject
(
ive
)
complement: This book IS h

e r s.
My favorite pastime IS sw immi

ng.
6. The position of the
object
(
ive
)

complement: You’VE MADE me w ha

t I

am

.
They NAMED the little dog Neky.
7. The position of the
complement
of a
preposition: He IS interested in n o

t h i

ng.
The elevator has been used for many years without b e i

ng

re pai

r e d

.
2.2.2.2 “Verbals are those forms that occupy the verb
positions
…
They come after the opening noun or noun phrase
…

There
are
four verbals
in
She
mu

st ha

ve been
loa

fi

ng
last w
ee
k
and two
in
I
sh

ou

ld
lea

ve
the house in ten

minut
e
s
.
Also, any verb form taking a subject or a complement (OV, S
C
,
or Adj) or modified by an adverbial is a verbal, r eg

a r d

l e

ss

o

f its
po

sit i on

.
1.

B

ecomi

ng

angry, she
bro

ke
the
dish
.
2.
B

ei

ng
a minister, Prentice
spo

ke
so
f
tly
.
3. After
ha

vi

ng ea

ten
the turnips, Prentice

tri

ed to loo

k
s
a
tis
f
i
e
d
.
4. The light
h

avi

ng gone out, we
lighted
candles.
7
5. G

i

v i

ng to the poor i s a Christian virtue.” [Stageberg, 1965:
201

]
2.2.2.3 “Adjectivals, like nominals, occupy certain
characteristic sentence positions
.”
[Stageberg, 1965:
206
]
1. The position b e

t w e

e n the determiner and the noun
:
That
joy

fu

l/co

llege/lau

ghi

ng/reco

mm

end

ed
freshman
is
b
r
ight
.
2. The position ri g h

t af t e

r the noun
:
The
fellow
wa

vi

ng
drives a
conv
e
r
tibl
e
.
3. The position righ

t afte

r
an intensive verb
: He always
remains qui

et
.
4. The position ri g

h t

aft e

r the direct object of a complex
t
r
a
nsitiv
e
verb: The management considered him c o

m p

etent.
“In other positions let us say that any adjective or adjective
substitute is an adjectival, unless it is in a nominal or adverbial
slot
”
.

[Stageberg, 1965:
210
]
Angry and upset
,
the applicant
slammed the
doo
r.
2.2.2.4 Adverbials are t h

e

w o

rd

gr o up

s as well as t h

e
s i

ngle w o

r d

s that occupy the adverb positions and perform the
adverb

functions
.
Common adverbial positions
a
r
e
:
2.2.2.4.1 Initial position: The adverbial is in the first position
in
the clause with or without juncture, occurring before the subject or
oth
e
r
obligatory elements of the
cl
a
us
e
:
(1)a.
R

ea

lly
, you SHOULD KNOW
b
e
tt
e

r.
b.
No

w
it IS
time to
go
.
c.
W

i

th a sha

rp a

x
you CAN DO
w
ond
e
r.
d. B

y u

s i

ng a l i

ttle red h

ere, you CAN BALANCE your
colo
r
s
.
e. Unless y o

u
F



OLLO

W





t h

e
p

r i

nt e d

d i

r ect io

n s

,
the set WILL NOT FIT properly
tog
e
th
e
r
.
2.2.2.4.2 Medial position: This includes all positions between
obligatory initial and final clausal elements. Several more
sp
e
ci
f
ic
positions can be
distinguish
e
d:

Between

the subject
and
the beginning of the verb phrase:
8
(2)a. She
a

c t ua

lly
EXPECTS to marry
him
.
b
.
Mary i

n h

er o

wn w a

y WAS a
d
a
r
ling
.
c. The environment secretary

y

este r da

y
M
OV
E
D
to mitigate the effects of the inland revenue
r
e
v
a
lu
a
tion
.

After
THE MODAL/FIRST AUXILIARY
VERB and before THE LEXICAL V
E
RB
:
(2)d. He
WOULD

se l do

m MAKE
e
ff
o
r
t
.
e.
You
MAY i

n thi

s wa

y
BE
of great
a
ssist
a
nc
e
.
f.
Carrie
HAD
o

ften

DREAMED
about coming
b
a
ck
.
g.
The utilization of computers
IS
not
o

f cou

rse
LIMITED
to
busin
e
ss
.

After THE LEXICAL VERB but preceding other obligatory elements
o
f
th
e

cl
a

us
e
.
(2)h.
It IS sti

ll
three weeks
a
w
a
y
.
i.
It IS
no lo

nger
a
c
a
sino
.
j.
He IS
a

lwa

ys/a

t

a

ny event
h
a
ppy
.
k.
He IS
certai

nly

/wi

thou

t

d

ou

bt
an
e
xp

e
r
t
.
l.
She IS
cleverly
with her
cli
e
nts
.
pl
a
c
e
d:
2.2.2.4.3 Final position:
Sentence-finally,
the adverbial
can
b
e

After THE LEXICAL VERB, especially after AN INTRANSITIVE ON
E
.
(2)m. He LIVES
i

n d

e p

en d

ent l y

/i

n

t h

e f a

st l a

ne.
n. He DIED l a

st n i

g h

t.
o. He DROVE
reck l essly/w i

th

a

b a

n d o n.

After all

ob

li g

at o ry

e

l e

me n

ts, i.e. t h

e

i nd

ir e

c t

o

b j e

c t, t h

e

d

ir e

c t

ob

j
e

c t
,
t h

e

s ub

j e

c ti v e

c o

mp l e

m e

n t, or t h e

ob

j ec ti v

e c o

m p

l e

m en

t, of THE
LE
X
I
C
A
L
VERB (though it may not be the last element if there are other final

adverbials
in the same
cl
a
us
e
)
:
(3)a. Tom WAS a d o

c t o

r f o

r ma

n y

y

e a rs. b. Tom
WILL
PLAY f oo

t b all
t o mo

r r o

w.

c. Tom SENT a telegraph to h

is wife
y ester da

y
mo

r n i

ng. d. Tom PUT h is wat c h w h

ere h

e c a

n f i nd i

t i

n
t h

e da

rk. e. Tom BELIEVED the man c ra z y a

f t e r

qu

est i o

n i

ng

h

i m

.
9
2.3 English minor classes
:
Jackson’s [1980: 9-11]
minor/closed classes
consist of
pronouns
th
a
t
“have to main function of substituting for nouns, once a noun has
b
ee
n
mentioned in a particular text”;
numerals
that “are of two kinds: ordinal
a

nd
cardinal”;
determiners
that “are used with nouns and have the function
o
f
defining the
reference
of the noun in some way”; prepositions the
chi
e
f
function of which is “relating a noun phrase to another unit”;
a
nd
conjunctions
that “are of two kinds:
co-ordinating conjunctions
,
such
a
s
and
,
or
,
but
, which join two items on an equal footing; and
subordinating
conjunctions

, such as
when
,
if
,
why
,
whether
,
because
,
since
, w
hich
subordinate one item to another in some w
a
y
.
”
Fromkin et al [1980: 9-11] add to
minor/closed classes
the form
cl
a
ss
called “auxiliaries”, which includes English helping verbs (be, have, do
)
and the modals (can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, mu
s
t).

However, these authors only identify one subtype of
J
a
ckson
’
s
determinrers namely “articles” as a minor/closed class,
compl
e
t
e
ly
ignoring the other subtypes such as possessives, demonstratives,
a
nd
quantifiers.
And Stageberg [1965] says nothing concerning
minor/closed
classes.
2.4 Word-class exercises:
2.4.1
Exercises for
form classes
EX

ERC

ISE

1

: Review
the derivational
adverb-forming
suffix
{-ly
1
}
a
nd
the
derivational adjective-forming
suffix
{-ly
2
}. Then
pl
a
c
e
a check after each word that qualifies as
an adverb
.
1. swift
ly
6. rich
ly
2.
hom
e
ly

7.
n
e
a
t
ly
{
-
ly
1
}
3. softly 8.
y
e
a
r
ly
4. cost
ly
{
-
ly
2
}
9.
b
e
a
st
ly

5.
d
e
f
t
ly
10. sour
ly
10
E X

E RC

I SE

2: Identify the italicized -ly as either the derivational adverb-
forming suffix {-ly
1
} or the derivational adverb-
forming
suffix
{-ly
2
}. Complete the
t
a
bl
e
.
1. The witness testified

f
a
l
s
e
ly
.
{
-
ly
1
}
2. Gilbert has a dead
ly
w
it
.
3. Prudence always behaves with a maidenly
d
e
m
e
a
no
r.
{
-
ly
2
}

4. He tiptoed softly into the
r
oom
.
5. Jimmy received a week
ly
a
llo
w
a
nc
e
.
6. The dear old lady has a heaven
ly
disposition
.
7. He spoke quietly to her
g
r
a
ndson
.
8. What a timely
sugg
e
stion
!
9. What an unmanner
ly

h
e
lot
!
10. It was a coward
ly
a
ct
.
EX

ERC

ISE

3
: In the blank place a V to identify
the italicized inflectional
verb present participle morpheme
{-ing
1
} and an A
to
identify
the italicized derivational class-changing
adjective-forming morpheme
{-ing
3
}
5

. Complete the
t
a
bl
e
.
1. It was a charm
ing
spot
.
{
-
ing
3
}
2. It was located by a sweetly babbling
b
r
ook
.
{
-
ing
1
}
3. It was excit
ing
to watch the
f
ight

.
4. From the bridge we can watch the runn
ing
w
a
t
e
r.
5. That bark
ing
dog keeps everyone
a
w
a
k
e
.
6. He told a convincing
t
a
l
e
.
7. The shin
ing
sun gilded the forest
f
loo
r.
8. A refresh

ing
shower poured
do
w
n
.
9. The attorney made a mov
ing
a
pp
e
a
l
.
10. What an obliging fellow he is
!
5
Notice the
derivational class-changing noun-forming morpheme
{-ing
2
}
in
teach
ing
, a meet
ing
, dropp
ing
s,

e
tc
.
11
E X

E RC

I SE 4: In the blank place a V to identify the
italicized
inflectional
verb past
participle morpheme
{-D
2
} and an A to identify the
italicized derivational class-changing
adjective-forming
morpheme
{-D
3
}
6
. Complete the
t
a
bl
e
.
1. You should read the printed

st
a
t
e
m
e
nt
.
{
-
D
2
}
2. Mary became a devoted
moth
e
r.
{
-
D
3
}
3. This is a complicat
ed
qu
e
stion
.
4. His chos
en

bride had lived in
I
ndi
a
.
5. He bought a stolen
pictu
r
e
.
6. The invited guests all
c
a
m
e
.
7. He had a reserv
ed
s
e
a
t
.
8. The skipper was a reserv
ed
(= quiet)
m
a
n
.

9. A celebrated painter visited the
c
a
mpus
.
10. A worried look crossed his
f
a
c
e
.
2.4.2
Exercises for
positional
classes
E X

E RC

I SE 5: The nominal word groups are italicized. In the blank, give their
syntactic function
in the sentence. Complete the
t
a
bl
e
.
1. They heard what we
s
a

i
d
.
direct
obj
e
ct
2. What you do is your own
busin
e
ss
.
subj
e
ct
3. That was what I thought
t
oo
.
4. You must do the best with what you ha
ve
.
5. Jack made whoever came there the same
o
ff
e
r.
6. We will name the baby whatever his grandmother
w
i

s
h
e
s
.
7. We thought of paying
c
a
s
h
.
8. I’ll take whichever is the most du
r
ab
l
e
.
9. Betty forgot to bring the
c
o
ff
ee
.
10. George postponed mailing the
l
e
tt
e
r
.

11. I enjoyed the company of my favourite aunt from
Lee
d
s
.
12. Where we are going has not been
d
e
cid
e
d
.
13. We found what we
w
an
t
e
d
.
14. That she is beautiful is evident to
a
ll
.
6
Notice that {-D
1
} is
the
inflectional
verb past

tense
morpheme
.
12
1. I’ll dress while you
s
ha
ve
.
adjunct of
tim
e
2. Our guide split the log with
c
a
r
e
.
3. He might under the circumstances agree the
job
.
4. When the coffee is ready, blow the w
histl
e
.
5. Chewing his tobacco meditatively, Ed
studi
e
d
the blackening

sky
.
6. A hungry trout rose to the
s
u
r
f
a
ce
.
7. By that time the fish were no longer
biting
.
8. To find the camp, just follow the creek
do
w
nst
r
e
a
m
.
adjunct of
pu
r
pos
e
9. From the hilltop you can see the
s
a

w
mill
.
10. Jake hunts to make a
li
v
i
ng
.
11. You must hold the knife this
way.
E X

E RC

I SE 6: The adverbial word groups are italicized. In the blank, give their
syntactic function in the sentence. Complete the
t
a
bl
e
.
E X

E RC

I SE 7: The adjectivals, either individual words or word groups,
a
r
e

italicized. Un

de

rline the words they
modi
f
y
.
1. One person alone heard the
m
e
ss
a
g
e
.
2. Those coeds cheering are only
sophomo
r
e
s
.
3. The surface, shining and smooth, reflected the
sunshin
e
.
4. We started our trip hom
ew
a

r
d
.
5. Her demeanor, excessively prim, annoyed the
gu
e
sts
.
6. The two swans floating were
bl
a
ck
.
7. The conversation afterward was
light
.
8. This will be a day to
r
e
m
e
mb
e
r
.
9. The chap sitting in the cubicle is Mary’s
fr
i
e
nd

.
10. This is not the size I o
r
d
e
r
e
d
.
11. The drugstore on the corner sells
T
im
e
s
.
12. Our guests came on the week when I was hou
s
ec
l
e
an
i
ng
.
13. A girl spoiled by her mother is not a good
r
oomm
a
t
e

.
14. Just choose a time convenient to
y
ou
rs
e
lf
.
15. She was a sight to b
e
ho
l
d
.
16. Have you finished the book I lent
y
ou
?
17. Who is the head of the
c
l
ub
?
13