A study on the validity of the end-term achievement tests on English grade 12, High Schools in Northern Vietnam = Nghiên cứu tính hiệu lực của các bài kiểm tra

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
DEPARTMENT OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES




HOÀNG VĂN SÁU



A STUDY ON THE VALIDITY OF END-TERM ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
ON ENGLISH GRADE 12, HIGH SCHOOLS IN NORTHERN VIETNAM


NGHIÊN CỨU TÍNH HIỆU LỰC CỦA CÁC BÀI KIỂM TRA CUỐI KỲ
MÔN TIẾNG ANH LỚP 12 TẠI MỘT SỐ TRƯỜNG THPT Ở MIỀN BẮC
VIỆT NAM


M.A THESIS


FIELD: METHODOLOGY
CODE: 60 14 10

HA NOI - 2009



VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
DEPARTMENT OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES




HOÀNG VĂN SÁU



A STUDY ON THE VALIDITY OF END-TERM ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
ON ENGLISH GRADE 12, HIGH SCHOOLS IN NORTHERN VIETNAM


NGHIÊN CỨU TÍNH HIỆU LỰC CỦA CÁC BÀI KIỂM TRA CUỐI KỲ
MÔN TIẾNG ANH LỚP 12 TẠI MỘT SỐ TRƯỜNG THPT Ở MIỀN BẮC
VIỆT NAM

M.A THESIS


FIELD: METHODOLOGY
CODE: 60 14 10
SUPERVISOR: DR. HA CAM TAM

HA NOI - 2009
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v
TABLE OF CONTENTS


Page
CANDIDATE’S STATEMENT
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
ABSTRACT
iii
LIST OF TABLES
iv
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
1
1.1. Rationale of the study
1
1.2. Scope of the study
2
1.3. Aims of the study
2

1.4. Research questions
2
1.5. Methods of the study
3
1.6. Organization of the study
3
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
5
2.1. The relationships of language testing with teaching and learning
5
2.2. Objective testing
6
2.3. Achievement tests
7
2.3.1. Definitions
8
2.3.2. Final achievement tests
8
2.4. Test specification
9
2.5. Testing language components
10
2.5.1. Tests of grammar and usage
10
2.5.2. Test of vocabulary
10
2.5.3. Test of phonology
11
2.6. Validity of a test
11

2.6.1. Definitions and types of validity
11
2.6.2. Content validity of a test
12
2.6.3. Construct validity of a test
14
2.7. Objectives and Syllabus contents of English grade 12
15
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2.7.1. Objectives of English grade 12
15
2.7.2. Syllabus contents of English grade 12
16
2.8. Recommended test specification of final achievement tests, English
grade 12
21
2.9. Components’ contents of end-term achievement tests, English grade 12
22
2.9.1. Components’ contents of the 1
st
term achievement tests
22
2.9.2. Components’ contents of the 2
nd
term achievement tests
23
Chapter 3: THE STUDY
24
3.1. Research design

24
3.1.1. Research questions
24
3.1.2. Informants
24
3.1.3. Data description
25
3.2. Analytical framework
25
3.3. Findings and discussion
26
3.3.1. Content validity of test samples’ components
26
3.3.1.1. Content validity of phonetic items
26
3.7.2.2. Content validity of grammar test items
27
3.7.2.3. Content validity of vocabulary items
28
3.3.2. Construct validity of the test samples
28
3.3.2.1. Construct validity of phonetic test items
29
3.3.2.2. Construct validity of grammar test items
30
3.3.2.3. Construct validity of vocabulary test items
32
Chapter 4: CONCLUSION
34
4.1. Conclusion

34
4.2. Implications
34
4.3. Limitations and suggestions for further research
35
REFERENCES
37
APPENDIX
38



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iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1:
Syllabus contents of English grade 12
17
Table 2:
The recommended specification of the end-term achievement tests
21
Table 3:
Components’ contents of 1
st
term achievement tests
22
Table 4:
Components’ contents of 2

nd
term achievement tests
23
Table 5:
Content validity of test samples’ components
26
Table 6:
Construct validity of the test samples
28



















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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale of the study
In several decades recently, English language testing and evaluation has received a
great interest from both educators, researchers worldwide. In Vietnam, for its important
roles in educational field, English testing and evaluation has been focused in universities
and educational institutions through researches, Master of Arts theses, doctoral theses in
methodology, most of which aim to evaluate reliability and validity, the essential and most
important characteristics of a test.
The raising interest towards English testing can be only explained by its importance
to English teaching and English learning. For English teaching, testing evaluation helps
teachers check again the effect of the teaching procedure, from which they could consider
the contents and techniques used in teaching. On the other hand, through testing, students
can adjust the learning process themselves in order to get better study results.
There are a number of previous researches at College of Foreign Languages –
Vietnam national University that carried out on testing in terms of validity of tests. For
instance, Vu, Ba Linh (2006); Nguyen, Thi Mai Phuong (2008); Tran, Thi Hieu Thuy
(2008); Le Thuy Linh (2004); Nguyen, Thi Bich Hong (2008), etc. All of these tests are at
college and university research area. However, we recognized that there is not any study
about validity of tests at high schools. The interested research topics are often about using
language skills, techniques in English teaching and learning. For example, Lam, Thi Thu
Thuy (2008); Đậu, Duy Lịch (2007); Nguyễn Thị Nguyệt (2007), etc. This raises a
question whether or not high school tests have reliability and validity. And if so, how could
they be evaluated?
One important thing when we mention to the testing and evaluation is the subjective
factor of the test-makers. Popularly, the tests are written without considering carefully
among the contents and objectives of the course and the content and construct of the tests.
This leads to the fact that many tasks students have to do in the tests do not exist in the
course contents or the test items are unfamiliar or far too difficult to students. Clearly,
those tests are said to be lack of reliability as well as validity, the most important and
essential measurement qualities of a test. This can be shown significantly through end-term

achievement tests which examine students‟ achievements after a term or a course.
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For the scope of this research, the end-term achievement tests on English grade 12 at
high schools in Northern provinces of Vietnam have been collected and analyzed. Due to
the time limitation and research conditions, the end-of term achievement tests that have
been done and scored by students cannot be collected. That the reason why the reliability
of those tests was not chosen to investigate in this study. Only the validity in terms of
content validity and construct validity were taken into consideration.
From the above reason, the author is encouraged to conduct this study entitled “A
Study on the Validity of End-term Achievement Tests on English Grade 12, High
Schools in Northern Vietnam” with the desire of finding out how valid these tests are.
Furthermore, the writer hopes that the findings of the study can be applied to improve the
current testing in high schools. It is also intended to encourage both teachers and learners
in the teaching and learning process and to be the valuable source of reference for test
designers.
1.2 Scope of the study
Due to the limitation of time and research conditions, the author doesn‟t have the
ambition to cover all the aspects of a good achievement test like reliability, validity,
discrimination, backwash effects etc. This study will mainly focus on the construct
validity and content validity of the end-term achievement tests on English grade 12 at high
schools of some provinces in Northern Vietnam in school years of 2008 - 2009. The study
will give the findings about construct validity and content validity of those achievement
tests and give suggestion to improve those tests as well as suggestions for further studies.
1.3. Aims of the study
The major aims of the study is to evaluate the validity of the end-term achievement
tests on English grade 12 at high schools of some provinces in Northern Vietnam in school
years of 2008-2009 with a special focus on those tests‟ construct validity and content
validity. The specific aims of the study are:
 To study and evaluate the construct validity and content validity of those

end-term achievement tests; and
 To give out the strengths and weaknesses of the tests.

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1.4. Research questions
In order to achieve these goals, the study is carried out to the answer the following
research questions:
1- Do the end-term achievement tests on English grade 12 at high schools in
some Northern Vietnamese provinces possess content validity?
2- Do those tests possess construct validity?
1.5. Methods of the study
This study is a combination of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. First, a
quantitative method was employed on the data collection from 10 end-term achievement
tests on English grade 12 of high schools in some northern provinces of Vietnam. The
number of each language component of a test that possessed the content validity and
construct validity has been counted and changed into percent.
Then from the quantitative statistics, qualitative method was employed to interpret
the data into the meanings of test samples and their components in terms of content
validity and construct validity.
1.6. Organization of the study
The thesis is organized into four major chapters:
Chapter 1 is the introduction that presents such initial information as the rationale,
aims, methods, research questions and the organization of the study.
Chapter 2 reviews all related literature that provides the theoretical basis for
language testing and language evaluation. First, the relationships of language testing with
teaching and learning and objective testing are presented. Then, the achievement tests; test
specification; multiple choice questions and testing language components are discussed
carefully. Next, the most important theoretical part, validity in terms of content validity
and construct validity are deeply taken into consideration. Last parts are spent for

objectives an syllabus design of English grade 12; Recommended test specification of end-
term achievement tests on English grade 12 and components‟ contents of end-term
achievement tests.
Chapter 3 is the main part of the study which shows the research design containing
research questions, data description, informants and analytical framework. Next, data
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analysis of construct validity and content validity is discussed. Finally, the findings about
content validity and construct validity of the test samples are laid out.
Chapter 4 offers the conclusions that make clear the research questions. Some
implications are suggested to improve end - term achievement tests in terms of their
construct validity and content validity. The limitations and directions to further research
are also mentioned in this final chapter.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical background of the research.
Firstly, it discusses about the relationships of language testing with teaching and learning
process. Then, the achievement tests; test specification and testing language components
are discussed carefully. Next, the most important theoretical part, validity in terms of
content validity and construct validity are deeply taken into consideration. Last parts are
spent for objectives and syllabus design of English grade 12; recommended test
specification of end-term achievement tests on English grade 12 and components‟ contents
of end-term achievement tests.
2.1. The relationships of language testing with teaching and learning
Teaching, learning and testing are interrelated closely to each other, that the
existence and changes of this factor may have considerable effects on other factors. Among
these three factors, perhaps language testing itself has the strongest and clearest effects on
teaching and learning process. Heaton (1988:5) had the same idea that “Both testing and
teaching are so closely interrelated that it is virtually impossible to work either field
without being constantly concerned with the other”. Heaton (1988:5) also pointed out the
importance of testing to the learning process as “Tests may be constructed primarily as
devices to reinforce learning and motivate the students or as a mean of assessing the

students’ performance in the language”.
Davies (1996:5) also described the importance of language testing as “Properly
made English tests can help create positive attitudes toward instruction by giving students
a sense of accomplishment and a feeling that the teacher’s evaluation of them matches
what he has taught them. Good English tests also help students learn the language by
acquiring them to study hard, emphasizing course objectives, and showing them where
they need to improve”.
In term of the teaching field, testing help teachers evaluate how learners have
achieved the target language knowledge and language skill. Bachman (1990:55) shared this
point of view when he stated that the fundamental use of testing in an educational program
is to provide information for making decisions, that is, to evaluate. However it is not a
simple thing for teachers to receive exact, reliable and valid testing from different test-
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takers, who have different interests, attitudes, and different background knowledge of the
target language. Many teachers feel disappointed with the test-takers‟ results when they
don‟t satisfy the teachers‟ desires. One of the acceptable solutions is that some easy test
items may be given to encourage weaker students and other more and more difficult items
for better students.
For learners, testing helps them find out their weak points and strong points, from
which they may develop the most suitable learning strategies themselves; testing may
motivate students to maintain their achievements or to gain better ranks in the class.
Nevertheless, testing can bring positive effects to students in case its difficult level is too
high or too low, that makes students lose their interest or get bored with the learning
process. Hughes (1989:1) dealt with the effect of testing on teaching and learning as
backwash that may be beneficial or harmful with more focus on the harmful side of test.
According to him, in case the test content does not meet the objectives of the course, the
harmful backwash then appears and it proves the thinking that teaching and testing do not
have been related to each other. He also presented a lively example, that is, a writing skill
is tested only by multiple choice items in which learners only concentrate on practicing

such items rather than practicing the skill of writing itself.
In summary, testing plays a very important role to teaching and learning and vice
versa. For teachers, a good test can help them evaluate their teaching procedure as well as
their students‟ achievement more effectively and, help to eliminate the harmful backwash
that the test may have.
2.2. Objective testing
There are many types of language tests. Hughes (1989:9) classified them according
to their testing purposes, namely, proficiency tests, achievement tests, diagnostic tests and
placement tests. Besides, on the basis of manner in which tests are scored, they are divided
into objective and subjective testing.
Of all testing types, objective tests are chosen to discuss about. The reason of which
is, in the recent years, most of English written tests at high schools in Northern Vietnam
have been designed basing on this testing approach. And the end-term English
achievement tests, grade 12, school year 2008-2009 are not the exception.
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According to Davies et al., (1999:132), objective test is a test in which all the items
are objectively scored. In an objective test, correct responses are clearly specified, and
markers are not required to make judgments.
Heaton (1998:26) stated that objective tests are frequently criticized on the grounds
that they are simpler to answer than subjective tests. However, items in an objective test
can be made just as easy or difficult as the test designer wishes. Heaton (1998:26) noticed
that some scholars criticized objective tests of the multiple-choice for their guessing
encouragement. Nevertheless, Heaton pointed out that four or five alternatives for each
item are sufficient to reduce the possibility of guessing. He added that test-takers hardly
make wild guesses; most base their guesses on partial knowledge.
Personally speaking, objective testing is one of effective ways of evaluating the
study results in English. It not only tests the communicative skills but checks the language
knowledge. In an objective test there is the larger number of grammar, vocabulary and
phonology that can generally be included than those in a subjective test. What is more,

objective tests can be scored mechanically since they often have only one correct answer.
It is the fact that objective tests can be marked by computer that is one important reason for
testing large numbers of test-takers.
For test-makers, however, mastering the types of objective tests and designing them
is rather difficult requirement. In order to design a good objective test, the test-takers have
to grasp testing techniques and prepare a plentiful testing bank.
In objective testing, multiple-choice questions are among the most popular types of
technique to be used. It then follows by other types of techniques, such as matching items,
supply items, true/false questions, etc.
In short, a good classroom test should contain equally both subjective items and
objective items to enhance its validity and reliability as well as to ensure its language
knowledge and its language skills.
2.3. Achievement tests
There are four main types of tests, namely, achievement tests, proficiency tests,
aptitude tests, and diagnostic tests. In this study, due to the scope of the research is to
evaluate the end-term achievement tests, English grade 12, only the first test type in term
of achievement test will be discussed.
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2.3.1. Definitions
Achievement tests, which are very popularly used in secondary schools and high
schools, are very important tool to help evaluating students nowadays. There are a number
of ways in which achievement tests are defined, among the most remarkable of which are:
According to Davies et al, (1999:2): “An achievement test is an instrument designed
to measure what person has learned within or up to a given time. It is based on a clear and
public indication of the instruction that has been given. The content of the achievement
tests is a sample of what has been in the syllabus during the time under scrutiny and as
such they have been called parasitic on the syllabus”.
Hughes (1989:10) claimed that “Achievement tests are directly related to language
courses with the purpose of establishing how successful individual students, group of

students, or the courses themselves have been in achieving objective”
It then follows by McNamara (2000:06) that “Achievement tests accumulate
evidence during, or at the end of a course of study in order to see whether and where
progress has been made in terms of the goals of learning. Achievement tests should
support the teaching to which they relate.”
Heaton (1998:172) agreed with the above attitudes and he claimed that these tests
are based on what the students are presumed to have learnt - not necessarily on what they
have actually learnt nor on what have actually been taught.
To sum up, a good achievement test should cover the specific learning and teaching
contents that have been previously used.
2.3.2. Final achievement tests
Hughes (1989:10) claims that final achievement tests are those administered at the
end of a course of study. They may be issued by ministries of education, official examining
boards, or by members of teaching institutions. Clearly the content of these tests must be
related to the courses which they are concerned, but the nature of this relationship is a
matter of disagreement among some language testers.
It is approved by some testing experts that the content of a final achievement test
should be based directly on a detailed course syllabus or on the books and other materials
used. This has been referred to as the syllabus-content approach. And since the test only
contains what it is thought that the students have actually encountered, and thus can be
considered as a fair test. However, the disadvantage of this type is that if the syllabus is
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badly designed, or the books and other materials are badly chosen, then the results of tests
can be very misleading. It leads to the fact that successful performance on the test may not
truly reflect the achievement of course objectives.
The second approach is to design the test content directly on the objectives of the
course, which has a number of advantages. Firstly it forces course designers to elicit course
objectives. Secondly, student can show how far they have achieved those objectives. Tests
based on course objectives work against the perpetuation of poor teaching practice, a kind

of course-content-based test, almost as if part of a conspiracy fail to do. The test content
based on course objectives is believed to be more preferable and is said to provide more
accurate information about individual and group achievement, and seem to promote a more
beneficial backwash effect on teaching. Hughes (1995:11) approved of the later approach
by arguing that it will provide more accurate information about individual and group
achievement, and it is likely to promote a more beneficial backwash effect on teaching.
2.4. Test specification
It is no doubt that test specifications play an important and essential part in test
construction and evaluation.
Alderson, Clapham and Wall (1995:9) claim that test specifications provide the
official statement about what the test tests and how the test tests it. These scholars
demonstrate that the specifications are the blueprint to be followed by test and item writer,
and they are also essential in the establishment of the test‟s construct validity.
Furthermore, Alderson, Clapham and Wall (1995:10) add that test specifications are
not only needed by just an individual but a range of people. They are needed by (i) Test
constructors to produce the test; (ii) Those responsible for editing and moderating the test;
(iii) Those responsible for or interested in establishing test‟s validity; and (iv) Admission
officers to make a decision on the basis of test scores.
It is then followed by the view of McNamara (2000:31) that test specifications are a
recipe or blueprint for test construction and they will include information on such matters
as the length and the structure of each part of the test, the type of materials with which
candidates will have to engage, the source of such materials if authentic, the extent to
which authentic materials may be altered, the response format, the test rubric, and how
responses are to be scored.
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Personally, the users of test specifications may have different needs, so writers of
specifications should remember that what is suitable for some audience may be quite
unsuitable for the others.
2.5. Testing language components

Heaton (1998:9) and many other linguists isolated the language components as three
sections on grammar and usage; vocabulary (concerned with word meanings, word
formation and collocations); and phonology (concern with phonemes, stress and
intonation)
2.5.1. Tests of grammar and usage
According to Heaton (1998:9), “these tests measure students‟ ability to recognize
appropriate grammatical forms and to manipulate structures.”
While discussing about the role of grammar testing, Hughes (2003:172) explained
that there was the time when control of grammatical structures was seen as the very core of
language ability and it would have unthinkable not to test it. However, times have changed
with a shift towards the view that since the language skills that are usually of interest, then
it is these skills which should be tested directly, not the abilities that seem to underlie them.
Hughes (2003:173) emphasized that “…it has to be accepted that grammatical
ability, or rather the lack of it, sets limits to what can be achieved in the way of skills
performance. The successful writing of academic assignments, for example, must depend
to some extent on command of more than the most elementary grammatical structures.”
In a grammar test, there commonly have the following items: multiple-choice items,
error-recognition items, rearrangement items, completion items, transformation items,
items involving the changing of words, broken sentence items, pairing and matching items,
combination items, and addition items.
2.5.2. Test of vocabulary
It is obvious that vocabulary is the most essential and important part of any language
and with any other language components and language skills as phonetics and phonology,
grammar, reading, speaking, writing and listening. Heaton (1998:9) stated that “A test of
vocabulary measures students‟ knowledge of the meaning of certain words as well as the
patterns and collocations in which they occur. Such a test may test their active vocabulary
(the words they should be able to use in speaking and in writing) or their passive
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vocabulary (the words they should be able to recognize and understand when they are

listening to someone or when they are reading”.
Vocabulary tests often use some items, namely, multiple-choice, associated words,
gap-fill, matching items, word formation, items involving synonyms, rearrangement items,
and completion items.
2.5.3. Test of phonology
Heaton (1998:9) claimed that test items design to test phonology might attempt to
assess the following sub-skills: ability to recognize and pronounce the significant sound
contrasts of a language, ability to recognize and use the stress patterns of a language, and
ability to hear and produce the melody or patterns of the tunes of a language (i.e. the rise
and fall of the voice).
There are often several items in a phonology test, namely, multiple-choice, syllable
stress, word stress, sentence stress, ordering task and note-taking.
2.6. Validity of a test
There are a number of qualities of a good test, namely, reliability, validity,
practicality, interactiveness, impact, or authenticity, etc. The author noticed that the most
important consideration in designing and evaluating a language test is its usefulness, which
is strongly denoted by its validity. In this part, definitions and two subtypes of validity in
terms of construct validity and content validity will be investigated.
2.6.1. Definitions and types of validity
According to Davies et al., (1999:221): “Validity is the quality which most affects
the value of a test, prior to, though dependent on, reliability. A measure is valid if it does
what it is intended to do, which is typically to act as an indicator of an abstract concept
(for example height, weight, time, etc.) which it claims to measure. The validity of a
language test therefore is established by the extent to which is succeeds in providing an
accurate concrete representation of an abstract concept (for example proficiency,
achievement, aptitude).”
Two famous scholars, Heaton and Hughes shared the same idea about validity.
Heaton (1988:159) provide a very concise notion of validity as “the validity of a test is the
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extent to which it measures what it is supposed to measure” while Hughes (1989:22) stated
that “a test is said to be valid if measures accurately what it is intended to measure”
A test is said to be valid if it measures what it is intended to measure. In other words,
the test may be valid for some purposes but not for others. For instance, if the test is
designed to test ability of comprehensive reading, then it is valid if it contains reading test
items like multiple choice, matching, C-tests, etc. But if the test is structured with
questions of grammar, it then cannot be considered valid.
Validity is classified into such subtypes as: construct validity, content validity, face
validity, criterion-related validity. Among them, the two subtypes of validity in terms of
construct validity and content validity will be discussed in the next two parts.
2.6.2. Content validity of a test
According to Harrison (1983:11): “Content validity is concerned with what goes into
the test. The content of a test should be decided by considering the purpose of the
assessment, and then drawing up a list known as a content specification”.
Henning (1987:94) claimed that content validity is concerned with “whether or not
the content of the test is sufficiently representative and comprehensive for the test to be a
valid measure of what is supposed to measure”. For him, there is not always an exhaustive
test but it must be selected in content.
It then follows by Shohamy‟s idea (1985:74) that “A test is described to have
content validity if it can show the test-takers’ already-learnt knowledge. People normally
compare the test content to the table of specification. Content validity is said to be the most
important validity for classroom tests”
Content validity is the first form of evidence that relates to the content of the test.
The test would have content validity only if it included a proper sample of relevant
structures which will depend upon the purpose of the test. For example, an achievement
test for intermediate learners should not contain just the same set of structures as one for
advanced learners. To ensure about the content validity of a test, a specification of the
skills or structure is needed, that it is meant to cover. Such specification should be made at
a very early stage in test construction. (Hughes, 2003:26)
Hughes (2003:26) suggested that not everything in the specification will always be

expected to appear in the test because too many things for all of them to be in a single test.
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However, he claimed that this specification will give the basis for testers when making a
principled selection of elements for inclusion in the test.
This is a non-statistical type of validity that involves “the systematic examination of
the test content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behaviour
domain to be measured” (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997 p. 114). A test has content validity built
into it by careful selection of which items to include (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). Items are
chosen so that they comply with the test specification which is drawn up through a
thorough examination of the subject domain.
Sharing attitudes with the above researchers, Heaton (1998:160) stated that “This
kind of validity depend on a careful analysis of the language being tested and of the
particular course objectives. The test should be so constructed as to contain a
representative sample of the course, the relationship between the test items and the course
objectives always being apparent”. He also pointed out that when constructing a test, the
tester should first draw up a table of test specifications, describing in very clear and precise
terms the particular language skills and areas to be included in the test. Heaton (1998:160)
took an example in which the test or sub-test being constructed is a test of grammar, then
each of the grammatical areas should then be given a percentage weighting, for instance,
the future simple 10 percent, uncountable nouns 15 percent, relative pronouns 10 percent,
etc.
In other words, this approach measures the degree to which the test items represent
the domain or universe of the trait or property being measured. In order to establish the
content validity of a measuring instrument, the researcher must identify the overall content
to be represented. Items must then be randomly chosen from this content that will
accurately represent the information in all areas. By using this method the researcher
should obtain a group of items which is representative of the content of the trait or property
to be measured.
To conclude, content validity in a certain extent, is more specific than construct

validity, and identifying the universe of content is not an easy task. It is, therefore, usually
suggested that a panel of experts in the field to be studied be used to identify a content
area. For example, in the case of researching the knowledge of teachers about a new
curriculum, a group of curriculum and teacher education experts might be asked to identify
the content of the test to be developed.
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2.6.3. Construct validity of a test
Davies et al (1999:33) defined construct validity of a test as follows: “the construct
validity of a language test is an indication of how representative it is of an underlying
theory of language learning. Construct validation involves an investigation of the qualities
that a test measures, thus providing a basis for the rationale of a test”
These above authors also suggested that there are two aspects of construct
validation: theoretical and empirical, both of which are concerned with the production of
evidence of arguments to support the inferences that are made about candidates on the
basis of their test performance. Construct validity is traditionally examined by determining
the relationship between the empirical (patterns of scores on the test) and the theoretical
(proposed explanatory concepts), so, for example factor analysis may be undertaken to
identify the number of factors (or constructs) in the test data and their relationship with one
another.
It seems that construct validity is the most difficult concept and is considered to be a
superordinate form which is contributed by internal and external validity. Henning
(1987:98) argued that “While construct validity is empirical in nature because it involves
the gathering of data and the testing of hypotheses, unlike concurrent and predictive
validity, it does not have any one particular validity coefficient associated with it”. He
added that the purpose of validating construct is to make sure that the underlying
theoretical constructs being measured are themselves valid. According to him, construct
validation usually begins with a psychological construct that is part of a formal theory,
which enables certain predictions about how the construct variable will behave or be
influenced under specified conditions, under which the construct is then tested.

In his concept, Hughes (1995:26) stated that “A test, part of a test, or a testing
technique is said to have construct validity if it can be demonstrated that it measures just
the ability which is supposed to measure”. He believed that the word “construct” is
denoted to any underlying ability (or trait) which is hypothesized in a theory of language
ability. Hughes also gave an example that the ability to read involves a number of sub-
abilities, such as the ability to guess the meaning of unknown words from the context in
which they are met.
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As suggested by Alderson, Clapham & Wall (2000, pp.183-185) one way of
assessing the construct validity of a test is to correlate its various test components with
each other. On the other hand, they agreed that in a well-designed test, the correlations
between each subtest and the whole test can be expected to be higher, since the overall
score is taken to be a more general measure of language ability than each individual
component score.
To sum up, construct validity of a test can be evaluated by examining the testing
techniques which are used in this test to consider whether those techniques can be able to
measure the testees‟ ability of understanding and using language components, such as
phonetics, structures and vocabulary, etc.
2.7. Objectives and Syllabus contents of English grade 12
2.7.1. Objectives of English grade 12
English textbook grade 12, that is “Tiếng Anh 12” is a follow-up of the English
textbook grade 10 and grade 11 which are theme-based and topic-based composed. English
textbook grade 12 has been officially applied in high schools from the school year 2008-
2009. The thematic and topical system is the basis for the shaping and developing the
language competence. The language components like phonetics, vocabulary and grammar,
etc. are introduced to shape and develop the students‟ language competence. For teachers,
this design model helps them actively carry out communicative activities according to
themes in order to form and develop the communicative skills and suitable language
knowledge which meets the students‟ needs, their tastes, and their different proficiency

levels.
According to BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO (2006:25), The English textbook
grade 12 aims at providing students the language knowledge, especially the basic, modern
and systematic English language, which is the background for shaping appropriate
communicative skills to students‟ ages. At the end of this grade, students are able to use
learnt English knowledge to practice the four skills:
- Listening: students are able to (i) listen comprehensively main contents as
well as detailed contents of about 180 to 200-word monologues/ dialogues
in the learnt domain contents of the textbook; (ii) understand the text at the
normal reading/ speaking speed.
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16
- Speaking: students are able to (i) ask, answer, and speak to topic-related
contents in the textbook; (ii) carry out basic communicative functions, such
as showing personal attitudes, talking about demands and hobbies,
explaining reasons, etc.
- Reading: students are able to (i) read comprehensively main contents as
well as detailed contents of about 180 to 200-word texts/passages in the
learnt domain contents of the textbook; (ii)distinguish the main ideas and
supplement ones; and (iii) use main ideas to summarize the texts/passages.
- Writing: students are able to write 130 to 150-word text basing on samples
and/or suggestions that is about topic-related contents to serve the simple
personal communicative demands and social relations.
2.7.2. Syllabus contents of English grade 12
There are six main themes, sixteenth units and six revision units in English textbook
grade 12. Each unit is equivalent to a specific topic. Each theme, which involves some
topics, requires a certain communicative competences. At the end of each unit, a part of
language focus will summarize the pronunciation and the grammar points of that unit.
According to BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO (2006:62) and Hoang, Van Van et al.,
(2008:10), the syllabus design of the English textbook grade 12 is specified as follows:

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Themes/Topics
Attainment targets
Language focus
1. YOU AND ME
- Home life
- Cultural diversity
- Ways of
socializing

Speaking: Students will be able to
- Talk about home life, lifestyles;
household responsibilities and chores
- Talk about cultural diversity such as
etiquettes, ways of socializing, giving
complements, etc.

- Understand different points of view.
- Ask for and give information
Listening: Students will be able to:
Listen to a monologue/ dialogue of 180-
200 words for general of specific
information
Reading: Students will be able to
Reading a passage of 280-320 words for
general or specific information
Writing: Students will be able to
- Write an informal letter of 130-150
words about college life using suggested
word cues or idea prompts
- Write about family rules of 130-150
words using suggested word cues or idea
prompts
- Write about a typical product of a
culture of 130-150 words using
suggested word cues or idea prompts
Pronunciation:
- The pronunciation of the ending „s‟ and
„ed‟
- Stress in two-syllable words
Grammar:
- Tenses: past simple, past progressive,
past perfect, present simple, present
progressive, present perfect, present
perfect progressive
- Reported speech: statements, questions
Vocabulary:

- Words to talk about home life: family,
family relationship, daily routine, leisure
activities
- Words to talk about cultural diversity:
attitudes toward love and marriage,
wedding ceremony, typical features of a
culture
- Words to express ways of socializing:
how to communicate in different
cultures, how to use the telephone, how
to apologize and express regret
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2. EDUCATION
- School education
system
- Higher education
- Future jobs

Speaking: Students will be able to
- Talk about school education system
- Talk about the application process to a
tertiary institution in Viet Nam
- Express opinions on a part-time/future
job
- Talk about job application
Listening: Students will be able to:
Listen to a monologue/ dialogue within
200-250 words for general or specific
information

Reading: Students will be able to
Read a passage within 250-300 words
for general or detailed information
Read a passage within 250-300 words
and scan for specific information
Writing: Students will be able to
- Write a formal letter of request
- Write about school education system
based on word cues or idea prompts
Pronunciation:
- Stress in three-syllable words
- Stress in more than three-syllable
words
- Weak/strong forms of some
conjunction & prepositions
Grammar:
- Passive voice
- Conditional sentences
- Relative clauses
Vocabulary:
- Words to talk about education system
from primary to higher education: levels
of education, subjects, ways of learning,
types of school, examinations
- Words to talk about tertiary application
procedure: filling in an application form,
requirements for university entrance,
types of higher education, certificates
- Words to talk about types of jobs, job
interview and job application

3. COMMUNITY
- Economic
reforms
- Life in the future

Speaking: Students will be able to
- Talk about economic changes
- Talk about life in the future
Listening: Students will be able to:
Listen to a monologue/ dialogue within
200-250 words for general or specific
information
Reading: Students will be able to
Read a passage within 250-300 words
for general or detailed information
Read a passage within 250-300 words
and scan for specific information
Writing: Students will be able to
- Write a report based on given
information
- Write about life in the future word cues
or idea prompts
Pronunciation:
- Strong & weak forms of auxiliaries
- Contracted forms of auxiliaries
(continued)
Grammar:
- Preposition of time, places
- Articles (definite and indefinite)
- Adverbial clauses of concession

Vocabulary:
- Words to talk about economic reforms:
policies, changes, renovations, measures,
effects
- Words to describe statistics in
education, health care, industry,
agriculture
- Words to predict about life in the
futures: living conditions, technology,
means of transportation, life expectancy
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4. NATURE AND
ENVIRONMENT
- Deserts
- Endangered
species

Speaking: Students will be able to
- Talk about natural features of deserts
and desert life
- Explain reasons (why some kinds of
trees and animals can exist in deserts)
- Talk about endangered animals and
how to protect and save endangered
species
Listening: Students will be able to:
Listen to a monologue/ dialogue within
200-250 words for general or specific
information

Reading: Students will be able to
Read a passage within 250-300 words
for general or detailed information
Read a passage within 250-300 words
and scan for specific information
Writing: Students will be able to
- Write a description of the main features
of a desert
- Write about measures to protect
endangered species and possible results
based on word cues or a guideline
Pronunciation:
- Full and contracted forms of auxiliaries
- Rhythm
Grammar:
- Modal verbs: may, might, must,
mustn‟t, needn‟t
- So, but, however, therefore
Vocabulary:
- Words to talk about deserts: typical
features, how they are formed, how
animals and plants live
- Words to talk about endangered
species: types, living conditions,
conservation, disappearance, extinction,
measures to save endangered species
from extinction
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5.

RECREATION
- Books
- Water sports
- The 22
nd
SEA
GAMES
Speaking: Students will be able to
- Express opinions preferences
- Talk about a book
- Talk about kinds of water sports and
how some types of water sports are
played
- Talk about sport events and results of
SEA Games
- Talk about reading habits
Listening: Students will be able to:
Listen to a monologue/ dialogue within
200-250 words for general or detailed
information
Reading: Students will be able to
Read a passage within 250-300 words
for general or detailed information
Read a passage within 250-300 words
and scan for specific information
Writing: Students will be able to
- Write a book report
- Write about a description of a game or
sport using word cues or idea prompts
Pronunciation:

- Rhythm
- Elision
- Linking
Grammar:
- Modals in passive voice
- transitive and intransitive verbs
- Comparative + and + comparative
- The comparative + the + comparative
Vocabulary:
- Words to talk about books: kinds of
books, characters, writers, reading habits
- Words to talk about water sports: types
and history of water sport, and how they
are developed and played
- Words to talk about how SEA Games
are prepared
6. PEOPLES &
PLACES
- International
organizations
- Women in
society
- Associations of
South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN)
Speaking: Students will be able to
- Talk about international organizations
and their activities
- Talk about the roles of women in
society

- Express agreement and disagreement
Listening: Students will be able to:
Listen to a monologue/ dialogue within
200-250 words for general or detailed
information
Reading: Students will be able to
Read a passage within 250-300 words
for general or detailed information, scan
for specific information
Writing: Students will be able to
- Describe information from a chart
- Write a letter of recommendation
within 130-150 words using word cues
or idea prompts
Pronunciation:
- The falling tune
- The rising tune
- The rising-falling tune
Grammar:
- Phrasal verbs: 2-or-3 word verbs
- Adverbial clause of time: when, while,
as soon as, since, before, after
Vocabulary:
- Words to talk about international
organizations: types, aims, functions,
activities
- Words to describe women‟s roles at
home an in the society
Table 1. Syllabus design of English grade 12