Demotivation in learning English of the students of Ly Thai To High School in Bac Ninh = Sự mất hứng thú học tiếng Anh của học sinh trường THPT Lý Thái Tổ, Bắc 20150227

iii
ABSTRACTS

This study was aimed at investigating de-motivating factors in learning English
of the students at Ly Thai To High School in Bac Ninh, the degree of influence of
different de-motives on them and their experiences in overcoming de-motivation in
learning English. The sample of study consisted of 100 students at Ly Thai To High
School in Bac Ninh and the instrument of the study was a questionnaire on finding
their foreign language learning experiences. These findings indicated that their de-
motivation in learning English was a significant issue for EFL learning, and a
framework for discussing the different sources of de-motives was developed. While
some categories of de-motives occurred more frequent than others, no category
appeared to be more or less difficult to overcome. Rather these, students’ awareness of
the role of English language and their determination to succeed were critical factors in
overcoming their de-motivation in learning English.














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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certification of originality of project report
i
Acknowledgements
ii
Abstract
iii
Table of contents
iv
List of abbreviations
vi
List of tables

vii
Part A: Introduction
1. Rationale
2. Aims of the study
3. Research questions
4. Scope of the study
5. Methodology

1
1
2
3
3
3
Part B: Development
4

Chapter 1: Literature review
1.1. Second language acquisition
1.1.1. What is “second language acquisition?”
1.1.2. What are the goals of SLA?
1.2. Theoretical background of motivation
1.2.1. Conceptions of motivation
1.2.2. Motivation in foreign language learning
1.3. Theoretical background of de-motivation
1.3.1. Conceptions of de-motivation
4
4
4
5
6
6
7
12
12

v
1.3.2. De-motivating factors affecting students’ motivation in learning
foreign languages
1.3.2.1. Factors related to students
1.3.2.2. Factors related to environment
1.3.2.3. Factors related to teachers
1.3.2.4. Teaching and learning conditions
1.4. Study of de-motivation
1.5. Summary
13
13

15
16
18
19
24
24
Chapter 2: Research methodology
2.1. Research questions
2.2. Subjects
2.3 Method for data collection
24
24
25
26
Chapter 3: Results and discussion
3.1. Results
3.1.1. Results of research question 1
3.1.2. Results of research question 2
3.1.3. Results of research question 3
3.2. Discussion

26
26
27
29
30
33
Part C: Conclusion and implications for teaching
1. Conclusion
2. Implications for teaching

3. Limitations and further study

37
37
37
39
References

40
Appendix
I

vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SLA: Second Language Acquisition
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
FL: Foreign Language
L1: First Language
L2: Second Language
NNS: Non-Native Speaking

vii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Dornyei’s (1994) framework of L2 motivation (Adapted from Dornyei, 2001)
Table 2: William and Burden’s (1997) framework of L2 motivation
Table 3: External de-motivating factors
Table 4: Internal de-motivating factors
Table 5: Internal reasons for overcoming de-motivation
Table 6: External reasons for overcoming de-motivation


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PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale.
There is a long history of the study of motivation in language learning. Research
results indicate that motivation is one of the main factors determining an individual’s
success in learning a second (L2) or foreign language (FL) (Dornyei, 1990, 2001a,
2001b). Research has also shown that motivation is crucial for L2 learning (Dornyei,
1994) because it directly influences how many efforts students make, how often

students use L2 learning strategies, how much students interact with native speakers,
how much input they receive in the language being learned, how well they do
curriculum-related achievement tests, how high their general proficiency level
becomes, and how long they preserve and maintain L2 skills after language study is
over (Ely, 1986a, 1986b). However, as important as motivation is, it is clearly not the
only factor related to L2 and FL learning. This has become particularly apparent in a
world where intercultural communication and foreign language learning have become
an increasingly necessity for many people.
As English has become more and more important as an international language in
most countries around the world, large numbers of students are being required to learn
it through compulsory programs at schools and universities. Yet, despite its apparent
utility as a lingua franca or a world language (Brutt-Grifler, 2002), and the fact that
students must pass final examinations, many students have failed to learn it
successfully. This situation also applies to the students in the countries where learning
foreign languages is compulsory, but where the drop out rates in courses, once
compulsion ends, are very large, in some cases being so significant that the viability of
teaching some of these languages is undermined. In the countries like the United States
and Australia (Hornberger, 2005), students literally drop out of foreign language study,
while in the countries like China, Japan and Vietnam students either mentally withdraw
or look for strategies to pass the required exams with a minimum of effort. Are these


2
examples of resistance to language learning (Canagarajah, 1999), a lack of motivation,
or might some other factors be involved, particularly as a part of language teaching and
learning process? Based on our own experience, we supposed that de-motivation is the
factor that accounts for some of these problems, but it has not been adequately
investigated. Thus, this study is the first step in defining and testing the impact of this
construct in a specific context. As a starting point for investigating this question, and as
a way of trying to define what this concept might consist of, we have chosen to do an

intensive grounded theory study in a controlled situation in Vietnam.
Despite the current extrinsic pressures to learn English as a foreign language in
Vietnam, many students don’t seem to have interest in learning English, or in other
words, they are quite de-motivated. In both cases, their achievement in English as a
foreign language has been negatively affected. While those without any interest in
English might possibly be motivated to improve by applying conventional and
available language teaching solutions, including motivational techniques (see, e.g.,
Ho,1998), the problem faced by the latter group is more complicated as it requires that
a critical look be taken at the underlying causes of de-motivation to ensure they are
properly understood so that effective solutions to the problem can be devised.
I have been a teacher of English at Ly Thai To High School in Bac Ninh for
fifteen years. Ly Thai To is not a gifted school, however the quality of teaching and
learning is quite high in comparison with other schools in this area. English is a
compulsory subject and there are three English periods per week, I am very sad to
realize that most of the students in grade 10 are interested in learning English, but their
interest is gradually reduced in grade 11, and they are almost not motivated in learning
English any more when they are in grade 12. Why this happens? What factors make
them de-motivated? This is the reason why I decided to choose this title of the study:
”De-motivation in learning English of the students of Ly Thai To High School in Bac
Ninh”.


3
2. Aims of the study.
The study aims at:
* Investigating the factors that cause a negative impact on learning English of the
students at Ly Thai To High School in Bac Ninh based on the study of 100 students
of grade 12.
* Giving suggestions and recommendations to teachers at Ly Thai To school.

3. Research questions.
Question 1: What are the external factors that cause a negative impact on students’
motivation to learn English?
Question 2: What are the internal factors that cause a negative impact on students’
motivation to learn English?
Question 3: What solutions can help students to overcome their de-motivation?

4. Scope of the study.
In terms of scope of the study, I investigated 100 students in grade 12 about the
factors which de-motivated them to learn English and solutions that can help them to
overcome their de-motivation (by asking them to answer the questionnaire).

5. Methodology.
The method applied in this study is both quantitative and qualitative. The data
which this study drew on come from questionnaire (closed-items and open-items) of
100 students who are in grade 12 at Ly Thai To High School in Bac Ninh.



4
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is concerned with the definitions of second language acquisition,
theoretical background of motivation, de-motivation, de-motivating factors affecting
motivation in learning foreign language and some previous studies of de-motivation.

1.1 Second language acquisition:
1.1.1 What is “second language acquisition”?
“Language acquisition is one of the most impressive and fascinating aspects of

human development” (Lightbrown, P.M & Spada, N. 1999). Up to now, there have
been many definitions of language acquisition. This term is most often used
interchangeable with language learning. In their study, they show that according to
Krashen, S. (1982), acquisition represents “unconscious” learning, which takes place
when attention is focused on meaning rather than language form.
In website on
February 28th, 2008, second language acquisition is the process by which people learn
a second language in addition to their native language. The term “second language” is
used to describe the acquisition of any language after the acquisition of the mother
tongue. There is also research into the similarities and differences of third language
acquisition.
The term “language acquisition” becomes more commonly used after Krashen,
S. (1982) contrasted it with formal and non-constructive “learning”. However, second
language acquisition has become established as the preferred term for this academic
discipline.
Through second language acquisition is often viewed as part of applied
linguistics, it is typically concerned with the language system and learning process


5
themselves, whereas applied linguistic may focus more on the experiences of the
learners, particularly those in the classroom. Additionally, second language acquisition
has mostly examined naturalistic acquisition, where learners acquire a language with
little formal training or teaching
1.1.2 What are the goals of SLA?
According to Rod Ellis (1997, p.4), there are two goals of SLA: description of
L2 acquisition and explanation; identifying the external and internal factors that
account for why learners acquire an L2 in the way they do.
One of the external factors is the social milieu in which learning takes place.
Social conditions influence the opportunities that learners have to hear and speak the

language and the attitudes that they develop towards it. For example, it is one thing to
learn a language when you respect and are respected by native speakers of that
language. It is entirely different when you experience hostility from native speakers or
when you wish to distance yourself from them.
Another external factor is the input that learners receive, that is, the samples of
language to which a learner is exposed. Language learning cannot occur without some
input. A question of considerable interest is what type of input facilitates learning. For
example, do learners benefit more from input that has been simplified for them or from
the authentic language of native-speaker communication?
L2 acquisition can be explained in part of these external factors but we also
need to consider internal factors. Learners possess cognitive mechanisms which enable
them to extract information about the L2 from the input to notice, for example, that
plurality in English is conveyed by adding an –s to a noun or that the relative pronouns
“who” and “which” substitute respectively for human and non-human nouns.
L2 learners bring an enormous amount of knowledge to the task of learning an
L2. For a start, they have already learned a language (their mother tongue) and we can
expect them to draw on this when they learn an L2. They also possess general


6
knowledge about the world which they can draw on to help them understand L2 input.
Finally, learners possess communication strategies that can help them to make effective
use of their L2 knowledge. For example, even if they have not learned the word “art
gallery” they may be able to communicate the idea of it by inventing their own term
(for example, “picture place”).
A final set of internal factors explain why learners vary in the rate they learn an
L2 and how successful they ultimately are. For example, it has been suggested that
people vary in their language aptitude (i.e. their natural disposition for learning an L2),
some finding it easier than others.
The goals of SLA, then, are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to

explain this process and why some learners seem to be better at it than others.

1.2 Theoretical background of motivation
1.2.1 Conceptions of motivation
Many researches have been undertaken and there is much in the research
literature regarding the definition of motivation. All the motivation theories in general
want to explain the fundamental question of why humans behave as they do, and
therefore we cannot assume any simple and straightforward answer.
Motivation is described as the impetus to create and sustain intentions and goal
seeking acts (Ames & Ames, 1989).
Burden, (1997:119) assumed that “from a cognitive perspective, motivation is
concerned with such issues as why people decide to act in certain ways and what
factors influence the choice they make. It also involves decisions as to the amount of
effect people are prepared to expand in attempting to achieve their goals. The role of
the teacher thus becomes one of helping and enabling learners to make suitable
decisions”.


7
Dornyei (2001:613) defined motivation as “a general ways of referring to the
antecedents (i.e. the causes and the origins”. He also stated that “motivation explains
why people decide to do something, how hard they are going to pursue it and how long
they are willing to sustain the activities” (2001:7). The author mentioned two
dimensions of human behavior: direction and magnitude (intensity) which motivation
concerns.
Motivation is “the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and
sustained” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002).
From the above, it can be deduced that motivation is a psychological trait which leads
people to achieve a goal. Motivation is what drives you to “behave” in a certain way or
to take a particular action. Simply, it can be understood that motivation is your

“WHY”.
1.2.2 Motivation in foreign language learning
In recent years, motivation has become a familiar term in second language
learning. Motivation in foreign language learning has been defined in different ways.
According to Dornyei, 1988, motivation refers to the efforts learners make to
learn a foreign language. Motivation is one of the keys that influence the rate and
success of language learning.
Park (2002:2) believes that motivation is shaped as “… sets of belief about
language learning, the target culture, their culture, the teacher, the learning tasks, etc.”
Holt (2001:1), referring to Cookes and Schmidt (1991), defines motivation as
“… the learner’s orientation with regard to the goal of learning a second language”.
Motivation in this context can be understood as one relating to attitude and vice
versa with both having an influence on learning and acquisition. Gardner (1985) as
cited in Dornyei, (2001), assumed that motivation involved desire to learn a language,
intensity of effort to achieve this, and attitudes toward learning the language.


8
According to the framework by Dornyei (1994), motivation consists of 3 main
levels which are language level, learner level and learning situation level.
Language level refers to integrative motivational subsystem and instrumental
motivational subsystem.
Learner level depends on need for achievement, self-confidence which is
language use anxiety, perceived L2 competence, casual attributions and self-efficacy.
Learning situation level refers to course specific motivational components, teacher
specific motivational components and group specific motivational components.
Below is Dornyei’s (1994) framework of L2 motivation.

Table 1: Dornyei’s (1994) framework of L2 motivation (Adapted from Dornyei, 2001)

Language level
Integrative motivational subsystem
Instrumental motivational subsystem
Learner level
Need for achievement
Self-confidence
+ Language use anxiety
+ Perceived L2 competence
+ Casual attributions
+ self-efficacy
Learning situation level
Course specific motivational components

Interest (in the course)
Relevant (of the course to one’s needs)
Expectancy (of success)
Satisfaction (one has in the outcome)
Teacher specific motivational components
Affinitive motive
Authority type


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Direct socialization of student motivation
+ Modeling
+ Task presentation
+ Feedback
Group specific motivational components
Goal-orientedness
Norm and reward system

Group cohesion
Classroom goal structure

Another comprehensive attempt to summarize the motivational components that
are relevant to L2 instruction has been made by Marion and Bob Burden (1997) as a
part of a larger overview of psychology for language teachers. The motivational
components summarized consist of internal factors and external factors. The
components of these factors are displayed in the framework below.

Table 2: William and Burden’s (1997) framework of L2 motivation
(Adapted from Dornyei, 2001)

Internal factors
External factors
Intrinsic interest of activity
- arousal of curiosity
- optimal degree of challenge
Significant others
- parents
- teachers
- peers
Perceived value of activity
- Personal relevance
- Anticipated value of outcome
The nature of interaction with significant
others
- mediated learning experiences


10

- Intrinsic value attributed to the
activity
- the nature and amount of feedback
- rewards
- the nature and amount of
appropriate praise
- punishments, sanctions
Sense of agency
- locus of causality
- locus of control RE process and
outcomes
- ability to set appropriate goals
The learning environment
- comfort
- resources
- time of the day, week, year
- size of class, school
- class and school ethos
Mastery
- feeling of competence
- awareness of developing skills and
mastery in a chosen area
- self efficacy
The broader context
- wider family networks
- the local education system
- conflicting interests
- cultural norms
- societal expectations and attitudes
Self-concept

- realistic awareness of personal
strengths and weaknesses in skills
required
- personal definitions and judgments
of success and failure
- self-worth concern
- learned helplessness

Attitudes



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- to language learning in general
- to the target language
- to the target community and culture
Other affective states
- confidence
- anxiety, fear
Developmental age and stage
Gender

In conclusion, motivation is one variable, which, combined with other factors,
influences a learner’s success.

1.3 Theoretical background of de-motivation:
1.3.1 Conceptions of de-motivation:
Dornyei (2005:143) defined de-motivation as “specific external forces that
reduce or diminish the motivational basis of a behavioral intention or an ongoing
action”.

Deci and Ryan (1985) used a similar term “a-motivation”, which means “the
relative absence of motivation that is not caused by a lack of initial interest but rather
by the individual’s experiencing feelings of incompetence and helplessness when faced
with the activity”.
Dornyei pointed out that de-motivation does not mean that all the positive
influences that originally made up the motivational basis of a behavior have been got
rid of. It only means that a strong negative factor restrains the present motivation with
some other positive motives still remain ready to be activated.
Qashoa (2006:2) has reported from Domyei (2001) that, “ A de-motivated
person is someone who initially had a motivation to fulfill a goal or to engage in an


12
activity and has lost the motivation to do so because of negative external factors which
are related to the environment in which learning takes place such as the classroom or
school”.
1.3.2 De-motivating factors affecting students’ motivation in learning foreign
languages:
Basing on Dornyei’s study, factors affecting students’ motivation can be
classified into learner’s factors, teacher’s factors, environment factors, and teaching
and learning conditions.
1.3.2.1 Factors related to students
a. Intelligence:
Intelligence is the term referring to performance on certain kinds of tests
(Lightbrown & Spada, 1999:52). Through these tests, teachers are able to classify
successful or unsuccessful students in the class performance. While some studies have
reported that there is a link between intelligence measured by IQ tests and second
language learning, some students, in fact, whose academic performance is weak, are
successful in L2 learning.
b. Aptitude:

Aptitude refers to the special ability involved in second language learning
(Douglas et al 1995). The relationship between aptitude and second language learning
success is a very important one and various studies, such as Gardner (1980) and
Skehan (1989) have reported that aptitude is a major factor determining the level of
success of second language learning (Douglous et al 1995). Students can have a “good
aptitude for learning”. This can infer various things, such as:
- The understanding of the function of words in sentences.
- The ability to understand and use grammatical rules.
- Memory of key words, what they mean and how to use them.


13
An important point regarding aptitude and second language learning is that
successful learners may not be strong in all the components of aptitude and can still
succeed at learning a second language. For example, some individuals may have strong
memories but only average abilities in the other components of aptitude (Spada 1999).
c. Personality
Learners’ emotional states have a powerful influence on their behavior and
performance in the classroom and other learning situations. There are various theories
that claim that personality factors are important predictors of success in second
language learning. Personality traits such as extroversion, risk-taking, independence
and empathy have been the basis of discussion and disputes relating to this topic (Ellis
1986).
d. Learning strategies
As in all school topics, learning strategies are a factor of second language
learning. One definition of learning strategies is: “Steps or actions taken by learners to
improve the development of their language skills” (Gass at al 1993: 265). Different
learning strategies work best for different people when learning a second language. For
example, one student may learn vocabulary through writing and practicing the
vocabulary using cue cards, whereas another student may only read the vocabulary and

learn that way.
e. Learners’ belief
Most learners have strong belief about how languages are learnt, how their
instruction should be divided. ‘These beliefs are usually based on previous learning
experiences and the assumption (right or wrong) that a particular type of instruction is
the best way for them to learn. (Lightbrown, 1999:59)
f. Age of acquisition
Age is another characteristic of learners which affects learners’ success in
second language learning. It is believed that children are better than adults at acquiring


14
a second language. It is also often claimed that there is a critical period for second
language acquisition ends around puberty or even earlier.
g. Confidence, anxiety
Learners’ motivation can vary tremendously according to their confidence and
anxiety they have toward the language they are learning and the environment they are
in.
Not only is anxiety related to motivation, but it is also related to proficiency and
more so to communication proficiency, as suggested by Clement, Dornyei and Noels
(1994).
1.3.2.2 Factors related to learning environment
Learning environment involves physical conditions and classroom atmosphere.
The former refers to the classroom size, chairs, desk, tables, lights, boards and even
bulletin boards. Harmer, J. (1992), replicated by Nguyen Mai Nhung (2003), confirms
that such conditions had great influence on students’ learning as well as their attitudes
toward the subject matter. These conditions, therefore, affected students’ motivation
either positively or negatively. The other factor related to learning environment is a
pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the classroom as Lightbrown, P.M. & Spada, N.
(1999) claim that the supportive and non-threatening atmosphere makes a contribution

to learners’ motivation.
1.3.2.3 Factors related to teachers
Based on Dornyei (2001), teachers’ factors and appropriate teacher behaviors
are mentioned as follows:
a. Enthusiasm
An American psychologist, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi conducted a survey into
the question “Who have been your most influential teachers?” He then addressed in a
thought-provoking (1997) that it was the enthusiastic ones. It is teachers’ love;


15
dedication and passion together will commitment toward the subject matter that instills
in students a willingness to pursue knowledge.
Also, teachers should clearly identify their reasons for loving and being
interested in the subject matter or L2, and then share these reasons with their students
(Good & Brophy, 1994).
b. Commitment to the students’ progress
Teachers should show commitment towards their students’ learning and
progress, at the same time they should care for what their students have learnt and
succeeded (Dornyei, 2001).
In order to express commitment towards the students, teachers should:
- offer concrete assistance
- offer to meet students individually to explain things
- respond immediately when help is requested
- correct tests and papers promptly
- send learners copies of relevant interesting articles
- arrange extra-curricular instructional programs
- encourage extra-assignments and offer to assist with these
- Show concern when things are not going on
- Allow students to call at home when they have a problem

- Be available for overtime…
Furthermore, if teachers treat their students “as if they already are eager learners,
they are likely to become eager learners” (Brophy, 1998:170)
c. Teachers’ expectations
In an experiment in educational psychology, an intelligent test to primary school
children, Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) came to a conclusion that if teachers had high
expectation about how well students could study, their students would probably be able
to reach high level of achievement.


16
Students tend to perform at a level which is consistent with the teacher’s
expectations. Particularly, when the teacher sets high expectations, they are likely to
perform better at the subject matter and even feel more competent (Good & Brophy,
1987).
d. Good relationship with the students
- Acceptance: three linchpins of the humanistic psychology; namely; acceptance,
empathy and congruence, are of great influence in the development of student-centered
teaching.
- Ability to listen and pay attention to students: listening to a person is the single
most powerful transaction that occurs between ourselves and another person
(Wlodkowski, 1986:18).
Following are several gestures which can convey personal attention by Burden
(1995) and Paffini (1996):
+ Greet students and remember their names
+ Smile at them
+ Notice interesting features of their appearance
+ Ask them about their lives outside school
+ Show interest in their hobbies
+ Move around in class

+ Send notes to absent students …
1.3.2.4 Teaching and learning conditions
a. Physical conditions
Physical conditions in the classroom refer to the classroom size, chairs, desks,
tables, boards and even bulletin boards. Jeremy Harmer (1992) confirmed that such
physical condition had great impact on students’ learning as well as their attitude
towards the subject matter. These affect students’ motivation either positively or
negatively.


17
L2 teachers should be reminded that the classroom is not only a psychological
but & physical environment. The decoration: posters, flowers, funny objects influence
strongly the atmosphere. More importantly, teachers should create the ownership of the
class among students. He stated “Personalizing the classroom can be seen as students
exercising increasing control over their environment” (Dornyei, 2001:42).
b. A pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the classroom
Language learning is considered one of the most face-threatening school
subjects. Language anxiety has been found to be a powerful factor that hinders L2
learning achievement (Maclntyre, Young, 1999). Thus, it is the teacher’s task to create
a pleasant and supportive classroom atmosphere.
A number of various components contribute to make up the ideal classroom
climate such as the teacher’s rapport with the students, the students’ relationship with
each other and the norm of tolerance; which helps students feel safe and comfortable
taking risks. It is very important to make students that mistakes are a natural part of
learning, and to ensure that they will not be criticized if they make mistakes.
Moreover, humor is a very potent factor to improve the classroom atmosphere.
The use of humor helps students feel at ease without tension in the air. Scheidecker and
Freeman (1991:138) had a summary on the essence of the ideal classroom climate:
“When one watches students enter such a classroom, one classroom, one gets an

overwhelming sense that the students shed emotional baggage at the doorway. This is
an emotional safe zone”.

1.4 Studies of de-motivation
Despite the probable importance of de-motivation in learning in general, and L2
and FL learning in particular, few studies have focused on student de-motivation. Even
studies which mention it (e.g., Ho, 1998) have tended to equate de-motivation with low
motivation, rather than examining it as a phenomenon in its own right. Three of the


18
early studies, which examined the issue of de-motivation, were done in the field of
instructional communication. Gorham and Christophel’s 1992 study tried to determine
what factors were perceived as de-motives by college students taking introductory
communication classes. De-motives were collected from students’ responses to the
open-ended question: “What things decrease your motivation to try hard to do your
best in that class?” The research findings revealed three main categories of de-motives,
i.e., context de-motives (factors likely to be regarded as antecedent to the teacher’s
influence), structure/format de-motives (factors over which the teacher is likely to have
some degree of influence, if not complete control), and teacher behaviors (factors
likely to be perceived as under the teacher’s direct control). Teacher-related factors,
which consist of class structure or format-related de-motives and the de-motives
resulting from teacher behaviors, accounted for 79 % of all the responses. In a follow-
up study to ascertain whether the perceived sources of de-motivation could be
replicated, Christophel and Gorham (1995), using the same question to detect de-
motives with another group of college students studying communication, obtained
findings that were consistent with those from the first study. However, in both studies,
no attempt was made to examine the cases of the students who might have already been
de-motivated before entering the college class nor was it is clear whether the responses
were to real or hypothetical sources of de-motivation, i.e., did those who indicated the

so-called de-motives really suffer from them?
To examine the degree to which teachers’ perceptions of what affects student
motivation were similar to those found in student reports, Gorham and Millette (1997)
conducted a further study based on Gorham’s previous research in which teacher
participants were asked, with reference a specific class, to respond to the open-ended
question, “What do you perceive decreases students’ motivation to try to do their best
in this class and to achieve your instructional goals?” The results indicated that
teachers and students agreed on a set of central factors that are relevant to de-


19
motivation. The high frequency categories were similar across both data sets and the
order of frequency of mention of de-motives was more similar than different across all
categories in the data, which gave the researchers reasonable confidence to conclude
that the set of de-motives identified provided a viable description of classroom
motivational dynamics. Despite these similarities, teachers were more likely to
attribute student de-motivation to performance-related factors such as the students’
lack of success on graded work, the students’ lack of prerequisite skills or knowledge
and the students’ heavy workload. In contrast, students attributed more of their de-
motivation to teacher behavior, in particular poor presentational skills, lack of
enthusiasm on the part of the instructor, and to the instructor’s overall choice and
organization of course material.
In the area of L2 classroom learning, student de-motivation has not been the
topic of much research with Chambers (1993), who examined the problem using
questionnaires to gather both student and teacher perspectives, providing the only
evidence, that is, his research is the only study that was fully devoted to de-motivation
in L2 learning completed so far. In contrast to the findings of the Gorham and
Millette’s study (1997), the reasons underlying student de-motivation were perceived
quite differently by the teachers and their students. Teachers perceived the causes of
de-motivation to be related to psychological, attitudinal, social, historical and

geographical reasons, but they explicitly excluded themselves. The students’ perceived
reasons, but they explicitly excluded themselves. The students’ perceived reasons for
de-motivation also varied, i.e., teachers’ behaviors, class size, etc. Unfortunately,
Chambers did not try to determine what de-motives were or to look at them critically,
instead simply listing the students’ opinions. As a result, Chambers could draw only a
few conclusions about the impact of de-motives on the language learning experience.
Thus, while there have been studies that have explored issues related to de-motives, no


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attempt has been made either to create a framework to aid in better understanding the
phenomenon, nor to relate it to issues of curriculum and teaching.
Oxford’s 1998 study advanced the understanding of de-motives by taking into
account the time factor. She recognized that de-motivation is a process that can be best
understood by “looking backward”, i.e., by asking participants to recall their learning
experiences over a period of time, in this case, five years. The students were asked to
write a stimulated recall essay using a variety of prompts, including “Describe a
situation in which you experienced conflict with a teacher”, and “Talk about a
classroom in which you felt uncomfortable”. The findings drawn from the content
analysis of the student essays revealed four broad sources of de-motivation, i.e., the
teacher’s personal relationship with the student, the teacher’s attitude towards the
course or the material, style conflicts between teachers and students, and the nature of
the classroom activities. However, since the prompts used by Oxford specifically
referred to the teacher’s role as a source of de-motivation, other potential sources might
not have been provided by participants in the study.
Ushioda (1998) filled this gap by asking the participants to identify what they
found to be de-motivating in their L2-related learning experience without specifying
any prompts. Her findings were not unlike the conclusions arrived at in the previous
studies, that is, de-motives were related to negative aspects of the institutionalized
learning context such as particular teaching method and learning tasks. Nonetheless,

Ushioda provided only a very general description of her de-motivation results as they
formed only a part of a broader discussion on effective motivational thinking.
Finally, while it is not difficult for the students who are involved with, and quite
interested in, language learning to point out things that may be classified as de-motives,
it is also the case that being able to name such de-motivating factors does not provide
any insights on the possible effects that de-motives may have on different students.
Dornyei (1998) addressed this issue by hypothesizing that only de-motivated students,