An investigation into English clause patterns - advances employable for the teaching of speaking skills to Vietnamese Seamen = Nghiên cứu các mô hình câu đơn tr

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY,HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES



VŨ THỊ PHƢƠNG THẢO

AN INVESTIGATION INTO ENGLISH CLAUSE PATTERNS: ADVANCES
EMPLOYABLE FOR THE TEACHING OF SPEAKING SKILLS TO
VIETNAMESE SEAMEN

( Nghiên cứu các mô hình câu đơn trong tiếng Anh :
Những thành tựu mới có thể sử dụng cho việc dạy
kỹ năng Nói cho thuyền viên Việt Nam )




M.A Minor Thesis
Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60 14 10
Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. VÕ ĐẠI QUANG

Hanoi - 2010


iv
Table of contents

Page
Table of contents

Acknowledgment

Abbreviations

List of tables

PART A: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale
1
2. Aims and objectives
2
3. Scope of the study
2
4. Methodology
2
5. Design of the study
3
6. Significance of the study
3

PART B : DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1. Theoretical background
4
1.1.1. Clause patterns
4
1.1.2. Clause elements
5
1.1.2.1. Subject
6
1.1.2.2. Object
7
1.1.2.2.1. Direct object
7
1.1.2.2.2. Indirect object
7
1.1.2.3. Verb and its Classification in English.
8
1.1.2.4. Complement
8
1.1.2.4.1. A subject complement
8
1.1.2.4.2. An object complement
9
1.1.2.4.3. A verb complement
9
1.1.2.5. Adverbials
9

1.1.2.6. Vocatives
10
1.1.3. Simple sentences
10
1.1.3.1. Definition of simple sentences………………………………………
10
1.1.3.2. Intransitive Verbs in Simple Sentences……………………
12

v
1.1.3.3. Transitive Verbs in Simple sentences. ……………………
12
1.1.3.4. Linking Verbs in Simple Sentences……………………….
12
1.1.4. Sentences classified in accordance with purposes of communication………
13
1.1.4.1. Statements
13
1.1.4.2. Questions
13
1.1.4.3. Commands
13
1.1.4.4. Exclamations
13
1.2. Review of previous works………………………………………………………
14
CHAPTER 2: SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF ENGLISH
CLAUSE ELEMENTS.
16
2.1. Subject…………………………………………………………………………

16
2.1.1. Syntactic features……………………………………………………
16
2.1.1.1. Realization…………………………………………………
16
2.1.1.2. Position………………………………………………………
16
2.1.1.3. Possible transformation……………………………………
16
2.1.2. Semantic roles…………………………………………………………
16
2.2. Direct object……………………………………………………………………
17
2.2.1. Syntactic features.…………………………………………………….
17
2.2.1.1. Realization………………………………………………….
17
2.2.1.2. Position.…………………………………………………….
17
2.2.1.3. Possible transformation
18
2.2.2. Semantic roles
18
2.3. Indirect object……………………………………………………………………
19
2.3.1. Syntactic features.……………………………………………………
19
2.3.1.1. Realisation
19
2.3.1.2. Position

19
2.3.1.3. Possible transformation
20
2.3.2. Semantic roles…………………………………………………………
20
2.4. Complement……………………………………………………………………
20
2.4.1. Syntactic features……………………………………………………
20
2.4.1.1. Realization…………………………………………………
20
2.4.1.2. Position………………………………………………………
20
2.4.1.3. Typical features …………………………………………….
20

vi
2.4.2. Semantic features……………………………………………………
20
2.5. Adverbial………………………………………………………………………
21
2.5.1. Syntactic features……………………………………………………
21
2.5.1.1. Realization…………………………………………………
21
2.5.1.2. Position………………………………………………………
21
2.5.1.3. Typical features……………………………………………
21
2.5.2. Semantic features

21
CHAPTER 3: ADVANCED METHODS OF IMPROVING SEAMEN’S
SPEAKING SKILLS TO IN VOSCO VIA ENGLISH CLAUSE PATTERNS.

23
3.1. The Vosco Crewing Centre and its training requirement………………………
23
3.1.1. Vosco Crewing Centre (VCC)………………………………………
23
3.1.2. Training requirement………………………………………………….
23
3.1.2.1. Seamen……………………………………………………….
24
3.1.2.1.1. Seamen’s background of English before entering VCC
24
3.1.2.1.2. Seamen’s attitudes towards learning English …………
24
3.1.2.1.3. Current speaking activities done by Seamen in class….
26
3.1.2.2. Teachers ……………………………………………………
27
3.1.2.2.1. The role of teachers in speaking activities…………….
27
3.1.2.2.2. Teachers’ teaching experiences ………………………
27
3.1.2.2.3. Teachers’ opinion on teaching speaking skills………
29
3.1.2.3. Difficulties that lead to seamen’s mistakes…………………
29
3.1.2.3.1. Psychological difficulties. ……………………………

30
3.1.2.3.2. Cultural difficulties……………………………………
31
3.1.2.3.3. Difficulties in linguistic competence………………….
33
3.2. Common mistakes made by Vietnamese seamen in Vosco and possible
solutions………………………………………………………………………………

33
3.2.1. SVC and SVA clauses types…………………………………
34
3.2.2. SVOC clauses type…………………………………………
35
3.2.3. SV clauses type……………………………………………….
36
3.2.4. SVO clauses type……………………………………………
38
3.2.5. SVOO clauses type……………………………………………
39
PART C: CONCLUSION
40
1. Recapitulation……………………………………………………………………
40

vii
2. Limitations of the study and suggestions for further research ……………………
42
REFERENCES
43
APPENDIX

I
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE.
II






iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, FIGURES AND CHARTS

Page
ABBREVIATIONS
Vosco: Vietnam Ocean Shipping Company
VCC: Vosco Crewing Centre
IMO: International Marine Organization
EFL : English functional language.



FIGURES

Figure 1: Verbs classified according to the functions performed by the
elements in the verb phrase
7
Figure 2: Verbs classified in accordance with the types of complementation.
7
Figure 3: Verbs classified according to the number of constituents
8

CHARTS

Chart 1. Seamen’s English experiences before entering Vosco ……………
23
Chart 2: The frequency of interaction with foreigners………………………
24
Chart 3: Seamen’s attitude towards learning English ………………………
24
Chart 4: Current speaking activities done by seamen in VOSCO……………
25
Chart 5: Teachers’ teaching experiences …………………………………….
27
Chart 6: Psychological difficulties faced by seamen of VCC………………
29
Chart 7: The difficulties in linguistic competence ……………………………
30

1
PART A : INTRODUCTION

This chapter starts with the rationale, aims and objectives of the study. It then
continues with the research questions. The next section is the scope and the methodology.
This chapter ends with the design and significance of the study.
1. Rationale.
English has undoubtedly become an international means of communication in the
global integration today. As the spread of English to almost corners of the world, people
are getting more and more aware of the importance of the language. For many people in
Vietnam, English is considered as a very necessary means in order to get a good job,
especially a job in a foreign company. Thus, there is a growing demand to learn the
language for communication.
The English language program at the VCC is aimed at enabling the Vietnamese
seamen to use basic English successfully in their job. However, these seamen, who often
work in the international environment, find it is very difficult to communicate in other
countries because of different culture and religion. In such situations, English is a unique
mean which can help them to express their ideas. In order to meet the need of many
international shipping agencies, they need to have good speaking skills for their work
purposes. These oral skills are quite basic, but they contain many different genres. After
years of conversation practice and experiences, many Vietnamese seamen are still unable
to engage in genuine conversations in target language. Many of them satisfied themselves
with “Yes / No answers” or use body language to express their ideas during the
conversation. In fact, if they had taken the initiative to say a bit more, they would have
fulfilled their task better than they did.
For all the reasons I have mentioned above, speaking English fluently and
accurately is an urgent task for both English teachers and seamen in VCC. How to teach
and learn speaking skills in most effective methods is our big question. Understanding
students‟ need and goal help teachers to classify and lead students gain their purpose. In
the real state of some Vietnamese Ocean Shipping companies, at the moment, using

English clause patterns to improve conversational skills is one of the most effective ways
to make seamen get progression in English. And finding out the advanced methods
employable for teaching speaking skills for Vietnamese Seamen is indispensable.
2. Aims and objectives.

2
My specific objectives are:
 To investigate the syntactic and semantic features of English clause patterns.
 To suggest advanced methods of improving seamen‟s speaking skills via English
clause patterns.
3. Scope of the study
The study focuses on the advanced methods of improving seamen‟s speaking skills in
Vietnam Ocean Shipping Joint- Stock Company via English clause patterns.
4. Methodology
In order to complete the minor thesis, the quantitative research was used to achieve the
aims mentioned above:
- A survey questionnaire was given to one hundred seamen. The data was collected
from the seamen‟s answers and their self- evaluation and feelings, which are quite difficult
for teachers.
- The informants were asked to give feed back to each question mostly by sticking and
choice. With the seamen‟s serious working attitude, the questionnaire was successfully
done without any discussion or cribbing. The survey was carried out in the classroom
context to ensure the truthfulness of the feedback.
- The fingers and charts were used to analyze the data.
- Through the analysis and discussion of the finding, some possible applications would
be made towards the improvement speaking skills of the Seamen of VCC at Vosco.
The research questions
The objectives of the research can be elaborated via the following research questions:
 What are the syntactic and semantic features of English clause patterns?
 What are the viable ways of improving seamen‟s speaking skills via English clause

patterns?
5. Design of the study
The minor thesis is composed of three parts: Introduction, Development and Conclusion.
Part one introduces the rationale, aims and objectives, the research questions, scope of the
study, methodology, and design of the study as well as the significance of the study.
Part two contains four chapters:
- Chapter one reviews the literature related to the English Clause Patterns. This
chapter includes: (1) Theoretical background; (2) Review of previous works.
- Chapter two describes syntactic and semantic features of English clause elements.

3
- Chapter three is an investigation into the current situation of teaching and learning
speaking at VCC. It also shows the survey questionnaire administered to one
hundred seamen. The settings, the participants, the results and analysis of the
findings are also mentioned in this chapter.
- Chapter four shows some viable implications for teaching English clause patterns
to Vietnamese seamen in VCC. In this chapter, the common mistakes made by
Vietnamese seamen and possible solutions are mentioned.
Part three includes the conclusions on the objectives, implications and suggestions for
further research.
6. Significance of the study.
This study plays a crucial role for enhancing teaching method of speaking to Vietnamese
seamen at Vosco. Its implemented recommendations will make the application of CLT at
VCC successful and effective.

4
PART B : DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

The main aim in this chapter is to present some theories related to English clause
patterns. The first section overviews the theoretical background of English clause patterns,
then comes clause elements. Next step is the analysis of simple sentences vs. complex
sentences. Then, the sentence types are mentioned .The chapter ends with the review of
previous works which related to clause patterns in English language.
1.1. Theoretical background.
1.1.1. Clause patterns.
According to David Crystal (The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English
Language, p. 221) there are only seven basic types of English clause patterns.
(i) S-V-O
(ii) S-V-C
(iii) S-V-A

(iv) S-V-O-O
(v) S-V-O-C
(vi) S-V-O-A
(vii) S-V

S: Subject
V: Verb
Oi: Indirect Object
Od: Direct Object
Co: Object Compliment
Ca: Adverbial Compliment
Cs: Subject Compliment




Some Examples of the Seven Clause Patterns in English

S
V
Oi
Od
Cs
Co
Ca
SVC
The weather
is

cold


SVA
The kids
were




here
SVO
Emily
is playing

cards



SVOO
My father
will send
my sister
his money



SVOC
We
consider

her

the best

SVOA
I
will put

the book


away
SV
Tom
is eating





1.1.2. Clause elements

5
These are well worth learning about, as we will certainly want to use them to explain the
syntax of language data, we are studying in exams or investigations. If we are not able to
describe or identify clause types, it is usually acceptable and always helpful to consider
how these elements work together. We may use them to explain how sentences work, also.
From our discussion of the phrase rank, we also know that we can categorize the
constituents of that clause into the appropriate phrase type.

Furthermore, we also know that each phrase can be subcategorized into its constituent
parts.

The diagram above, however, looks at the constituents of the clause only from the
perspective of the constituents' forms. We should remember that those forms also serve
functions, just as the forms at the phrase rank can also be described according to the
functions they served within their phrases. Essentially the clause can be divided into eight
functional constituents, grouped into five categories:
Functional Categories
Nine Clause Functions
(1) Subject
[1] Subject
(2) Verb
[2] Verb

6
(3) Objects
[3] Direct Object

[4] Indirect Object
(4) Complements
[5] Object Complement

[6] Subject Complement

[7] Adverbial Complement
(5) Adverbials
[8] Adverbial
(6) Vocative

[9] Vocative

1.1.2.1. Subject
A subject in English typically matches two types of pattern: agreement and word
order. It both agrees with the verb group of its clause and is positioned in certain particular
ways. The agreement is one of two different forms of the verb (three in the case of the verb
be) depending on the number and person of its subject. For instance, if a subject is singular
and is a third person, i. e. it is neither the speaker nor the listeners, one chooses the form
has of the verb have; otherwise one chooses have
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia, the subject is one of the two main
constituents of a clause, according to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle. The
other constituent is the predicate. In English, subjects govern agreement on the verb or
auxiliary verb that carries the main tense of the sentence, as exemplified by the difference
in verb forms between he eats and they eat.
Form Cultural Dictionary, the subject is a part of every sentence. The subject tells
what the sentence is about; it contains the main noun or noun phrase: “The car crashed
into the railing”; “Judy and two of her friends were elected to the National Honor Society.”
In some cases the subject is implied: you is the implied subject in “Get me some orange
juice.” (Compare predicate.)
Form Computing Dictionary, in subject-oriented programming, a subject is a
collection of classes or class fragments whose class hierarchy models its domain in its
own, subjective way. A subject may be a complete application in itself, or it may be an
incomplete fragment that must be composed with other subjects to produce a complete

7
application. Subject composition combines class hierarchies to produce new subjects that
incorporate functionality from existing subjects.
1.1.2.2. Direct object
The object of a sentence is usually a noun phrase (which can be just a pronoun). It
is usually the element that is 'on the receiving end' of whatever action is being described

by the verb, and usually appears after the subject and verb in a sentence.
We drank lots of beer last night .
Anything which directly receives the action of the verb is a direct object (Od): 'lots
of beer' above is a direct object - It is the 'thing' that was drunk.
1.1.2.3. Indirect object
My Mum gave my sister an apple
Anything that does not directly receive the action of the verb but is still somehow
'on the receiving end' is an indirect object (Oi). In the example, 'my sister' is an indirect
object, since she was not the thing that was given, but is, in a way, on the receiving end of
the action of giving.
1.1.2.4. Verb and its classification in English.
(1) Verbs classified according to the functions performed by the elements in the verb
phrase:



Verbs
Lexical
Auxiliary
Regular: V Ved
Irregular
(7subclasses)
Semi- auxiliaries
Need, dare, used to.
Primary
Do, have, be
Modal: will, would, shall, should, may,
might, ought to, must, can, could
Send- sent
Show(ed)- shown

Leave- left
Eat-ate- eaten
Cut- cut - cut
Find - found
Begin-began- begun

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(2) Verbs classified in accordance with the types of complementation.

(3) Verbs classified according to the number of constituents


Verbs

One-word verbs
Eg: we learn English every day
Multi-word verbs
Phrase verbs: verb + particle
Eg: she turned on the radio
Prepositional verb: verb+ preposition
Eg: she looked at the radio
Phrase- prepositional verb:
verb+ particle + preposition.
Eg : They put up with the noise
Verbs
Intensive
(SVC/ SVA)

Extensive
Current: be, seem, remain, keep,…

Eg: she is clever
Resulting: become, turn, go, get…
Eg: Her face went red
Intransitive (SV)
Eg: the child cried.
Transitive
Monotransitive (SVO)
Mary beat Tom hard
Ditransitive (SVOO)
I gave Tom a book
Complextransitive
(SVOC/ SVOA)
Tom made me angry

9
1.1.2.5. Complement
Since this study is about the completers of thoughts, it is appropriate to include a
brief description of complements. A complement (notice the spelling of the word) is any
word or phrase that completes the sense of a subject, an object, or a verb. As you will see,
the terminology describing predicates and complements can overlap and be a bit
confusing. Students are probably wise to learn one set of terms, not both.
1.1.2.5.1. A subject complement
A subject complement follows a linking verb; it is normally an adjective or a noun that
renames or defines in some way the subject.
Eg: She is a doctor. That smells heavenly. The students are feeling dazed and confused.
Adjective complements are also called predicate adjectives; noun complements are also
called predicate nouns or predicate nominatives.
1.1.2.5.2. An object complement
An object complement follows and modifies or refers to a direct object. It can be a
noun or adjective or any word acting as a noun or adjective.

The convention named „Dogbreath‟ to keep him happy.
(The adjective "happy" complements the object "him.")
The clown got the children too excited.
(The participle "excited" complements the object "children.")
1.1.2.5.3. A verb complement
A verb complement is a direct or indirect object of a verb.
Granny left Tom all her money. (Both "money" [the direct object] and "Tom" [the indirect
object] are said to be the verb complements of this sentence.)
1.1.2.6. Adverbials
A sentence can have one, or many, adverbial elements. Adverbials can be used in
several different positions within the sentence, and express a range of meanings (time,
place, manner, degree - like adverbs). Adverbials can be adverb phrases, prepositional
phrases or even nouns and noun phrases. They can add information to a sentence, make a
link between two parts of a sentence, or add a comment about what is being expressed.

10
 These clause elements add to or complete the meaning of the verb element.
They may be single adverbs. But they also include nouns, noun or verb phrases
and subordinate clauses:
Eg: They ran quickly. He went home twice nightly. We walked on the playground.
My friend phoned me this morning. I was happy when I saw her again.
 Adverbials may appear in several positions in the clause, but are most common
at the end:
Eg: Often I dream. I often dream. I dream often.
 Adverbials may perform different functions:
- Adding information: I walked quietly.
- Linking clauses: The bus was full. However, Fred found a seat.
- Adding a comment on what is expressed: Quite frankly we disapprove of
violence.
 Some verbs ( like put) must have an adverbial to complete their meaning:

Please put the gun down. The path runs around the field.
1.1.2.7. Vocatives
These are optional elements used to show the person to whom a sentence is addressed.
They may occur in various positions in the clause. They include names, titles, evaluative
labels, the pronoun you and certain kinds of clause:
o John, it's me.
o It's me, darling.
o Hello, Susan, how are you?
o You silly person, what do you mean?
o Honey, I shrank the kids.
The function of words and phrases tells us what 'job' they are doing in any particular
context. There are five different functions words and phrases can fulfil - linguistically
speaking, we say they can appear as one of the five clause elements:
1.1.3. Simple sentences.
1.1.3.1. Definition of simple sentences.

11
Grammarians use clause to refer to both simple sentences and to subordinate clauses. A
simple sentence is called an independent clause. Some of the definitions of clause used in
the Longman Grammar are quoted here: The term simple sentence can be confusing
because of definitions that many of us have learned that focused on the meaning or content
of a sentence. Those misleading definitions said something like "a simple sentence has
only 1 main idea." But that definition is just impossible to apply because it's impossible to
be sure what "one idea" is. A simple sentence can be short and with uncomplicated ideas,
but a simple sentence can be long and with complicated ideas.
Examples of simple sentences with complex content: No aspect of life goes untouched by
social class ; Perhaps this decline has already begun; We have lost millions of
manufacturing jobs to Mexico, South America, ad Asia.
Thus, we need to use a definition like the one given in the Longman Grammar. A simple
sentence is a unit that has only a single subject and a single predicate. The subject can be

compound, but the simple sentence is a single unit as in the following examples.
Examples of Simple Sentences with Compound Subjects Jack and Jill went up a hill.
Sociology and anthropology are both social sciences.
1.1.3.2. Intransitive Verbs in Simple Sentences
Intransitive verbs cannot have objects or complements. They are complete with just
a subject and a verb. Adverbials can be added but are not required for the SV to be
syntactically completed.
It's raining. It's raining "cats and dogs." The wind is blowing. The wind is blowing hard.
Drugs kill. Change happens.
1.1.3.3. Transitive Verbs in Simple sentences.
Transitive Verbs must have objects. Maybe it is more accurate to say that a
transitive verb must have an object, because some transitive verbs need two objects or an
object and an adverbial. Be careful about these sub-types. The idea is that the verb must
have the additional units. That requirement is especially tricky with the SVOA type. The
adverbial is required not optional for this category. Now, SVOA is a very small category
with only 1 or 2 verbs in it. Few verbs require that we specify adverbial information.
Notice that put does require that we say where. We can't say just: Her mother put the

12
book We have to add the location. Focus on these examples: S+V+Od: Maria bought a
book.
S+V+Oi+Od: Maria gave her mother a book.
S+V+O+A: Her mother put the book on the shelf.
1.1.3.4. Linking Verbs in Simple Sentences
I've taught so many ESL students over the years and sometimes-less-than-mature
graduated students, too, that I've just learned not to try to talk about copular verbs. It's just
not worth the giggles. That's probably why classroom teachers still use the term linking
verbs. Moreover, linking does have the right meaning for this category. The verb links
descriptive information back to the subject. Here's the list of common linking verbs from
Applied English Grammar:

Linking Verbs
be
She is a teacher. She is happy.
appear
She appears tired.
become
She became a teacher. She became ill.
feel
I feel tired.
grow
He grew sleepy.
look
They look pleased.
prove
The plan proved a disaster. The plan proved tiring.
remain
They remain tired.
seem
He seems young.
smell
The soup smells great.
sound
The students sound happy.
taste
The coffee tasted bitter.
Linking verbs can connect adjectives or noun phrases to give more information about the
subject of the sentence. To distinguish this purpose and structure from that of the object in
the SVO types, some linguists and grammarians use the term complement for the third
element in a sentence with a linking verb. Others use the term subject predicative.

13
Two types of sentences with linking verbs are given in the Longman Student Grammar:
S+V+SP has an adjective or a noun as the subject predicative. Notice that most linking
verbs can take only adjectives for their complements but that be can have either an
adjective or a noun phrase. The second type is the S+V+A where the A is required and is
often a prepositional phrase used for location or time.
Linking Verbs in Simple Sentences
S+V+SP: The soup tasted salty. The cook is not a very good cook.
S+V+A: The soup is on the table. The cook is in the kitchen.
1.1.4. Sentences classified in accordance with purposes of communication.
Simple sentences may be divided into four major syntactic classes, whose use correlates
with different communicative functions:
1.1.4.1. Statements: Statements are sentences in which the subject I always present and
generally precedes the verb:
John will speak to the boss today.
On exceptional statement not containing a subject
(I am) Sorry I couldn‟t be there.
(It‟s) Good to see you.
1.1.4.2. Questions: Questions can be divided into three major classes according to the type
of answer they expect:
(1) those that expect only information or rejection (as in Do you have breakfast?) are YES-
NO questions;
(2) those that expect a reply supplying an item of information (as in what is your name?
How old are you?) are WH- questions;
(3) those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in the question are
ALTERNATIVE questions; for example: Would you like to go for a walk or stay at home?
1.1.4.3. Commands: Commands are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical
subject, and whose verb is in the imperative.
(1) Commands with a subject: is the type of command in which the subject you is retained:
You be quiet! or You mind your own business, and leave this to me!

(2) Commands without a subject: the imperative verb, however, is severely restricted as to
tense, aspect, voice, and modality. There is no tense distinction or perfect aspect:
Sit down, please! or Come in!

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(3) Commands with Let: first person imperatives can be formed by proposing the verb let,
followed by a subject in the objective case:
Let us all work hard (more usually: Let‟s…)
Let me have a look
(4) Negative commands: to negate 2
nd
and 3
rd
person imperatives, one simply adds an
initial Don‟t, replacing assertive by non- assertive forms where necessary.
Open some windows Don‟t open any windows.
(5) Persuasive commands: A persuasive or insistent imperative is created by the addition
of do (with a nuclear tone) before the main verb:
Do let‟s go to the theatre.
1.1.4.4. Exclamations: Exclamations are sentences which have an initial phrase
introduced by what or how, without inversion of subject and operator:
What the noise they are making!
1.2. Review of previous works.
Over the past several decades, whether or not grammar should be taught explicitly
has been a controversial issue. Extensive grammar research has shown that grammar
should be neglected in teaching English ever since communication methodology appeared
in the last 1970s. It was claimed that language should be acquired through natural
exposure, not through former instruction (Krashen, as a cited in Nassaji & Potos).
However, recent research studies have demonstrated that grammar instructions enable
learners to attain high level of proficiency, both in accuracy and fluency. It was claimed

that the teacher should provide learners with authentic discourse samples to illustrate all
the contextually dependent grammar rules (Ellis & Cele Murcia, 2002). Florez (1999) in
an article emphasized speaking skills using grammar accurately.
Speaking and listening is the most used language skills both in and outside the
classroom. Speaking is an interaction process of constructing meaning that involves
producing, receiving and processing information (Florenz, 1999; Brown, 1994).
Kumaravadivelu (1999) demonstrated that discourse relates to the relationship
between language structure and the immediate social context in which it is used. The
social context helps classroom discourse look at the class room activity as a social event
and the classroom as a “minisociety” with its own rule.

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Pennington (2002) suggested “action grammar” in which grammars of language
should meet the real use: “it must be interactive in nature and relative to specific discourse
communicative and their communicative practices”.
Celce-Murcia illustrated grammatical sentences that combine the formal and
functional perspectives to show how the sentences relate to form and meaning that relate
communicative purpose. Fotos (in Larsen-Freemen, 2002) argued that structure- based
tasks designed to promote awareness of target grammar forms and useful pedagogy for
providing communicative grammar instruction. She also claimed that recent empirical
evidence has shown that explicit instruction not only activates the previous knowledge of
the target structures and but also draws their attention to the forms.
However, none of these studies provides any descriptive methods based on data
that demonstrates actual application to the EFL classroom where communicative input is
extremely limited and where grammar-based syllabi are the norm. In addition to the
limited communication input, EFL learners do not have the real-world needs for
communicative functions in the target language as much as EFL learners do. Another
limitation that previous research has not covered is that many non-active English speaking
teachers who teach EFL have a lack of communicative proficiency to teach grammar at the
discourse level.

The present work will report on the reforms of English Grammar Teaching for
communicative purposes, and present an applicable curriculum for communicative
grammar in EFL classroom setting, which challenges and changes the role of EFL
teachers.












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CHAPTER 2: SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF
ENGLISH CLAUSE ELEMENTS.
The main aim in this chapter is to present the semantic and syntactic features
related to English Clause Elements. In this study, each element of English clause will be
overviewed thoroughly with many simple examples as a persuasive illustration. The first
section represents the semantic and syntactic features of the Subject, and then comes the
Verb, Object, Complement and Adverbial which are very important in English sentences.
2.1. Subject
The subject has the grammatical function in a sentence of relating its constituent (a
noun phrase) by means of the verb to any other elements present in the sentence, i.e.
objects, complements and adverbials. The subject is a phrasal constituent, and should be
distinguished from parts of speech, which, roughly, classify words within constituent.
2.1.1. Syntactic features.

2.1.1.1. Realization: A subject can be realized as a noun phrase (basic and complex
sentences), expletive, a cataphora It, a finite clause, a nonfinite clause.
(i) A noun / noun phrase: in the basic and complex sentences and can be realized by the
following forms:
 A determinerless noun phrase (also called a bare noun phrase): In English, this is
mostly limited to plural noun phrases and noun phrases headed by a mass noun.
Builders are at work.
 A noun phrase introduced by a determiner: This complex (determiner + noun
phrase) is usually called a determiner phrase:
The large car stopped outside our house.
(ii) An expletive: These are words like it or there when they don't refer to any thing or
place. For example in the following sentence "it" doesn't refer to anything. It rains. (iii) A
cataphora It : This is the use of it when it is co-referent with a subordinate clause that
comes after it.
It was known by everyone (that) he had traveled the world.
(iv) A finite clause:
 A finite clause which introduced by that, itself containing a subject and a predicate.
That he had traveled the world was known by everyone.
 A direct quotation: I love you is often heard these days.
(v) A nonfinite clause:

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Eating is a pleasure. (Gerund)
His constant hammering was very annoying. (Determinerless phrase)
To read is easier than to write. (Infinitive)
Whom to hire is a difficult question. (Embedded clause)
The subject can also be implied. In the following command, the subject is the
implied "you" that is the recipient of the imperative mood. Take out the trash!
2.1.1.2. Position.
 Occurs before the verb phrase in declarative clauses:

The children go to school every morning.
Tom‟s father often drinks beer with friends after job.
 Immediately after the operator in questions:
Where did he go?
But : Subject is a Q-element: who opened the letter?
2.1.1.3. Possible transformation: passivization with Subject becoming “ by-phrase ”
Mary beat Tom hard → Tom was beaten hard by Mary.
The teacher gave the students a lot of books → The students were given a lot of
books by the teacher.
2.1.2. Semantic roles: Agentive subject, Recipient subject, Locative, Temporal, Eventive,
Instrumental and Empty it subject.
(i) Agentive subject: The most typical semantic role of the Subject is agentive; that is, the
animate being instigating or causing the happening denoted by verb:
John opened the letter; Tom put the book on the table.
(ii) Recipient subject: the subject may also have a recipient role with verbs such as have,
own, possess, benefit (from), as is indicated by the following relation:
Mr. Bean has bought / given / sold his son a book → so now his son has / possesses / owns
the book.
 The perceptual verbs see , hear , taste , smell and feel also require a recipient
subject , in contrast to look at and listen to, which are agentive.
 Verbs indicating a mental state may also require a recipient subject:
I liked the play ( the play give me pleasure )
(iii) Locative, temporal and eventive subjects.
 The subject may have the function of designating place or time:

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Sunday is a day-off (temporal); Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam. (Place)
 Temporal subjects can usually be replaced by the empty it, the temporal
expression becoming adjunct:
Tomorrow is my birthday (= it is my birthday tomorrow)

 Eventive subjects ( with abstract noun heads designating arrangements and
activities ) differ from others in permitting intensive complementation with a time
adverbial:
The meeting is usually on Monday morning; The concert is on Thursday.
(iv) Instrumental subject: A part from its agentive function, the subject frequently has an
instrumental role; that is, it expresses the unwitting ( generally inanimate ) material cause
of an event:
The storm completely destroyed the city.
With intransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the affected role that elsewhere
typical of the subject:
The pencil was on the table.
(v) Empty it subject.
Finally, a subject may lack semantic content altogether, and consist only of the
meaningless word it, used especially with climatic predications:
It‟s nice talking to him; It‟s getting dark.
2.2. Direct object.
2.2.1. Syntactic features:
2.2.1.1. Realization:
 A noun phrase in basic and complex sentences:
Mary beat Tom; The big man hit the small boy.
 A finite and non-finite clause.
I think that she is right; She wants to go home now.
2.2.1.2. Position:
 After Verbs in SVO
Tom ate a cake this morning; Mary opened the door.
 After O in SVOO
I gave Mary a book; The policeman gave him a fine of $ 200.

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2.2.1.3. Possible transformation: by the passive transformation, assumes the status of

subject:
The policeman gave him a fine of $ 200 ((= A fine of $ 200 was given (to him) by
the policeman).
However, a small of transitive verbs, the most common of which is have, normally do not
allow a passive transformation of the sentence.
I have a nice house; He lacks confidence.
2.2.2. Semantic roles: Affected participant, Locative direct object, and Effected direct
object
(i) Affected participant: The most typical function of the direct object is that of the
affected participant who does not cause the happening denoted by the verb, but is directly
involved in some other way:
Many people criticized the Prime Minister.
Bean is eating a cake.
(ii) Locative direct object: A part from the affected object, semantic type of direct object
is the locative object:
The horse jumped the fence.
There are similar uses of such verbs as turn, leave, reach, surround, penetrate , mount,
cross , climb…
(iii) Effected direct object: An effected direct object in one that refers to something which
exists only by virtue of the activity indicated by the verb.
Mary wrote two letters; Baird invented television.
2.3. Indirect object.
2.3.1. Syntactic features:
2.3.1.1. Realization.
 A noun phrase in basic and complex sentences:
I gave Mary a book (noun); Tom gave the old man an orange (noun phrase)
 A finite clause:
I gave whoever came to my party a bunch of flowers.
The rich man gave whoever stood in the bus station a note of $10.
2.3.1.2. Position: A direct object, where both objects are presented, precedes the direct

object (except in rare instances like BrE Give it me), it is semantically equivalent to a
prepositional phrase.