Appropriate error-correction strategies in speaking lessons for the 10th form students at Hoa Lu A High school = Chiến lược chữa lỗi thích hợp trong các giờ dạy

VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST–GRADUATE STUDIES

*****************

BÙI DANH TOÀN

APPROPRIATE ERROR-CORRECTION STRATEGIES
IN SPEAKING LESSONS FOR THE 10TH FORM STUDENTS
AT HOA LU A HIGH SCHOOL
(Chiến lược chữa lỗi thích hợp trong các giờ dạy kỹ năng nói
cho học sinh lớp 10 tại trường THPT Hoa Lư A)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60 14 10

HA NOI – 2011


VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST - GRADUATE STUDIES

*****************

BÙI DANH TOÀN

APPROPRIATE ERROR-CORRECTION STRATEGIES

IN SPEAKING LESSONS FOR THE 10TH FORM STUDENTS
AT HOA LU A HIGH SCHOOL
(Chiến lược chữa lỗi thích hợp trong các giờ dạy kỹ năng nói
cho học sinh lớp 10 tại trường THPT Hoa Lư A)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60 14 10
Supervisor: Nguyễn Bàng, M.A.

HA NOI - 2011


-6TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION PAGE ……………………………………………………………………………………........

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………………………………...

ii

ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii

LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS AND TABLES ………………………………………………………………...

iv

DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS ………………………………………………………………………………

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………………………………...

vi

PART I: INTRODUCTION

1

1. Rationales ……………………………………………………………………………..…

1

2. Aims of the Study ……………………………………………………………………….. 1
3. Scope of the Study ………………………………………………………………………. 2
4. Research Questions ……………………………………………………………………...

2

5. Methods of the Study ……………………………………………………………………

2

6. Significance of the Study ………………………………………………………………..

2

7. Structure of the Study …………………………………………………………………… 3
PART II: DEVELOPMENT

4

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………………………………………………

4

1. Approaches to Teaching and Learning Speaking ……………………………………….. 4
1.1. Common Approaches …………………...…………………………………………

4

1.2. Fluency versus Accuracy ………………………………………………………….. 4
1.3. Errors in Speaking Lessons ……………………………………………………….. 5
2. Overview of Errors …………………………………………………………………........ 5
2.1. Definitions of Errors ………………………………………………………………

5

2.2. Error versus Mistake……………………………………………………………….

6

2.3. Types of Errors ……………………………………………………………………. 6
2.3.1. Grammatical errors ………………………………………………………... 6
2.3.2. Discourse Errors …………………………………………………………...

7

2.3.3. Phonological Errors ……………………………………………………….. 7
2.3.4. Lexical Errors ……………………………………………………………...

7

3. Error Correction Strategies in Speaking Lessons ……………………………………….. 8
3.1. Definitions of Error-correction …………….……………………………………... 8
3.2. Error-correction Strategies ………………….……………………………………. 8
3.3. Common Approaches to Errors …………….…………………………..…………. 9
3.3.1. Behavioristic Approach ……………………………………………………. 9
3.3.2. Humanistic Approach ……………………………………………………… 10
3.3.3. Cognitive Approach ………………………………………………………... 10
3.3.4. Communicative Approach ………………………………………………….

11


-73.4. Timing of Error-correction…………………...…………………………………....

11

3.4.1. Immediate Correction ……………………………………………………...

11

3.4.2. Non-Immediate Correction …………………………………………….…..

11

3.5. Types of Error-correction ………..………………………………………………..

12

3.5.1. Teacher Correction …………………………...……………………………

12

3.5.2. Peer Correction ……………………………………………………………. 12
3.5.3. Self Correction ……………………………………………………………..

13

3.6. Criteria for Selecting Errors ………………………………..……………………..

13

3.6.1. Pedagogical Focus …………………………………………………………

13

3.6.2. Errors Impairing Communication …………………………………………. 13
3.6.3. Errors of High Frequency ………………………………………………….

14

3.6.4. Learners’ Variables …………………………………………………........... 14
3.7. Types of Error-correction Methods ……………………………………………….. 15
3.7.1. Explicit Correction …………………………………………………………

15

3.7.2. Implicit Correction …………………………………………………………

15

4. Summary ………………………………………………………………………………...

16

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES …………………………………………………….

17

1. An Overview of the Research Site ………………………………………………………

17

1.1. Hoa Lu A High School …………………………………………………………….

17

1.2. Textbook …………………………………………………………………………...

17

1.3. Teachers …………………………………………………………………………...

17

1.4. Learning Situation in 10th Form …………………………………………………..

17

2. The Subjects of the Study ……………………………………………………………….. 18
2.1. The Students ……………………………………………………………………….

18

2.2. The Teachers ………………………………………………………………………

18

3. Data Collection Instruments …………………………………………………………….. 18
3.1. Questionnaires …………………………………………………………………….

18

3.2. Classroom Observation …………………………………………………………… 19
4. Data Collection Procedures ……………………………………………………………...

19

4.1. For Questionnaires ………………………………………………………………..

20

4.2. For Classroom Observation ………………………………………………………. 20
5. Summary ………………………………………………………………………………...

20

CHAPTER 3: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ……………………………………….

21

1. Presentation and Analysis from the Questionnaires …………………………………….. 21
1.1. Students’ Questionnaires ………………………………………………………….. 21
1.2. Teachers’ Questionnaires …………………………………………………………

25


-82. Presentation and Analysis from Classroom Observation ………………………………..

28

3. Summary ………………………………………………………………………………...

31

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS …………………………………………………...

32

1. Findings and Discussions ………………………………………………………………..

32

1.1. Teachers’ Awareness of Error Correction ………………………………………... 32
1.2. Facts about Error Correction …………………………...………………………...

32

1.3. Problems for Error Correction ……………………………………………………

33

2. Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………….

33

2.1. Raising Teachers’ Awareness ……………………………………………………..

34

2.2. Getting Insights into Students ………………………………………………..……

34

2.3. Reducing Error Correction Frequency ……………………………………………

34

2.4. Making Pre-speaking Activities Meaningful ………………………………………

34

2.5. Redesigning Inappropriate Tasks……………………………………….…………. 35

2.6. Correcting Errors Strategically …………………………………………………...

35

2.6.1. Choosing Errors to Correct ………………………………………………..

35

2.6.2. Deciding Time to Correct Errors …………………………………………..

35

2.6.3. Diversifying Types of Correction …………………………………………..

36

2.6.4. Applying Different Error-correction Strategies ……………………………

36

3. Summary ………………………………………………………………………………...

36

CHAPTER 5: APPLICATIONS ………………………………………………………………………………..

37

PART III: CONCLUSION

38

1. Summary …………………………..…………………………………………………….

38

2. Pedagogical Implications ………………………………………………………….…….

38

3. Limitations of the Study …………………………………………………………………

39

4. Suggestions for Further Studies …………………………………………………………

39

REFERENCES
APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Questionnaire for Students
Appendix 2: Questionnaire for Teachers
Appendix 3: Classroom Observation Form

40


-4LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS AND TABLES
1. Abbreviations

CLT

Commuonicative Language Teaching

COFs

Classrom Observation Forms

CUP

Cambridge University Press

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

ELT

English Language Teaching

ESL

English as a Second Language

FL

Foreign Language

HLA

Hoa Lu A

IL

Interlanguage

L1

First Language/Mother Tongue (in this research: Vietnamese)

L2

Second Language/ Target Language (in this research: English)

OUP

Oxford University Press

SLA

Second Language Acquisition

2. Tables
Tables

Page

Table 1: Students’ judgement on error-correction in their speaking lessons.

30

Table 2: Students’ opinions of effective error-correction methods in speaking lessons.

31

Table 3: Teachers’ judgement on the error-correction in their speaking lessons.

33

Table 4: Teachers’ opinions of effective error-correction methods in speaking lessons.

35

Table 5: The types of errors made and the timing of error-correction.

37

Table 6: The types of correction and the types of correction methods.

38


-5DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS
(1) Aims are the underlying reasons for purposes of a course of instruction. (Richards, Platt and
Platt, 1987, p. 254)
(2) Approach refers to different theories about the nature of language and how languages are
learned. (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p. 20)
(3) Communicative Competence is the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a
language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when and
where to use these sentences and to whom. (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p. 65)

(4) Input is language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.
(Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p. 182)
(5) Language Froficiency refers to the degree of skill with which a person can use a language,
such as how well a person can read, write, speak, or understand language.
(Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p. 204)
(6) Linguistic Competence is the knowledge a learner knows about the language.
(Bailey, 2005, p. 3)
(7) Linguistic Performance is how a learner use the known knowledge in communication.
(Bailey, 2005, p. 3)
(8) Objectives are descriptions of what is to be achieved in a course. (Richards, Platt and Platt,
1987, p. 253)
(9) Speech (Oral) Errors are faults made by speakers during the production of sounds, words
and sentences. (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p. 344)
(10) Strategy is a procedure used in learning, thinking, etc. which serve as a way of reaching a
goal. (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p. 355)
(11) Target Language is the language a person is learning, in contrast to a first language or
mother tongue. (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1987, p. 373)


-9PART I: INTRODUCTION
I. Rationales
Nowadays English plays an important role in socio-economic life. Learning English is necessary
for a lot of people. The central of teaching and learning is to perfect four skills of which speaking
is probably the most difficult for learners to develop because it requires them to produce the
language most of the time spontaneously or without enough time to construct appropriate and
correct utterances.
Over a long period, considerable attention has been paid to errors and error correction in
speaking classes (Ellis, 1994). Different authors have different views. Some consider an error as
something natural. They claim that people cannot avoid making errors and even can learn from
them. Making errors is a part of learning, and error correction should be done selectively in order

to have better results in the classroom. Others, however, regard an error as something negative
which must be avoided. As a consequence, language teachers have always adopted a repressive
attitude towards it. They usually hold most authority to correct learners‟ errors automatically,
regarding the fact that learners value and expect teachers‟ correction.
To most language teachers, correcting learners‟ oral errors is one of the most frustrating tasks
because it has more potential for subjectivity due to individual variables (Cohen, 1998). In
considering the individual variables as influential parts in speaking, error correction is highly
challenging and possibly perplexing. Therefore, error correction should be done appropriately;
lest, it will discourage learners from learning and practicing the language.
It should be noted that although error correction has been the focus of research for a long time, a
large number of authors have concentrated mostly on the causes of errors, whether to correct oral
error or not and the techniques to correct errors. However, there is little research dealing with
appropriate error-correction strategies in general and in speaking classes in particular.
The above situation of error correction in speaking classes and the gap of knowledge in the
research area have aroused my interest and encouraged me to carry out the study entitled:
“Appropriate Error-Correction Strategies in Speaking Lessons for the 10th Form Students
at Hoa Lu A High School”
II. Aims of the Study
The current research occurs in the context of Hoa Lu A (HLA) High School. The major aim of
the research is to find out appropriate error-correction strategies in speaking lessons. To be
specific, the aims of this thesis are:


- 10 + to have insights into error correction,
+ to look at how teachers correct their students‟ oral errors,
+ to find out appropriate error-correction strategies in speaking lessons,
+ to offer some recommendations on correcting oral errors in speaking lessons.
III. Scope of the Study
Language generated by learners in either speech or writing is considered productive. Errors
occur in either speaking or writing lessons. Due to the limits of time, ability and availability of

the data, the researcher intends to investigate the current situation of correcting errors in
speaking lessons at HLA High School and find out appropriate error-correction strategies for
application in real context. The respondents of this study are limited to the 10th form students at
HLA High School, therefore, their opinions of appropriate error-correction strategies in speaking
lessons might not be representative of all students at HLA High School in particular and all
students learning English nationwide in general.
IV. Research Questions
To achieve the aims of the study, the following research questions are addressed:
1. What kinds of oral errors are often made by the students in speaking lessons?
2. Who often corrects oral errors?
2. When and how are oral errors corrected in the classroom?
3. What are appropriate error-correction strategies for speaking lessons?
V. Methods of the Study
To achieve the aims of the study, the researcher reviews the related documents, which is a
method to lay the theoretical background of the study. In the study both qualitative and
quantitative methods are used. That is the data serving the research analysis and discussion are
collected by means of survey questionnaires and classroom observation. Quanlitative method is
applied to analyze the results from data collection of the survey questionnaires on the 10th form
students and teachers of English at HLA High School. Besides, quatitative method is employed
to analyze the data from classroom observation forms (COFs). The COFs are then synthesized
and analyzed by the researcher. By using each of the methods, relevant information to support
the study will be achieved.
VI. Significance of the Study
Learners‟ errors are significant to both EFL teaching and learning, for errors are evidence of
their learning development. This thesis, therefore, will contribute a new implication to second
language acquisition (SLA), particularly, to the area of error correction in speaking classes.


- 11 Pedagogically, information obtained from this study might help teachers of English get insights
into oral errors and oral error correction. From this they adjust their teaching and apply

appropriate error-correction strategies to make error-correction more effective. Personally, the
researcher himself, as a language teacher, will have a good command of the process of teaching
and learning EFL in general and errors and error correction in speaking lessons in particular.
These will help to enhance the teaching efficiency.
VII. Structure of the Study
The study consists of three main parts:
Part I, Introduction, consists of the rationale, aims, scope, research questions, research methods,
significance and structure of the study.
Part II, Development, is organized into five chapters:
Chapter 1, Literature Review, presents various concepts relevant to the research topic such as
approaches to teaching and learning speaking. The following is the overview of errors which
reviews the definitions of errors as well as types of errors. This chapter also includes the views
of appropriate error-correction strategies in which, when, what, who and how to correct errors
effectively are mentioned in detail.
Chapter 2, Methodology, presents the situation of teaching and learning English, the facts of
error correction in the 10th form speaking lessons at HLA High School and general information
about the study subjects. It also focuses on the data collection instruments and procedures.
Chapter 3, Presentation and Analysis of the Data, gives a detailed presentation and analysis of
the data from the questionnaires and classroom observation.
Chapter 4, Findings, Discussions and Recommendations, consists of some discussions and
interpretations of the findings of the study. This chapter also provides some recommendations
for effective error correction in speaking lessons.
Chapter 5, Applications, engages the practice of error correction in speaking lessons by
following the three-stage model.
Part III, Conclusion, includes the summary of the study and some pedagogical implications for
correcting errors appropriately in speaking lessons. This part also points out some limitations of
the study and provides some suggestions for further studies.


- 12 PART II: DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review will concentrate on error correction in speaking lessons. It will be presented
in one chapter. Following the introduction, the theoretical assumptions as well as the findings
from previous empirical research will be reviewed to discuss the approaches to teaching and
learning speaking. The next section will discuss the overall views of errors. This will be followed
by a summary of the literature related to error correction to examine what appropriate errorcorrection strategies in speaking lessons are. Finally, a summary of the chapter will conclude the
literature review.
1. Approaches to Teaching and Learning Speaking
1.1. Common Approaches
For years, language teaching was seen as helping learners develop linguistic competence.
However, the approach has changed substantially. Recently Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT) with its emphasis on meaning and communication in the target language and its learnercentred approach has served as the dominant approach to language teaching. Davies (2000) finds
that CLT is without doubt the approach used by most language teachers today. In this approach,
language learning is seen as a long process of acquisition through exposure and communicative
use of the language with many inevitable errors. Besides, learner autonomy is generally
considered essential for success in language learning. The success of language learners is based
on the ability to communicate in the target language. Therefore, learners‟ communicative
competence is of great importance to the language teaching and learning.
1.2. Fluency versus Accuracy
Bailey (2005) states that “accuracy refers to the ability to speak a language properly, without or
with few errors while fluency is the capacity to speak fluidly, confidently”. Within
communicative approach to teaching, Hinkel (2006) claims that it requires both fluency and
accuracy in speaking in an L2. That is balancing fluency and accuracy is important as a
proficient speaker speaks with both fluency and accuracy (Bailey, 2005). However, Norrish
(1983) states that fluency is of greater importance than accuracy in speaking classes as learners
succeed in making their message across even with some errors in their speech rather than
interrupting their flow of speech for correction. In case of many errors to occur in speaking
lessons, it is suggested that those that affect communication should be corrected (Edge, 1989).

- 13 To emphasize fluency or accuracy or both is still the subject of much debate to language
researchers and teachers. Practice may emphasize accuracy or fluency. In accuracy work, most
errors should be corrected immediately. Ignoring learners‟ correctness is not advisable as
successful communication depends on a certain level of accuracy. In fluency practice, Hedge
(2000) claimed that it is important not to distract learners‟ attempt to communicate, so nonimmediate correction is preferable to immediate correction. To be concrete, teachers are advised
to leave error correction till the end of the activity.
1.3. Errors in Speaking Lessons
Communicative approach is different from the previous teaching methods even in terms of error
correction. In CLT there is a minimal focus on form, including a lack of emphasis on error
correction. If it occurs it is often dealt with meaning focuses. Errors can be useful in the way that
they help teachers evaluate the learners' cognitive development. And if they are corrected
appropriately, the learners can get improvement in learning. In speaking lessons, it is advisable
to focus on error correction in the later stage of the lesson or in post-activity stage as
communication lessons are characterized by activities in which learners communicate by means
of interacting and completing the tasks or activities with other learners (Hymes, 1972). During
the activities like those, the teacher‟s role is to facilitate and then to monitor, usually without
interruption.
The practice in CLT is not to interrupt a learner to react to an error if she or he is communicating
the message successfully even with the error. When errors hinder communication, Bailey (2005)
suggests dealing with them appropriately. However, from the researcher‟s previous experience in
some contexts as a second language learner as well as experience from class observation as a
language teacher, it has been discovered that many language teachers still confront their students'
errors and make a lot of effort to correct those errors on a daily basis.
2. Overview of Errors
2.1. Definitions of Errors
There are a number of definitions of errors. Each researcher gives a definition of errors
depending on his or her perspectives and aspects of study. According to Krashen (1982) “error is
any deviation from a selected norm of language performance, no matter what the characteristics
or cause of the deviation might be”. Hendrickson (1980) defines „error‟ as “an utterance, form,

or structure that a particular language teacher deems unacceptable because of its inappropriate
use or its absence in real-life discourse”. In the light of this, an error could be a deviation from a
phonological or grammatical rule, an incorrect form or expression in a particular situation.


- 14 Considering that the purpose of the current research focuses on the correction of oral errors, it is
not of primary importance to understand all the actual reasons behind errors. Consequently, the
definition employed for the purpose of this research considers the term „error‟ to refer to the
language deviated from the Standard English, and/or that are deemed to be inaccurate.
2.2. Error versus Mistake
Errors and mistakes are a natural part of the learning process. At first glance these two terms
seem interchangeable, but in fact they are quite different from each other.
According to Corder (1967), “errors occur due to the lack of knowledge of the proper rule”. An
example for this may be; “Although I like cities, but I prefer the countryside”. This sentence
shows that the speaker did not know the correct usage of concessive clauses or he/she might
transfer an acceptable rule of grammar from his/her mother tongue.
Tanner and Green (1998) define a mistake as “a slip of the tongue; the learner knows the correct
form but has temporarily forgotten it”. As a consequence, the speaker fails to perform his/her
linguistic competence. An example of a mistake is “I goed to the cinema yesterday”. This
occurred because the speaker forgot the past tense form of the verb “go” at the time of producing
the utterance.
Errors can show evidence of learning. They tend to be systematic and not self-correctable while
mistakes are non-systematic and self-correctable.
2.3. Types of Errors
Learner errors can be categorized in terms of various criteria. According to Burt (1975) errors
are classified into: global errors and local errors. The former refers to errors that hinder
communication and “affect overall sentence organization, such as wrong word order, missing,
wrong, or misplaced sentence connectors”. On the other hand, the latter affects single elements
in a sentence without hindering communication such as errors in noun and verb inflections,
articles, and auxiliaries, etc. On the basis of the linguistic levels, errors can be divided into four

major categories as follows:
2.3.1. Grammatical Errors
Grammatical errors, which stress the need for grammatical accuracy in both speech and writing,
may hinder communication. Actually, the biggest distraction for any language teacher with
regard to error correction has been the traditional focus in ELT on the correction of errors at a
grammatical level. At the global level, morpho-syntactic errors can detract from overall
intelligibility and may have a serious effect on communication. A speaker‟s utterance “I love my


- 15 dog more than my wife” can be very confusing. At sentence level, 'errors' may often reflect
performance 'mistakes' for which immediate teacher correction is not necessarily appropriate
(Lee, 1990). For instance, a speaker said: “I singed English, but I didn‟t feel it is English”.
2.3.2. Discourse Errors
Discourse errors are dependable upon the observance of the rules of speaking and reflect
learners‟ cultural and pragmatic knowledge of language use. An example for this kind is “Now
I‟m learning English news. I like them”. As can be seen, this is an error of cohesive device
misuse because the speaker considered “news” a plural noun.
Hendrickson (1981) points out that pedagogy needs to be related to modes of linguistic
presentation. The approach to correcting errors in the written mode should be quite different
from the approach to correcting spoken errors. Each discourse mode demands different
correction at different acceptable periods.
With spoken discourse, the question of when to correct becomes vital to the learner's confidence
and to the train of conversation. Besides, methods for correcting oral errors are also paid much
attention to. It is extremely difficult for a spontaneous conversation or interaction to take place in
oral communicative discourse if the exchange is interrupted with corrections. As a result,
immediate correction of oral errors should not be encouraged for fear of damaging learners‟
confidence. A more suitable approach would be to encourage learners to be conscious of the
ability to monitor themselves and correct their own errors.
2.3.3. Phonological Errors
Phonological errors are manifested in wrong pronunciation and/or intonation. For example, the

speaker mispronounced the word from [waste] to [water] in the following sentence: “Some threw
water in the forest they got a fine”. This caused difficulty for the listener to understand. In the
process of SLA, such errors necessitate timely correction because they may have a meaningdifferentiating function. As teachers, few would expect students to be able to achieve a native
sound system in their L2. This is an area where fossilization does tend to take place. However, a
communication breakdown can occur if a phonologically-induced error is serious enough to
affect intelligibility. This is when appropriate correction is crucial in indicating the speaker's
error, as by implicit suggestions from the listener.
2.3.4. Lexical Errors
Lexical errors may also hinder communication and intelligibility. This type of errors can easily
arise in combination with other categories. An example is a speaker's error in the sentence:


- 16 “I read a lot of books interesting”. It is a common type of lexical errors, namely wrong word
order. A more serious lexical error can be found in the following utterance: “The man raised
from the ground”. That is the misuse of the verb “raise”. In this case, “rose” would be accurate.
Like morpho-syntactic errors, lexical errors are errors which are habitually corrected by teachers.
On the whole, it is easy for teachers to correct lexical errors as one only needs to pinpoint the
change in meaning and provide the correct word.
3. Error Correction Strategies in Speaking Lessons
3.1. Definitions of Error Correction
A lot of studies have dealt with the issue of error correction. „Error correction‟ is defined as “a
response either to the content of what a student has produced or to the form of the utterance”
(Richards and Lockharts, 1996). Similarly, Chaudron (1986) sees that the concept of correction
is “any reaction by the teacher which transforms a students‟ behavior or utterance”. In a more
practical view, Edge (1989) clearly states that correction does not always mean making
everything absolutely correct but helps learners learn to express themselves more accurately.
In language teaching and learning, the term „correction‟ is used to indicate that the teacher
supplies an appropriate item in response to what is perceived to be an error (Chun et al,. 1982).
In their view, in supplying an appropriate correction, the teacher has to do more than just give
modelling. Clearly, it is advisable to make it explicit to the student on how the right form of

language should be produced.
Allwright and Bailey (1991) state that the word „correction‟ implies a permanent „cure‟, which is
different from impermanent „treatment‟. They argue that even if a teacher corrects an error and
manages to get a right answer, it does not mean that the error has permanently been cured. Since
the focus of their research is to investigate the permanent effects of teachers‟ responses on
learner errors, the use of the term „correction‟ is considered to be appropriate.
To sum up, error correction refers to the assistance provided by either teacher, peer, or self, with
reference to any shortcomings on the part of a language learner in the target language.
3.2. Error Correction Strategies
Brown (1994) found that teachers and learners employ a multiplicity of strategies for teaching
and learning the target language and that one teacher or learner‟s strategies for success may
differ markedly from another‟s. Seeing this, teachers must not underestimate the importance of
developing a set of teaching strategies for themselves and learning strategies for their learners in


- 17 language learning process. As Mitchell (1998) claims that appropriate strategies facilitate and
make students‟ language learning effective.
An appropriate method of teaching is the one that fits with what the teacher is trying to achieve,
and with the learners and the context in which the teaching and learning occur. Also it has to be
supported by learning outcomes. It can be expected that, when it comes to correcting errors,
teachers and learners are accustomed to making use of strategies that help them progress in their
teaching and learning. However, many teachers, in many cases, neither exploit nor foster
adequately the strategies that students already possess, so they miss the opportunity to benefit
from their previous linguistic knowledge. Correction strategies used to deal with learner errors
are dependent on individual teachers‟ decisions, and thus there is no way for them to know
whether their decision-making is right or wrong. Edge (1989) reports that what the teacher does
in his or her language lesson is to help the learners improve the target language, and not to
correct all the non-standard language the learners produce. In speaking, the more attention we
pay to what is said, the less we pay to correctness. If correctness is the primary attention, we
don‟t seem to be speaking a language at all.

Truscost (1999) sees that there is no single best strategy for correcting errors. The most
important thing is that the teacher has to be flexible and aware of the effect of correcting errors
on each individual learner, and use several different types of methods depending on the types of
errors. Moreover, the teacher should use different strategies according to the kind of errors, the
learners‟ variable such as their ability, personality, preferences, and learning styles, etc., and the
atmosphere of the class.
3.3. Common Approaches to Errors
Over the years, there have been a wide range of approaches to error correction in language
teaching and learning. Researchers and teachers dispute over how to correct errors for a long
period, from the traditional viewpoint to the current approach.
3.3.1. Behavioristic Approach
The behaviorists viewed an error as a symptom of ineffective teaching or as evidence of failure
and they believed that when errors occur they are to be remedied by provision of correct forms.
In this respect, Littlewood (1984) sees that errors are simply the result of imperfect learning, so
errors must be corrected at any cost. According to Skinner (1957) untreated errors would lead to
fossilization and therefore rigid and immediate correction was required to avoid forming bad
habits.


- 18 Behaviorism theory sees that old habits hinder or facilitate the forming of new habits. That is
why errors are unwanted. Since the errors are the result of non-learning rather than wrong
learning, there is a danger of errors becoming habits if they are tolerated, so errors should be
avoided. In this approach, language lessons must involve frequent repetition and correction for
learners to form good habits. Teachers correct spoken errors quickly, in hope of preventing
learners from forming bad habits which will be hardly removed in the future. If errors are left
untreated, it is thought that both the speaker and the hearers might internalize those erroneous
forms (Bailey, 2005).
3.3.2. Humanistic Approach
According to Canh (2004), humanistic approach lays emphasis on the learner‟s internal world
and the individual‟s thoughts, feelings and emotions are considered the most important in human

development. The main concerns of the teacher are with emotional needs and keenness on
developing lesson plans that make learners feel good about themselves while learning.
In this approach, error correction is relevant since it sees learners as whole persons, taking into
accounts their feelings, needs, personal situation, and own experiences. Truscott (1996) argues
that learners do not like to have their errors pointed out and therefore inappropriate correction
may lead them to have negative attitudes towards language learning. This is because of their fear
of appearing unintelligent or losing face when making errors or being corrected. Besides, it is
very distressing for a learner to be given a lot of corrections when (s)he is talking as it can
interfere with her/his progress by causing embarrassment and shame.
3.3.3. Cognitive Approach
Chomsky (1959) approached errors in language learning from a cognitive point of view,
according to which errors are the result of the learner thinking through the process of rule
formation. According to Corder (1967), errors provided evidence of progress. With the same
view, Selinker (1972) claimed that errors are a natural part of the learner‟s developing
interlanguage.
According to cognitivists, learning involves mental processes in which the learners learns by
thinking about and trying to make sense of what he or she hears, sees, and feels. This approach
considers errors to be the result of the social-cognitive interaction. This means that the error
implicitly cardres a social norm as well as a cognitive process. In other words, according to
cognitive approach the making of errors is an inevitable and necessary part of language learning.


- 19 3.3.4. Communicative Approach
As the Communicative Approach emerged, a common perspective was that errors were not
important as long as they did not affect communication (Littlewood, 1981). This approach
emphasizes that communication is more important than the focus on structures, thus error
correction should be limited. With the same view, Maicusi et al. (1999) see that in
Communicative Approach there is a minimal focus on forms. There is also a lack of emphasis on
error correction. If it occurs, it is likely to be meaning focus. Through errors the teachers and the
students can get improvement in language teaching and learning.

3.4. Timing of Error-correction
Correcting errors enables the students to acquire the correct forms of the target language.
However, when to correct is one of the most important tasks in the language classroom. Allan
(1991) states that the teachers‟ failure to correct oral errors at the appropriate time might lead to
a negative reaction to language learning in general and to error correction in particular.
3.4.1. Immediate Correction
Vigil & Oller (1976) see that correcting errors immediately helps the teacher draw students‟
attention to problems while they are still fresh in their minds. However, it interrupts their flow of
speech. Hendrickson (1980) shows that learners hate to be corrected while they are talking
because the correction, to some extent, makes them feel nervous and lose confidence. With the
same view, Hammerly (1991) affirms that immediate correction interrupts learners and can lead
to loss of face which may discourage them to speak. Moreover, immediate corrections may cause
sensitive children to develop aggressive behavior towards their classmates or teacher. Thus,
correction must not be applied unless errors obstruct communication.
It is important for the teachers to understand that every error that deems serious does not need to
be corrected immediately. Actually, it is usually counterproductive to attempt immediate
correction of all errors. Realizing this, teachers should be more tolerant of their learners‟ errors
as it is better to speak with some errors rather than waiting until they can speak accurately. To be
more concrete, communication is important in speaking lessons.
3.4.2. Non-Immediate Correction
Postponing error correction to a future time will be less effective, as time elapses between the
error and correction (Chaudron, 1987). However, this may be necessary, particularly if the error
is common to the whole class (Holley & King, 1971). Teachers may note errors and deal with
them later, either at the end of the task, lesson, or in a following lesson. This can also provide
time for the teacher to design efficient and effective practice tasks and allow the learner a greater
opportunity of self-correction and help the development of autonomous control processes.


- 20 The decision on whether to correct immediately or not may depend on many factors including
learner sensitivities, learning situation, learning purpose and activity type. In terms of lesson

focus, teachers have to decide whether the lesson focus is on accuracy or fluency and then design
activities which help students produce accurate language or express themselves freely to develop
fluency. It is advisable not to deal with oral errors during fluency practice.
An understanding of when to correct is most effective. Once we have identified an error, we
need to determine the best time to correct it so that the correction will be helpful to the learner.
3.5. Types of Error-correction
In error correction, the use of various types of correction methods has been recommended as it is
considered to be more effective than relying upon a single one (Lynch, 1996). The fundamental
distinction between 'error' and 'mistake' indicates a clear-cut correction policy in terms of
classroom practice: that 'errors' should normally be corrected by teachers, by peers and by self.
3.5.1. Teacher Correction
Hendrickson (1978) is in favour of providing the learners with teacher correction which
concentrates on correcting communicative errors rather than linguistic errors. As far as teacher
correction is concerned, teachers should correct the error in an interactive way as it is beyond
students‟ language proficiency. This correction is necessary and may become an effective
learning means because the learning is based on the communicative need. However, Maicusi et
al. (1999) claim that teachers‟ frequent correction of errors actually makes the learner dependent
on correction by others, especially by their teachers. It is better for learners to be motivated to do
so themselves and teachers should help them become conscious of their error and give them
incentive as well as hints to correct the error in order to avoid repeating it in the future.
3.5.2. Peer Correction
Peer-correction is provided by a student different from the one who initially made the
error. Cohen (1975) suggests that peer correction may improve the learners‟ ability to recognize
errors. In this respect, Bruton and Samuda (1980) claimed that peer-correction is beneficial in the
language classroom. The advantage of peer correction is to help learners cooperate and involve
in the process of learning. Besides, it also makes them less dependent on the teacher. According
to Bailey (2005), peer correction can be very effective if it is done in a positive and supportive
way. Teachers might as well leave the correction for their learners in the hope that errors can be
corrected through peer work since the language proficiency of the learners in a group varies.
That is what one student cannot correct may be corrected by other students. For the errors that

are out of the range of students‟ language proficiency, it is up to the teachers to give corrections.


- 21 3.5.3. Self Correction
Hendrickson (1978) defines “self-correction is the correction of one's own errors”. Selfcorrection is of great significance to language learners. Bailey (2005) stresses that learners may
learn more if they themselves correct their errors. In this way, they may be memorable and could
promote actual learning. According to Carroll (1955), self-correction not only gives learners
more opportunities to improve their speaking ability but activates their linguistic competence as
well (cited in Corder, 1967). However, learners have much difficulty in self-correcting. Thus,
self-correction should be done with the help of other students or teachers. When a learner has
made an error, the teachers or other students are advisable not to provide him or her the correct
form immediately but give him or her a chance to correct it by supplying some necessary hints.
In short, each type of error correction has its own advantages and disadvantages. It is suggested
utilizing the types that are most appropriate in certain situations. Also a combination of error
correction types will make the correction more effectively.
3.6. Criteria for Selecting Errors
Previous literature agreed with the effectiveness of selective correction of oral errors. CelceMurcia (1985, cited in Stern, 1992) claims that selective correction is one of the most effective
strategies. In this respect, Hammerly (1991) states that teachers should set the priorities about
errors and correct them selectively. In speaking lessons, with the goal to develop learners‟
communicative competence, the choices of errors to correct vary according to pedagogical focus,
errors impairing communication, and errors of high frequency (Hendrickson, 1980).
3.6.1. Pedagogical Focus
Nunan & Lamb (1996) suggested that the choice of errors to correct in speaking class depends
on the objectives of a lesson. With the same view, Cohen (1975) asserts that errors related to a
specific pedagogical focus are deserving higher attention than other less important errors (cited
in Hendrickson, 1980). Thus, the teacher adopting the pedagogical focus usually chooses errors
to correct depending on the objectives of a particular lesson. In order to do so, the teacher is to
know the objectives of the lesson clearly and sets priorities about which errors to correct. In
current speaking lessons, the focus is on communication. Consequently, teachers have a
tendency to correct the errors which seem to obstruct communication (Maicusi et al., 1999).

3.6.2. Errors Impairing Communication
Many researchers have agreed with the idea that the errors which hinder communication are
considered to be the most important to correct. To decide which error impedes communication or
prevents the hearer from comprehending some aspect of the message the speaker is trying to


- 22 convey is important as it helps to find a suitable way of dealing with it. According to Burt and
Kiparsky (1972), errors are categorized into global error and local error. The former usually
breaks down communication and prevents the listener from comprehending the speaker‟s
intended meaning while the latter is a violation of the target language without affecting the
speaker‟s intended meaning. For successful corrections, Hammerly (1991) and Hendrickson
(1980) suggest that when there are many errors, teachers should only correct those that
significantly affect intelligibility, that is global errors, and ignore those that do not.
3.6.3. Errors of High Frequency
Allwright (1975) claims that high frequency error deserves special priority attention in error
correction. 'High frequency error' indicates repeated occurrence of the same error on the part of
an individual student. In a broader view, Walz (1982) defines that “frequent errors are frequently
committed by individual learners and by many learners in a class”. It provides a sure source of
information about whether or not an individual learner or group has mastered a rule or not.
Davies (2000) assures that error correction should focus on recurrent errors. In his view, errors
that are produced by learners frequently need to be corrected. Moreover, Doff (1998) suggests
that the types of errors that are the most common and frequently produced should be given
priority and corrected otherwise students may think that they have made correct utterances.
3.6.4. Learners’ Variables
Learning is a journey taken by learners; thus, teachers should build up a sense of togetherness,
especially in speaking class. Error correction is extremely complex since it depends on many
factors. Among various factors influencing the success of error correction, learners‟ variables
seem appealing. According to Chaudron (1986), learners‟ variables include their language and
cultural background, proficiency levels, learning styles, preferences, personalities, attitudes,
motivation, etc... These factors should be taken into consideration for all students as different

individual learner has different variables. However, in classroom practice, it is suggested that
teachers consider the common variables among learners.
For the error correction to be effective, all good teachers always get to know their students and
learn those who are most sensitive to correction. To do so, they must be willing to investigate
their learners‟ variables, change their attitudes toward error correction, and modify their old
habits with regard to the practice of error correction in the language classroom (Hendrickson,
1980). Besides, classroom practice cannot afford to be based rigidly on any standards derived
from the opinions of the teachers alone. It must take learners‟ variables into consideration in
order for the correction to be flexible enough (Norrish, 1982).


- 23 It is claimed that if serious considerations are not given to the learners' variables, there will be
some impediments to learning. Thus taking learners‟ variables into consideration for the full
benefit of learners will help make error correction more fruitful.
On balance, making the decision on which errors to be corrected is dependent upon individual
teachers‟ beliefs as well as objectives of the lessons. However, selective correction with certain
criteria allows the teachers to not only deal with errors more objectively but also plan his errorcorrection strategies appropriately.
3.7. Types of Error-correction Methods
What is the appropriate correction of learners‟ errors? In the past decades, this has been a worthy
debated issue, especially in the view of the errors of L2 speaking. As a language teacher and as a
language learner, it is important to know how to correct errors in general and in speaking class in
particular. However, the issue of dealing with oral errors in second language learning is complex.
Once we have decided that correction is necessary, we must focus on how to correct in a way
that is both appropriate and effective. Allwright and Bailey (1991) claim that error correction
should be varied. Carroll and Swain (1993) suggest various types of correction of which explicit
and implicit corrections are very helpful for L2 learners.
3.7.1. Explicit Correction
Hendrickson (1980) sees that “Explicit correction is detailed direct correction indicating that
teachers provide learners with exact forms or structures of their erroneous utterances”.
According to Fanselow (1977), the most popular correction of errors carried out by the

teachers is giving the right answer. That is explicit correction. The benefit is that when the
teachers give the right answers to the learners who make errors, the learners might not be
confused. They directly recognize that their answers were wrong. However, Norrish (1983)
asserts that explicit correction of errors not only hinders the improvement of the communicative
competence but also produces negative consequences in learners.
3.7.2. Implicit Correction
Ferris & Hedgcock (1998) defines that “Implicit correction is indirect correction, which teachers
indicate the presence of an error or provide some clues and leave the students to diagnose and
correct it”. In this way, after showing the error and giving hints to correct, the teachers let the
students initiate a self-correction or ask for peer assistance. Learners have to discover the right
forms or structures by themselves in order to produce the accurate language. Therefore, the
teachers‟ implicit clues are considered to be more useful than explicit correction (Hammerly,
1991). Some detailed cues given by the teachers led to higher ratio of learner‟s self-correction


- 24 and consequently, their linguistic competence would be improved. The type of correction that is
widely encouraged and accepted in CLT is implicit correction as it does not interfere with
communication.
While there is a tendency to recommend implicit correction methods, there are certain cases
where providing the correct forms is more appropriate. Actually, some rule-governed errors can
be corrected implicitly, whereas untreatable errors require more detailed correction.
Consequently, the degree of explicitness of correction must be different depending on the types
of errors to be corrected.
To sum up, there is no single correction method that works effectively for all types of errors
whether it is explicit or implicit correction as each has its own advantages and disadvantages.
According to Vigil and Oller (1976, cited in Brown, 1994) error correction must be optimal in
order to be effective. Thus, language teachers have to use several different types of error
corrections depending on the types of errors, individual learners and the context of language
teaching and learning. Thus, appropriate error-correction strategies are necessary for error
correction.

4. Summary
This chapter briefly presents different viewpoints dealing with errors and error correction in
speaking lessons. The first section is about concepts relating to the thesis such as approaches to
teaching and leaning speaking. The second section reviews studies in the fields of errors like the
definitions of errors, error versus mistake and types of errors. In the initial section, the most
controversial question discussed is what appropriate error correction strategies are, namely when,
what, who and how to correct errors appropriately in speaking lessons.


- 25 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY

1. An Overview of the Research Site
1.1. Hoa Lu A High School
Hoa Lu A High School, founded in 1972, is located in Thien Ton town, Hoa Lu district, Ninh
Binh province. This public school has 27 classes with over 70 teachers of different subjects.
Currently there are approximately 1.250 students of three grades: 10, 11, and 12. Each grade has
9 classes. On the average, there are about 45 to 50 students in a class. Most of the students come
from the nearby villages.
The number of students in the 10th grade are 420. They are now 16 years of age. The students
learned English as a foreign language for four years at Junior High School and are all learning
English, with three English classes a week.
1.2. Textbook
The 10th form students are now using Tieng Anh 10, the standard syllabus, written by Hoang
Van Van et al. It follows two popular approaches, namely learner-centred approach and
communicative approach. There are 16 units in the textbook. Each unit contains 5 lessons:
Reading, Speaking, Listening, Writing and Language Focus. Obviously these textbooks focus on
linguistic knowledge as well as skill formation and development. Speaking skill is taught in one
lesson of a unit. Its primary goal is to improve communicative competence, that is, the ability to
communicate in English.
1.3. Teachers

All the 9 teachers of English at HLA High School are Vietnamese, aged from 28 to 40. The
youngest has 3 years of teaching English while the oldest has been teaching English for 13 years.
Five of them are female. Three of them got formal training. The rest are in-service graduates.
1.4. Learning Situation in 10th Form
In English lessons, the main teaching aids used are simply a blackboard, textbooks and in recent
three years teachers have been using cassettes in listening lessons. The classrooms are physically
overcrowded, with limited space for activity organization. Besides, there are no competitions and
outdoor activities for students to take part in. Moreover, most of the students do not see the
importance of English. They just focus on learning the subjects for their entrance exam, namely
maths, chemistry and physics. English tests are administered to measure students‟ language
ability. However, students‟ speaking exam is not implemented. Generally, the students‟
knowledge of English is poor. Also their exposure to English in the classroom is limited, so they


- 26 are not good at communicative skills. Therefore, the teaching of English in general, and the
teaching speaking English in particular has encountered a lot of difficulties.
The error correction in speaking lessons is arbitrary. Each teacher has different reactions to
learners‟ errors. Most of them correct errors unmethodically. They rarely adopt appropriate
error-correction strategies due to the lack of knowledge of teaching methods. To tell the truth,
their error-correction strategies are limited and inappropriate. They either never correct or correct
almost all errors made by students, mostly in negative ways. Thus, the error correction is
ineffective and even counterproductive.
2. The Subjects of the Study
The subjects of the study are 7 teachers of English teaching the 10 th form students. Besides, 91
students at HLA High School, where the researcher teaches English, are selected. The teachers
and students will help by filling in the questionnaires and carrying out their classes as usual for
the researcher to observe and collect the most reliable data.
2.1. The Students
The subjects of the study are a sample of 91 students in the 10 th form selected at Hoa Lu A High
School. They are from two classes, 10B4 and 10B5. In terms of their geographical origin, 95 %

of them come from the countryside, and the rest are city dwellers. They are not the same at
English proficiency level in general and speaking competence in particular. Only some of them
are good and active in speaking classes while the rest remain passive and quiet.
2.2. The Teachers
The 7 teachers of English who are currently teaching the 10th form are asked to complete the
questionnaires for teachers. Among them, there are 2 males and 5 females. Their ages range from
28 to 40. They have been teaching English at HLA High School from three to thirteen years.
Two of them got formal training and five got in-service training.
3. Data Collection Instruments
In order to get the needed information, the two instruments are employed. They are
questionnaires and classroom observation.
3.1. Questionnaires
Two sets of questionnaires were designed to investigate how error-correction is carried out and
get the participants‟ opinions of appropriate error-correction strategies. Each includes 13 items to
be responded to answer the research questions. Each questionnaire contains six items using a 5point Likert-scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”, (see Appendix 1; 2).