Đánh giá dựa theo nhu cầu tài liệu tiếng Anh chuyên ngành “english course for nursing students” dành cho sinh viên năm thứ hai trường cao đẳng y tế thanh hóa

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES




NGUYỄN THỊ VÂN

THE NEEDS-BASED EVALUATION OF ESP MATERIAL “ENGLISH
COURSE FOR NURSING STUDENTS” FOR SECOND YEAR STUDENTS
AT THANH HOA MEDICAL COLLEGE

(ĐÁNH GIÁ DỰA THEO NHU CẦU TÀI LIỆU TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN
NGÀNH “ENGLISH COURSE FOR NURSING STUDENTS” DÀNH CHO
SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ HAI TRƯỜNG CAO ĐẲNG Y TẾ THANH HÓA)

M.A. MINOR THESIS



Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60.14.10




Hanoi, 2012

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES




NGUYỄN THỊ VÂN

THE NEEDS BASED EVALUATION OF ESP MATERIAL “ENGLISH
COURSE FOR NURSING STUDENTS” FOR SECOND YEAR STUDENTS
AT THANH HOA MEDICAL COLLEGE

(ĐÁNH GIÁ DỰA THEO NHU CẦU TÀI LIỆU TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN
NGÀNH “ENGLISH COURSE FOR NURSING STUDENTS” DÀNH CHO
SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ HAI TRƯỜNG CAO ĐẲNG Y TẾ THANH HÓA)

M.A. MINOR THESIS



Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60.14.10
Supervisor : Nguyê
̃
n Ba
̀
ng, M.A



Hanoi, 2012

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of originality of the thesis ……………………………………………… i
Acknowledgements ……………………………………………… ii
Abstract ……………………………………………… iii
Table of contents …………………………………………… iv
Abbreviations …………………………………………… vii
List of figures …………………………………………… viii
List of tables …………………………………………… ix

’
PART I: INTRODUCTION 1

I.1. Rationale ……………………………………………… 1
I.2. Aims of the study ……………………………………………… 2
I.3. Scope of the study ……………………………………………… 2
I.4. Methods of the study ……………………………………………… 2
1.5. Organization of the study ……………………………………………… 2

PART II: DEVELOPMENT 4

Chapter 1: Literature Review 4

1.1. An Overview of English for Specific Purpose ……………………………… 4
1.1.1. Definition of ESP ……………………………… 4
1.1.2. Classification of ESP ……………………………… 4
1.1.3. Characteristics of ESP Course ……………………………… 6
1.1.4. Characteristics of English for Medical Purpose …………… 7

1.2. Material Evaluation ……………………………… 7
1.2.1. Definition of Material Evaluation ……………………………… 7
1.2.2. Types of Material Evaluation ……………………………… 8
1.2.3. Purposes of Material Evaluation ……………………………… 8
1.2.4. Models for Material Evaluation ……………………………… 9
1.3. Needs-Based Evaluation ……………………………… 11
1.3.1. Need Definition ……………………………… 11
1.3.2. Need Analysis/Assessment Definition ……………………………… 12
v

1.3.3. Models of Need Assessment ……………………………… 13
1.3.4. Steps in Need Analysis ……………………………… 14
1.3.5. Techniques for Need Analysis ……………………………… 15
1.4. Material Adaptation ……………………………… 15
1.4.1. Defining Adaptation ……………………………… 15
1.4.2. Purposes of Adaptation ……………………………… 15
1.4.3. Areas for Adaptation ……………………………… 16
1.4.4. Techniques for Adaptation ………………………………. 16

Chapter 2: Research Methodology 18

2.1. The Current Situation of Teaching and Learning ESP at TMC ………. 18
2.1.1. The Context ……………………………. 18
2.1.2. The Course Objectives ……………………………. 18
2.1.3. The Material Description ……………………………. 19
2.2. The Research Question …………………………… 19
2.3. The Participants …………………………… 19
2.4. The Data Collection Instruments …………………………… 19
2.5. The Procedure …………………………… 20

Chapter 3: Findings and Discussion 21

3.1. Objectives ……………………………… 21
3.2. Contents ……………………………… 22
3.3. Methodology ……………………………… 27

PART III: CONCLUSION 31

III.1. Conclusion ……………………………… 31
III.2. Recommendations ……………………………… 31
III.2.1. Objective Adjustments ……………………………… 31
III.2.2. Content Improvements ……………………………… 32
III.2.3. Methodology Improvements ……………………………… 33
III.3. Limitations of the Study ….………………………… 34
III.4. Suggestions for Further Research ….………………………… 34
vi

REFERENCES 35

APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONAIRE FOR TEACHERS I

APPENDIX 2 : QUESTIONAIRE FOR STUDENTS III

APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONAIRE FOR TEACHER INTERVIEW V

APPENDIX 4 : QUESTIONAIRE FOR STUDENT INTERVIEW VI

APPENDIX 5 : STUDENT NEEDS ANALYSIS RESULTS VII

vii

ABBREVIATIONS


TMC: Thanh Hoa Medical College
ESP: English for Specific Purpose
EMP: English for Medical Purpose

viii

LIST OF FIGURES


Figure 1: Types of ESP (From Strevens, 1977, Robinson 1991) ……………………. 5
Figure 2: Types of ESP (From Hutchinson and Water, 1987) ……………………. 5
Figure 3: Four-Step Macro-Evaluation (Hutchinson and water, 1987) ………………… 9

Figure 4: Framework for Material Analysis and Evaluation (Littljohn,1998)…………… 11
Figure 5: Skill Importance Ranking …………………… 43
Figure 6: Skill vs. Class-Time Distribution …………………… 43
























ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Teachers’ views on the appropriateness of the material to the course objectives 21
Table 2: Students’ views on the appropriateness of the material to the course objectives 21
Table 3: Teachers’ views on the appropriateness of the contents of material 23
Table 4: Students’ views on the appropriateness of the contents of material 24
Table 5: Teachers’ views on the methodology of the material 27
Table 6: Students’ views on the methodology of the material 28

1

PART I: INTRODUCTION

I.1. Rationale
Since the early 1960s, English for specific purposes (ESP) has grown to become
one of the most prominent areas of English Language Teaching. The growth of ESP has
also generated an increasing number of specialized textbooks. The importance of the
textbook is undeniable since it determines the major part of classroom teaching and student
learning. Although choosing a textbook is daunting, it has a significant influence on the
ability of students to meet their language learning objectives and affects both the process of
learning and outcomes. Nevertheless, as Swales (1980) states, textbooks, especially course
books, exhibit problems and in extreme cases are examples of educational failure. Thus, to
have a successful language teaching program, it is necessary to have good materials, and to
make the most effective use of a textbook, it is necessary for teachers to carefully examine
all aspects of the textbook and compare it against an assessment tool. The present ESP
textbook taught at Thanh Hoa Medical College (TMC) was collected and edited from
various sources. To some extent, its objectives meet teaching and learning’s goals such as

the vocabulary and reading development. However for communicative target in learning
language it does not meet teaching and learning requirement. It includes the texts then the
exercises, the exercises are only questions to check reading comprehension and the same
kind of questions for all 17 units that gives students a bore. There is no tape, no video, no
suggested references books or sources presented in the material. Also this textbook is used
to teach all second year students of different faculties such as: students of nursing, students
of mid-wife studying…. This material has been used at TMC for several years but no
evaluation or consultation has been conducted to check its strengths and weaknesses and to
see how well it suited the desired and attainable goals of the course. As teachers and
students’ recent complaints and dissatisfaction about the textbook, evaluating the textbook
based on teachers’ and students’ needs is necessary to decide whether to continue using the
material, or to look for a new one, or to adapt orientation. Besides, the textbook evaluation
helps teachers move beyond impressionistic assessments and it helps them to acquire
useful, accurate, systematic, and contextual insights into the overall nature of material, and
thus they can respond to the students’ needs and maximize their learning opportunities. For
those reasons, the topic “The Needs-Based Evaluation of ESP Material “English Course
for Nursing Students” for Second Years Students at Thanh Hoa Medical College” was
chosen with the intention that it will not only help improve the material’s quality but also
enhance the learning efficiency as well as stimulate students’ interest in language learning.

2

I.2. Aims of the study
The study aims to evaluate the material “English Course for Nursing Students” in
terms of appropriateness of its objectives, contents and methodology from both the
teacher’s and the student’s perspective. The findings will help the teachers to adjust the
exploitation of the material so that they can make optimum use of strong points and adapt
or substitute weak points from other medical materials.

I.3. Scope of the study

In material evaluation, there has been a great number of criteria that should be
taken into consideration such as: the audience, the content, the methodology, the cultural
bias, the layout, the authenticity, and so on. In this study, the criteria for evaluation were
based on Hutchinson and Water’s (1987) with focus on the three following criteria:
objectives of the material, contents of the material, and methodology.

I.4. Methods of the study
This study employs survey research with two methods, including survey
questionnaires and informal interviews. These methods are described in detail in chapter
two.

I.5. Organization of the study
The study consists of 3 parts:
Part I - Introduction - presents the rationale, aims, scope and methodology of the study
Part II - Development - includes 3 chapters:
Chapter 1 – Literature review – provides a theoretical basis for the study. First, it
surveys the literature on the theories of the basic concepts such as English for Specific
Purposes and English for Medical Purposes, regarding the definition, classification, and
characteristics. Second, it reviews material evaluation, need analysis in terms of definition,
types, purposes and models. The last part of the chapter presents the issues involving
material adaptation which serve as a base for the improvements recommended at the end of
the study.
3

Chapter 2 – Methodology – includes an overview of the approach used in
conducting the study. It also provides a thorough description of the data collection
procedure as well as the analytical procedure.
Chapter 3 – Result and discussion – reports the findings of the survey and
discusses the prominent aspects.
Part III – Conclusion – makes conclusion of the study; recommends the improvements to

the material; expresses the limitations and suggestions for further research.

4

PART II: DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 1: Literature Review

1.1. An Overview of English for Specific Purpose

1.1.1. Definition of ESP

The concept of ESP has been basically agreed by numerous researchers to be a kind
of language learning which has its focus on all aspects of language pertaining to a
particular field of human activities while taking into account the time constraint imposed
by learners. Hutchinson and Waters (1987:19) states “ESP is an approach to language
teaching in which all decisions as to content and methods are based on the learners’
reasons for learning.” Widdowson (1983:5) makes it more specific when linking tasks with
the direct purpose of an ESP course: “ESP is essentially a training operation which seeks to
provide learners with restricted competence to enable them to cope with certain clearly
defined tasks. These tasks constitute the specific purposes, which the ESP course is
designed to meet.”
ESP is also defined as “a particular case of general category of special purpose
language teaching” of which, advantages are widely recognized as : being focused on the

learner’s needs, relevant to the learner, successful in imparting learning, and last but not
least, more cost-effective than “General English” (Adapted from Streven).
From the definitions, ESP can be seen that it is not necessarily concerned with a
specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range,
ESP should be seen simple as an “approach” to teaching that meets learner’s needs.

1.1.2. Classification of ESP

ESP is traditionally divided into two major areas: English for Occupational
Purposes (EOP) and English for Academic Purpose (EAP). EOP involves work-related
needs training while EAP, academic study needs. EOP is taught in a situation in which
learners need to use English as part of their work and or profession, whereas EAP is taught
generally within educational institutions and is provided when the students specialize or
intend to specialize in a specific field or subject. Nevertheless, school-subject ESP has
been divided into such situations where English is a separate subject on the curriculum but
5

with a related content to other subjects (independent ESP), and where English is the means
for other subject to be learnt (integrated ESP). These types of ESP are summarized as:

Figure 1: Types of ESP (From Strevens, 1977, Robinson 1991)

To make the ESP classification more clearly, Hutchinson and Water (1987) divide
it into three branches with each branch subdivided into two smaller ones: EOP and EAP as
follows:

















Figure 2: Types of ESP (From Hutchinson and Water, 1987)

ESP


Occupational Academic


Pre-experience Simultaneous Post-experience



Discipline-based School subject


Pre-study In-study Post-study Independent integrated

ESP - English for Specific Purposes


EST EBE ESS

English for Science English for Business English for
& Technology & Economics Social Study



EAP EOP EAP EOP EAP EOP
e.g. English e.g. English e.g. English e.g. English e.g. English e.g. English
for medical for for for for for

studies technicians Economics Accountancy Psychology Law

6

1.1.3. Characteristics of ESP Course

According to Carter (1983), there are three features of ESP courses: a) authentic
material, b) purpose-related orientation, and c) self-direction. The use of authentic content
materials, modified or unmodified in form, is indeed a feature of ESP. Purposed –related
orientation refers to the simulation of communicative tasks required of the target setting.
Finally, self-direction is the characteristic of ESP courses in that the “….point of including
self-direction …is that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users”.
Hutchinson and Waters (2007) also point out the traditional ESP course design has
two major drawbacks: Firstly, the development in the learner of a capacity to communicate
is neglected, and secondly, there is a failure to analyze and take into account the realities of
the ESP learning situation.
In giving ESP definition, Dudley-Evans and St John suggest the following absolute
characteristics and variable characteristics.
Three absolute characteristics are:
- ESP is designed to meet specific needs of learners
- ESP makes use of the underlining methodology and activities of the
disciplines it serves
- ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, and register), skills,
discourse and genres appropriate to these activities.
Four variable characteristics are:
- ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines
- ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from
that of general English.
- ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level or in
a professional work situation. It could, however, be used for learners at

secondary school level.
- ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP
courses assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used
with for teaching the beginners of English as well.



7

1.1.4. Characteristics of English for Medical Purpose
English for Medical Purpose is a subset of English for Specific Purposes Education
that most often focuses on teaching aspects of medical English, particularly terminology
(Hull, 2004). The language of medicine is quite unique. It is fraught with technical,
academic language and replete with slang, colloquialisms, abbreviations and acronyms. It
has its own rules and structures. Health professionals must read, write, interpret, give
directions, etc… Using a wide variety of abbreviations and acronyms are extremely
career-specific. Medical English is also contextual. Doctors and nurses use academic and
technical language interspersed with common speech and workplace jargon. It rarely
focuses on complete or proper sentence structure.
With regard to the level of Medical English, Hull believes that Medical English can
not be taught at the level of or in the same methods of basic English language teaching.
Hull assumes that all EMP learners are health professionals or in the midst of health
studies at the college or university level. Therefore, career-specific, highly technical
language must be contextually based. The goal of learning English at this level is not to
learn grammar and structure primarily, but to acquire and use the language of practice and
social relations within the career.

1.2. Material Evaluation
1.2.1. Definition of Material Evaluation
According to Dudley (1998), “Evaluation is a whole process which begins with

determining what information to gather and ends with bringing about the change in current
activities or influencing future ones” (p.128)
Material evaluation is “A process not a final product” (Nunan,1998) with
“Attempts to measure the value of materials” (Tomlinson,1998, p.3)
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) define: “Evaluation is basically a matching process:
matching needs to available solutions” (p.97). They also note that evaluation is really a
matter of judging the fitness of something for a particular purpose. “Given a certain need,
and in the light of the resources available, which out of number of possibilities can
represent the best solution. There is no absolute good or bad – only degrees of fitness for
the required purpose”.
8

Although each researcher has his/her own way of giving opinion on evaluation they
still come to the agreement that evaluation is a process of collecting data giving judgments
based on the collected data, and the most importantly, evaluation must include action.


1.2.2. Types of material evaluation
Regarding types of material evaluation, Tomlinson (1988) indicates that for each
dimension of evaluation, there are certain types of evaluation. These dimensions include:
approach, purpose, focus, scope, the evaluators, the timing and types of information.
Cunningsworth (1995) points out that there are three types of material evaluation,
i.e. pre-use evaluation, in-use evaluation and post-use evaluation. This classification is
similar to Ellis (1997) with different names, i.e. Preliminary, Formative and Summative
evaluation respectively. The first type, pre-use evaluation is carried out before a course
begins in order to select the most relevant and suitable materials for a particular group of
learners. This is probably the most difficult kind as there is no actual experience of using
the course book. In-use evaluation is a kind of evaluation for suitability, involving
“matching the course book against a specific requirement including the learner’s
objectives, the learner’s background, the resources available, etc.” (Cunningsworth, 1995,

p.14). The third type, post-evaluation refers to an assessment of a textbook’s fitness over a
period of continual use. Evaluation of this kind can be practical in helping to decide
whether to use the same textbook on the future occasion.

1.2.3. Purposes of Material Evaluation
According to Cunningsworth (1995), through evaluation, it can be assessed whether
the course book is the most appropriate for the target learners at various levels and in
various teaching settings.
Robinson (1991) states that evaluation can be used as part of quality control.
Through evaluation, the advantages and disadvantages can be known as well as the
effectiveness of the being used materials.
Apart from its contribution to the evaluation of the effectiveness of materials,
Torres (1993) adds an additional benefit: It can afford general insights into how teachers
use materials, and therefore suggest directions both for materials development and
professional development activities.
9

Alderson (1992) set out a list of purposes of material evaluation as follows:
- To decide whether materials have had the intended effect
- To identify what effect materials have had
- To vindicate a decision
- To justify future courses of action
- To compare approaches/methodologies
- To identify areas for improvement in future use
- To show the positive achievements of teachers and students
- To motivate teachers
- To allay suspicions among parents or sponsors

1.2.4. Models for material evaluation
With regard to the material evaluation process, Hutchinson and Waters (1987)

recommend a four-step macro-evaluation presented in the following model:

























Figure 3: Four-step macro-evaluation (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987)


DEFINING CRITERIA

On what bases will you judge
materials?
Which criteria will be more
important?

SUBJECTIVE ANALYSIS

What realization of the criteria
do you want in your course?


OBJECTIVE ANALYSIS

How does the material being
evaluated realize the criteria?


MATCHING
How far does the material
match your needs?

10

These authors advise to present the criteria for objective and subjective analysis in
a checklist, and the evaluators should supplement other criteria they think important to
them in the process of evaluating. Then follow the three steps: 1) identify the evaluator’s
requirements; 2) analyze the material; 3) comparing findings those two aspects by
awarding points. Total the points and analyze the result. However, the two researchers note
that the highest number of points does not necessarily indicate the most suitable material,

as the points may be concentrated in one area.
Ellis (1997) suggests a Micro-evaluation model which is probably clearer and more
detailed:
1. Choosing a task to follow;
2. Describing the task with specification of input, procedures, language
activities, and outcome;
3. Planning the evaluation with reference to the dimensions above;
4. Collecting information before, while and after the task was used, and what
and how the task was performed;
5. Analysis of the information collected;
6. findings of the evaluation and making recommendation for future teaching;
7. Writing the report.
He points out the advantage of this model is that it can be more manageable than a
macro-evaluation. Nevertheless, this type of evaluation can only be conducted when the
materials are being used in the classroom.
Littljohn (1998) suggests a preliminary framework for material analysis and
evaluation as follows:









11

Figure 4: Framework for material analysis and evaluation (Littljohn, 1998)

Within the scope of this study, the model of Hutchinson and Waters seems to be the
most appropriate to follow.

1.3. Needs-based Evaluation

1.3.1. Need Definition
Various writers have discussed the concept of need. One of the best known is
Abraham Maslow (1954), who developed the notion of a “hierarchy of needs”. Based on
ascending levels of more complex needs , Maslow hypothesized that, once a lower level
ANALYSIS OF TARGET
SITUATION OF USE

- The cultural context
- The institution
- The course (proposed aims,
content, methodology, measures
of evaluation)
- The teachers
- The learners
MATERIAL ANALYSIS

From analysis:
- What is their explicit nature?
- What is required by users?
- What is implied by their use?
To description:
- aspects of design
- aspects of publication
MATCH AND EVALUATION

How appropriate are the respects of design and the
aspects of publication to the target situation of
use?
ACTION

Adopt the materials
Reject the materials
Adapt the materials
Supplement the materials
Make the materials a critical object


12

need is met, human move on to other higher order needs. Basic needs for sustenance and
safety give way to higher needs for love from others, self-love, and self-actualization.
Often criticized for simplicity and linearity, Maslow’s model nevertheless suggests that
needs are knowable, and that meeting one set of needs may leave a person open to
experiencing another set of more complex needs.
Bradshaw (1972) developed taxonomy of four types of social need. In this scheme,
normative needs are those defined by professionals in given situations; as such, they are
likely to be paternalistic. Felt need is equated with want and may not truly represent need
at all. Expressed need is felt need turned into action; in other words, it is demand. Finally,
comparative need is the gap between service receipts between similar groups.
York (1982) politicized the definition of need as a social problem when he stated
that “social concerns come to be defined as social problems through a political process in
which varying actors have stakes in divergent outcomes” (p.53). Mc Killip (1987)
suggested that need was a “value judgment that some group has a problem that can be
solved” (p.7)
For all, need is defined as a gap-between the real and ideal conditions that is both
acknowledged by community value and potentially amenable to change.

1.3.2. Need Analysis/Assessment Definition
Needs assessment has been defined in many ways. According to the United Way of
America (1982) “need assessment is a systematic process of collection and analysis as

inputs into resource allocation decisions with a view to discovering and identifying goods
and services. The community is lacking in relation to the generally accepted standards and
for which there exists some consensus as to the community’s responsibility for their
provision.” (p.2). York (1982) stated simply that needs assessment is a “measure of how
much of what is needed”. For Mc Killip (1987) needs assessment is a process of “ordering
and prioritization” of community needs.
These definitions implicitly assume that needs assessment is basically a method of
data collection or population description. The present population to those who can and will
utilize it to make judgments about policy and programs. Needs assessment is population-
specific, but systemically focused, but systemically focused, empirically based, and
outcome-oriented. Need assessment, then is a form of applied research that extends beyond
13

data collection and analysis to cover the utilization of the finding. In other words, needs
assessment is a process of evaluating the problems and solutions identified for a target
population. In this process, it emphasizes the importance and relevance of the problems
and solutions.

1.3.3.
Models of Need Assessment:

McKillip (1987) provides three models of needs assessment:
•
Discrepancy Model
This model is the most straightforward and widely used, especially in education. This
model emphasizes normative expectations and involves the three phases: [1] Goal setting,
identifying what ought to be; [2] Performance measurement, determining what is; [3]
Discrepancy identification, ordering differences between what ought to be and what is.
•
Marketing Model

This model defines needs assessment as a feedback process used by organizations to
learn about and to adapt to the needs of their client populations.
A marketing strategy of needs analysis has three components: [1] Selection of the
target population, those actually or potentially eligible for the service and able to make the
necessary exchanges; [2] Choice of competitive position, distinguishing the agency's
services from those offered by other agencies and providers; [3] Development of an
effective marketing mix, selecting a range and quality of services that will maximize
utilization by the target population.
•
Decision-Making Model
This model is an adaptation of multiattribute utility analysis (MAUA) to problems of
modeling and synthesis in applied research.
The decision-making model has three stages: [1] Problem modeling: In this stage,
need identification takes place. The decision problem is conceptualized by options and
decision attributes; [2] Quantification: In this stage, measurements contained in the need
identification are transformed to reflect the decision makers’ values and interests; [3]
Synthesis: In this stage, an index that orders options on need will be provided. This index
also gives information on the relative standing of these needs.


14

1
.3.4. Steps in Needs Analysis:

McKillip (1987) identified five steps in needs analysis:
Step 1: Identify users and uses of the need analysis: The users of the analysis are
those who will act on the basis of the report; Knowing the uses of the need analysis can
help focus on the problems and solutions that can be entertained.
Step 2: Describe the target population and the service environment: For example,

geographic dispersion may include transportation, demographic characteristics of the target
population, eligibility restrictions, and service capacity. Client analysis refers to the
comparison of those who use services with those who are eligible to use services. Resource
inventories detail services available.
Step 3: Identify needs
•
Describe problems

According to McKillip (1987), three types of problems are identified by need analysis:
[1] Discrepancies: “Problems are revealed by comparison of expectations with outcomes.
Discrepancies are problems” (p. 11); [2] Poor outcome: Problems involve those at-risk of
developing poor outcomes; [3] Maintenance need: “A group with maintenance needs can
develop poor outcomes if services presently offered are withdrawn or altered” (p. 11).
Bradshaw identified four types of outcome expectations that support judgments of
needs: [1] Normative need: Expectations based on expert identification of adequate levels
of performance or service. (This type of expectations may miss real needs of target
population); [2] Felt need: Expectations that members of a group have for their own
outcomes (e.g., parents’ expectations about the appropriate amount of elementary level
mathematics instruction); [3] Expressed need: Expectations based on behavior of a target
population. Expectations are indicated by use of services (e.g., waiting lists, enrollment
pressure, or high bed occupancy rates); [4] Comparative need: Expectations based on the
performance of a group other than the target population. (Comparative expectations
mainly depend on the similarity of the comparison group and the target population. In
addition, such expectations can neglect unique characteristics that invalidate
generalizations)
•
Describe solutions
According to McKillip (1987), there are three criteria (dimensions) for evaluating
15

solutions: [1] Cost analysis; [2] Impact; [3] Feasibility
Step 4: Assess the importance of the needs.

Once problems and their solutions have been identified, needs are evaluated.
Step 5: Communicate results.
Finally, the results of the need identification must be communicated to decisions
makers, users, and other relevant audiences.

1.3.5.
Techniques for Need Analysis

- Resource Inventory: Information is gathered from service providers, either by survey or
interview; Provides a systematic mapping of services available, points to gaps and to
widely available services, and may identify services that planners were not aware of
- Secondary Data Analysis: Target population description; Synthetic estimation; Client
analysis; Direct and at-risk indicators.
- Surveys: Key informants; Client satisfaction; Training surveys
- Group Procedures: Focus groups; Nominal groups; Public hearing and community
forums

1.4. Material Adaptation
1.4.1. Defining Adaptation
Madsen and Bowen (1978) claim that “every teacher is in a very real sense an
adapter of the material he uses”, employing “one or more of a number of techniques:
supplementing, editing, expanding, personalizing, simplifying, modernizing, localizing, or
modifying cultural/situational content”. Ellis, M (1986) mentions the processes of
“retaining, rejecting, re-ordering and modification”, and Tomlinson(1998) refers to
“reducing, adding, omitting, modifying and supplementing.

1.4.2. Purposes of Adaptation

No textbook is perfect. Any textbook should be used judiciously, since it can not
cater equally to the requirements of every classroom setting (William, 1983, p.251). That is
why a textbook should be adapted. Teachers, with direct personal knowledge of their
classroom teaching, should see textbooks as their servants instead of masters; as a resource
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or an “idea bank” which can stimulate teachers’ own creative potential (Cunningsworth,
1984, p.65). Adapting materials helps teachers to maximize the value of the book for the
benefit of their learners. Hence they can improve it so that it is suitable for the particular
situation. (Apple and Jungck, 1990; Shannon, 1987)

1.4.3. Areas for Adaptation
McDonough and Shaw (1993) identify the possible areas to adapt as follows:
- Lack of grammar coverage in general
- Lack of practice of grammar points of particular difficulty
- Reading passages contain too much unknown vocabulary.
- Comprehension questions are two easy
- Subject matters are inappropriate for learners
- Photographs and other illustrative materials are not culturally acceptable
- Amount of material is too much/too little to cover
- Lack of guidance of teachers on group work and role play
- There are no vocabulary list or a key to exercises
However, they also note that more areas could be added to this list, depending on
actual contexts.

1.4.4. Techniques for Adaptation
There are various ways to adapt materials. Tomlinson (1998) suggests the
following options:
- Omission: The teacher leaves out things deemed inappropriate, offensive

and unproductive …. For the particular group.
- Addition: Where there seems to be inadequate coverage, the teachers may
decide to add material, either in form of texts or exercise material.
- Reduction: Where the teacher shortens an activity to give it less weight or
emphasis.
- Extension: Where an activity is lengthened in order to give an additional
dimension
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- Rewriting/modification: Teachers may occasionally decide to rewrite
material, especially exercise material, to make it more appropriate, more
communicative, more demanding, more accessible to their students.
- Replacement: Texts or exercise material which is considered inadequate for
whatever reason may be replaced by more suitable material.
- Re-ordering: Teachers may decide that the order in which the materials are
presented is not suitable for their students. They can then decide to plot
different course through the materials from the one writer has laid down.

This chapter has addressed key notions about ESP and examined issues in material
evaluation and adaptation. These issues, where possible, have been supported by academic
literature. It is hoped that they serve as a consolidate basis to carry out the study in the next
chapter.