Enhancing Learner Autonomy through Peer Assessment training – An Action Research = Tăng cường tính tự chủ học tập thông qua việc huấn luyện kỹ năng đánh giá ché

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI UNIVERSITY
OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES



PHAN THỊ NGỌC LỆ



ENHANCING LEARNER AUTONOMY
THROUGH PEER ASSESSMENT TRAINING
AN ACTION RESEARCH


TĂNG CƯỜNG TÍNH TỰ CHỦ HỌC TẬP
THÔNG QUA VIỆC HUẤN LUYỆN KỸ NĂNG ĐÁNH GIÁ CHÉO
NGHIÊN CỨU TÌM GIẢI PHÁP


M.A THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60.14.10


HANOI – 2012
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI UNIVERSITY
OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

PHAN THỊ NGỌC LỆ



ENHANCING LEARNER AUTONOMY
THROUGH PEER ASSESSMENT TRAINING
AN ACTION RESEARCH


TĂNG CƯỜNG TÍNH TỰ CHỦ HỌC TẬP
THÔNG QUA VIỆC HUẤN LUYỆN KỸ NĂNG ĐÁNH GIÁ CHÉO
NGHIÊN CỨU TÌM GIẢI PHÁP


M.A THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60.14.10


HANOI – 2012
iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
Acknowledgement
Abstract

List of tables, charts, and abbreviations

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale of the study
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study
1.3. Significance of the study
1.4. Methodology of the study
1.5. An overview of the rest of the chapter

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Learner autonomy
2.1.1. Concept of learner autonomy…………………………
2.1.2. The importance of learner autonomy in learning
2.1.3. Components of Learner Autonomy
2.1.3.1. Learning strategies
2.1.3.2. Learning attitudes and motivation
2.1.3.3. Self – esteem
2.2. Peer Assessment
2.2.1. Definition of Peer Assessment
2.2.2. Advantages of Peer Assessment
2.2.3. Disadvantages of Peer Assessment……………………
2.2.4. Training students for Peer evaluation…………………
2.2.5. Peer evaluation and the teacher…………………………
2.3. Writing
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2.4. Previous studies on Peer assessment and Learner Autonomy
2.4.1. Review of related studies worldwide
2.4.2. Review of related studies in Vietnam
2.4.3. Literature gaps

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1. Rationale for Action Research Design
3.1.1. Action Research

3.1.2. Design of the study
3.2. Participants……………………………………………………
3.2.1. Sampling of Test and Questionnaire Phases……………
3.2.2. Sampling of Interview Phase……………………………
3.3. Data collection instruments
3.3.1 Questionnaires
3.3.2 Interviews
3.4. Procedure of data collection
3.3.1. Phase 1 – Questionnaire
3.3.2. Phase 2 – Interview
3.5. Data analysis
3.5.1. Phase 1 – Questionnaire
3.5.1.1. Methods of data analysis
3.5.1.2. Procedure of data analysis
3.5.2. Phase 2 – Interviews
3.5.2.1. Step 1: Transcribing the interviews
3.5.2.2. Step 2: Classifying the data
3.5.2.3. Step 3: Interpreting the data


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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Research question 1
4.2. Research question 2 & 3
4.3. Discussion

CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Learner – centered approach in writing
5.2. Metacognitive strategies in writing

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION

6.1. Major findings of the study
6.2. Expected outcomes and contributions of the study
6.3. Limitations of the study and suggestions for further study


REFERENCES
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Questionnaire English version
Appendix 2: Questionnaire Vietnamese version
Appendix 3: Interview Questions - English version
Appendix 4: Interview Questions - Vietnamese version
Appendix 5: Transcription of Interview
Appendix 6: Peer Evaluation Sheet
Appendix 7: Samples of Writing




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LIST OF TABLES, CHARTS AND
ABBREVIATIONS
TABLES
PAGES

Table 1: A summary of the students‘ background…………
Table 2: Profiles of participants in phase two……………
Table 3: Advantages of Peer Assessment…………………
Table 4: Disadvantages of Peer Assessment……………


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CHARTS

Chart 1: Simple Action Research Model………………….
Chart 2: Detailed Action Research Model……………….
Chart 3: Results of Pre – Test and Post – Test……………
Chart 4: Learning Strategies Related Benefits……………
Chart 5: Attitude and Motivation Related Benefits……….
Chart 6: Self- esteem Related Benefits…………………….


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ABBREVIATIONS
USSH: University of Social Sciences and Humanities
HULIS: Hanoi University of Languages and International
Studies
VNUH: Vietnam National University, Hanoi
FIS: Faculty of International Studies
EFL: English Foreign Language

1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Introduction
This initial chapter outlines the research problem and rationale for
the study as well as its scope and significance. More importantly, the
aims and objectives are highlighted with three research questions to
provide guidelines for the whole research. Finally, the chapter concludes
with an overview of the rest of the paper, serving as a compass to
orientate the readers throughout the research.

1.1. Identification of the problem and rationale for the study
Learner autonomy has been a central theme in educational debate
over the last thirty years. In mainstream education, there has been a
paradigmatic shift away from teacher-centred learning towards more
individualized or participative models of the learning process, and trends
in language teaching have mirrored the developments in mainstream
educational practice (Nunan, 2000). In EFL, moves towards greater
learner independence have been advocated for both practical and
pedagogical reasons, with a view to offering greater flexibility of
timetable and syllabus, while making learning more learner-centred, more
motivating and more efficient (Dickinson, 1987). According to Benson &
Voller (1997), ―learning is more effective when learners are active in the
learning process, assuming responsibly for their learning and
participating in the decisions which affect it‖. Furthermore, autonomous
learning becomes increasingly necessary to university students as
Malcolm and Rindfleisch (1998, p.2) have pointed out in their study
―students arrive at university with the potential to be autonomous in their
learning‖.
2

It is clear that one of the areas that have the greatest potential for
adopting learner autonomy is writing (McCarthy, 1990, p.129). In any

educational settings, writing constitutes a very important factor. As a
productive skill, writing requires the learners to have profound
knowledge to produce a standard written product. Writing in general has
a very important role in society (Tribble, 1996; Martin, 1985). However,
writing is not as easy for the learners to acquire as the speaking skill. It
also takes a long time to have a habit of writing the targeted language and
many learners have failed to master this skill. This failure can be
attributed to many reasons, one of which is possibly the attitudes and
responsibility of students in practicing writing autonomously. On the one
hand, it is recently agreed among language teachers and researchers that
making mistakes and committing errors are inevitable parts of learning a
foreign language, especially in one productive skill like writing. In the
past, students often made assumptions that evaluations of their errors
made by teachers are more accurate, which may not always be true
(Orsmond & Merry, 1996). Falchikov and Goldfinch (2000) raised
concerns about the potential bias of teacher assessment. Since teacher
assessment is not always the most valid method, it would be more
appropriate to triangulate learning achievement via different sources such
as peer assessment. In other words, studying writing in their own by
checking errors among peers is required for all learners.
Undoubtedly, peer assessment has received much attention in
recent years due to the growing focus on learner independence and
autonomy. Despite the growing popularity of peer assessment, this idea is
still novel to most English teachers and students in Vietnam where
traditional assessment is still dominant. Universities put emphasis
on measuring learning achievement and knowledge through tests
(i.e. multiple-choice, essays, short-answer tests and the like). Alternative
3

assessment methods such as portfolios, interviews and journals are

not widely used in language classrooms. Besides this problem,
students' grades are usually determined solely by the judgment of
teachers. In this case, the assessment culture is quite narrow in the
sense that teachers do not collect diverse sources of learning
samples as some researchers (Huba & Freed, 2000; Shohamy, 1992)
recommended and students have no say regarding their assessments.
In the research area, a relative large body of research has been done
on learner autonomy, writing and peer assessment which can be named
here as Nunan (2000), Dickinson (1987), Holec (1981), Trinh (2008), and
so on. However, a few of those have examined into the close relationship
between peer assessment and autonomy in writing learning, and it seems
that none leaves room for specific enquiring into the difficulties that
students encounter when learning writing autonomously.
At the Faculty of International Studies, writing is often taught
integrated with other international issues and the task of checking errors
is left to students. Therefore, the role of learner autonomy in learning
writing is always put at one of the top goals in the course syllabus for FIS
– USSH students. However, the research interest among the university
teaching staff and students has seemingly moved away from this field. At
the Department library where research papers in English are kept, no
lecturers‘ research on peer assessment as well as writing skill can be
found.
This fact has inspired and urged me to conduct this study in an
attempt to explore the possibility of enhancing learner autonomy through
peer assessment training. The guiding hypothesis of this study is that
training students in peer assessment would empower them in the learning
process so that they can become independent learners who take
responsibility for their own learning.
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1. 2. Aims and objectives of the study
The study aims at identifying the possible impact of peer
assessment on the students‘ writing performance towards independent
learning as well as the role that teachers play in this process. Furthermore,
I wanted to gain deeper insights into the aspects of learner autonomy that
peer assessment training fail to promote and more importantly the reasons
that lead to this failure. From this investigation, I wanted to examine the
relationship between peer assessment training and learner autonomy.
These aims could be achieved by finding answers to the three following
research questions:
1. To what extent does the training of peer assessment in writing help
learners become independent learners?
2. What aspects of learner autonomy does peer assessment training
fail to promote?
3. Why does peer assessment training fail to promote those aspects of
learner autonomy?

1. 3. Significance of the study
As the study is finished, it is expected to be of great benefit for the
target population, their teachers, and other researchers interested in the
topic. To begin with, as the current research into the area of using peer
assessment to promote students‘ autonomy in writing is highly limited,
this study will partly fill the gap in the literature and serve as a reliable
source of reference for other researchers who share an interest in related
issues.
Furthermore, the researcher also hopes this study can, to some
extent, raise the awareness of students of their own difficulties and
perception on the benefits of learner autonomy to their English learning
process in general, and to their writing learning in particular. Besides, the
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researcher wants to suggest one new kind of assessment method among to
develop their autonomy in writing learning and ultimately to expand their
lexical knowledge. After all, it is the students that play the most decisive
role in their success in learning English in general, and writing in
particular.

1.4. Methodology of the study
To meet the objectives of the study, both qualitative and
quantitative approaches are exploited. Pre - Test and Post – Test, student
survey questionnaire and interviews are the main research tools.
Pre – test and Post – test are given to subjects to complete in Week
3 and Week 9 of the schedule to see whether they made a progress in
improving their mistakes in writing through giving and receiving
assessment from their peers or not.
Survey questionnaires are employed to obtain information from the
20 students. The language of the questionnaires is simple English so that
the participants can easily answer. The terminologies when presented in
the questionnaires are immediately followed by their definitions. Besides,
instructions as well as explanations of key terms are clearly given in
advance, and the researcher was always ready to answer any questions.
Meanwhile, semi-structured interviews are conducted among seven
students to triangulate the data collected from the tests and questionnaires
and to gather further information about their thoughts and expectations.
The language used is Vietnamese so as to make the respondents most
comfortable and, therefore, they will provide reliable information. All the
interviews are recorded with the respondents‘ permission. Also, notes are
taken when necessary to record important non-verbal behaviors.
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Lastly, the data collected are analyzed to address the research
questions. Tables, charts and diagrams are used for clearer presentation
and comparison.

1.5. An overview of the rest of the paper
The rest of the paper includes four chapters as follows:
Chapter 2 – Literature review – provides the background of the
study, including definitions of key concepts (learner autonomy, peer
assessment, etc) and critical review of related studies.
Chapter 3 – Methodology – describes the participants and
instruments of the study, as well as the procedure employed to carry out
the research.
Chapter 4 – Results and discussion – presents, analyzes and
discusses the findings according to the four research questions.
Chapter 5 – Recommendation – presents the author‘s suggestions
on solving some drawbacks of peer assessment on promoting learner
autonomy in writing to second – year FIS students based on the research
findings.
Chapter 6 – Conclusion – summarizes the main issues discussed in
the paper, the limitations and contributions of the research, as well as
some suggested directions for further studies.

Summary
By stressing the importance of learner autonomy in peer
assessment as well as disclosing the research gap, the chapter has
provided the rationale for the study. Besides, the framework of the paper
has been set in place with the four research questions and the clearly
defined scope.
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the literature related to this
study, laying the solid foundation for the sequent development of the
paper. Not only are the terms like learner autonomy, peer assessment, and
action research defined but critical background information about the key
terms is also presented to ensure a thorough understanding of the research
matters. Besides, the review will reveal the research gap thus
rationalizing the need to carry out the study.

2.1. Learner Autonomy
2.1.1. Concept of learner
The concept of autonomy has been around for a few years and even
become a buzzword within the context of language learning. Many
theorists and scholars define autonomy in many different ways, which
makes the results in this field quite immense. This study, however, only
reviews the literature concerning autonomy in studying English as the
second language.
One of the earliest advocates of autonomy in language teaching,
Holec (1981), defines autonomy as ―the ability to take charge of one‘s
own learning‖. According to this author, autonomous learners understand
the purpose of their learning, share in the setting of learning goals, take
initiatives in planning and executing learning activities, and regularly
review their learning and evaluate its effectiveness (Holec, 1981). From
this point of view, autonomy is understood to involve activities and
attitudes that students possess, and then develop to various degrees,
among which are learning strategies. Nunan (2000) and Benson (2001)
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share the same idea that autonomy implies a capacity to exercise over

one‘s own learning.
Dickinson (1987) states that autonomy is a ―situation in which the
learner is totally responsible for all of the decisions concerned with his or
her learning and implementation of those decisions‖. That does mean that
the learners should have much of the responsibility for planning and
organizing their learning, for assessing its values and even for suggesting
the mark that the work produced should get. As for language teachers, the
main roles they play should be information provider, counselor, assessor,
administrator, and organizer. For Richards and Schmidt (2002, p. 297),
this term refers to ―the principle that learners should be encouraged to
assume a maximum amount of responsibility for what they learn and how
they learn it.‖ Nevertheless, how much responsibility and independence
an autonomous learner should take is a source of dispute among scholars.
Nunan (1997, p.193) states that ―the fully autonomous learner
operates independently of classroom, teacher, or textbooks.‖ In contrast,
Palfreyman asserts, ―learner autonomy does not mean avoiding any
reliance on sources of help around you‖ but ―means being aware of these
sources and what they have to offer in different situations.‖ For example,
if students rely on their teachers for explaining of new words, it is teacher
dependence. However, if a student asks his/ her teacher to validate his/
her own distinction of several synonyms after he/ she already looks up the
dictionary and other sources of reference, it is a sign of learner autonomy.
In this case, the student has drawn his/ her teacher into his/ her own
learning agenda, effectively using the teacher as a source of help.
Thanasoulas (2000) finally concludes that if someone is characterized as
an autonomous learner, he can independently choose aims and purposes,
and set goals; choose materials, methods, and tasks; exercise choice and
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purpose in organizing and carrying out the chosen tasks; and choose the

criteria for evaluation.
It is noteworthy that autonomy can be thought of in terms of a
departure from education as a social process, as well as in terms of
redistribution of power attending the construction of knowledge and the
roles of the participants in the learning process. The relevant literature is
riddled with innumerable definitions of autonomy and other synonyms
for it, such as ―independence‘‖ (Sheerin, 1991), ―language awareness‖
(Lier, 1996), ―self-direction‖ (Candy, 1991), and ―andragogy‖ (Knowles,
1980), which testifies to the importance attached to it by scholars. As has
been intimated so far, the term autonomy has sparked considerable
controversy, in as much as linguists and educationalists have failed to
reach a consensus as to what autonomy really is. For example, learner
autonomy is ―essentially a matter of the learner‘s psychological relation
to the process and content of learning…a capacity for detachment, critical
reflection, decision-making, and independent action‖ (Little, 1991). It is
not something done to learners; therefore, it is far from being another
teaching method. In the same vein, Holec (1981) defines autonomy in
terms of the learner‘s willingness and capacity to control or oversee her
own learning.
To all intents and purposes, the autonomous learner takes a (pro-)
active role in the learning process, generating ideas and availing himself
of learning opportunities, rather than simply reacting to various stimuli of
the teacher (Boud, 1988; Kohonen, 1992; Knowles, 1975). For Rathbone
(1971), the autonomous learner is a self-activated maker of meaning, an
active agent in his own learning process. He is not one to whom things
merely happen; he is the one who, by his own volition, causes things to
happen. Learning is seen as the result of his own self-initiated interaction
with the world.
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In fact, according to the theories mentioned above, autonomy
learning is without doubt the best way to reach our educational goal.
McDevitt (1997) points out ―the end product of education is an
independent learner‖, and that cultivating a learner‘s independence or
autonomy should be regarded as the end goal that teachers and educators
try to pursue. Many educators believe that developing some degree of
autonomy is essential if learners are to become effective language users
(Littlewood, 1996; Nunan, 1997; Breen, 1984).

2.1.2. The importance of learner autonomy in language learning
As an old saying goes, you can bring a horse to water but you
cannot make him drink. This proverb highlights the importance of
learners during the language learning process. Learning will not occur
even if the teacher has provided all the necessary circumstances but the
learner is unwilling to participate in the process. In Scharle and Szabo‘s
words (2000, p.4), ―success in learning very much depends on learners
having a responsible attitude‖ – a building block of learning autonomy.
Moreover, language learning is lifelong learning: formal lessons
alone will not enable them to communicate effectively in complex life
and work situation. Hence, there is a need for learners to study on their
own and the best way to prepare them for that is to ―help them become
more autonomous‖. (Scharle and Szabo, 2000, p.4)

2.1.3. Components of Learner Autonomy
2.1.3.1. Learning Strategies
2.1.3.1.1. Concept of Learning Strategies
A central research project on learning strategies is the one surveyed
in O‘Malley and Chamot (1990). According to them, learning strategies
are ―the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them
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comprehend, learn, or retain new information‖ (O‘Malley and Chamot,
1990, cited in Cook, 1993)—a definition in keeping with the one
provided in Wenden (1998): ―Learning strategies are mental steps or
operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their
efforts to do so‖.
Learning Strategies are an essential part of effective language
learning. They aim at improving learners‘ communicative competence as
well as enhancing their self – direction in learning (Oxford, 1990).
According to Sandra (2008), sstrategies are especially important for
language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed
involvement, which is essential for developing communicative
confidence. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved
proficiency and greater self-confidence. Naturally, all learning strategies
their individual users, making the field of learning strategies full of
variety. The employment of learning strategies by a learner depends on
his/ her level of proficiency in the target language, age, task, individual
style, context, and possible cultural differences (Rubin, 1975). If a
language learner does not use learning strategies as an aid, there is a big
gap in his/ her learning capacity (Oxford, 1990). Moreover, better
language learners exploit a greater diversity and number of learning
strategies in the classroom then poorer learners (Wesche, 1981).
2.1.3.1.2. Classification of Learning Strategies
 Cognitive strategies
According to O‘Malley and Chamot (1990), cognitive strategies ―operate
directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance
learning‖. Learners may use any or all of the following cognitive
strategies (Cook, 1993):
a. Repetition, when imitating others‘ speech.
b. Resourcing, having recourse to dictionaries and other materials.

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c. Translation, that is, using their mother tongue as a basis for
understanding and / or producing the target language.
d. Note-taking
e. Deduction, conscious application of L2 rules
f. Contextualisation, when embedding a word or phrase in a meaningful
sequence.
g. Transfer, that is, using knowledge acquired in the L1 to remember and
understand facts and sequences in the L2.
h. Inferencing, when matching an unfamiliar word against available
information.
i. Question for clarification, when asking the teacher to explain.
 Metacognitive strategies
According to Wenden (1998), ―metacognitive knowledge includes
all facts learners acquire about their own cognitive processes as they are
applied and used to gain knowledge and acquire skills in varied
situations‖. In a sense, metacognitive strategies are skills used for
planning, monitoring, and evaluating the learning activity; ―they are
strategies about learning rather than learning strategies themselves‖
(Cook, 1993).
a. Directed attention, when deciding in advance to concentrate on
general aspects of a task.
b. Selective attention, paying attention to specific aspects of a task.
c. Self-monitoring, checking one‘s performance as one speaks.
d. Self-evaluation, appraising one‘s performance in relation to one‘s
own standards.
e. Self-reinforcement, rewarding oneself for success.
At the planning stage, also known as pre-planning (Wenden,
1998), learners identify their objectives and determine how they will

achieve them. Planning, however, may also go on while a task is being
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performed. This is called planning-in-action. Here, learners may change
their objectives and reconsider the ways in which they will go about
achieving them. At the monitoring stage, language learners act as
participant observers or overseers of their language learning, asking
themselves, ―How am I doing? Am I having difficulties with this task?‖
and so on. Finally, when learners evaluate, they do so in terms of the
outcome of their attempt to use a certain strategy. According to Wenden
(1998), evaluating involves three steps: 1) learners examine the outcome
of their attempts to learn; 2) they access the criteria they will use to judge
it; and 3) they apply it.

2.1.3.2. Learning Attitudes and Motivation
2.1.3.2.1. Learning Attitudes
Wenden (1998) defines attitudes as ―learned motivations, valued
beliefs, evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses
oriented towards approaching or avoiding‖. For her, two kinds of
attitudes are crucial: attitudes learners hold about their role in the learning
process and their capability as learners. In a sense, attitudes are a form of
metacognitive knowledge. At any rate, ―learner beliefs about their role
and capability as learners will be shaped and maintained…by other
beliefs they hold about themselves as learners‖ (Wenden, 1998). For
example, if learners believe that certain personality types cannot learn a
foreign language and they believe that they are that type of person, and
then they will think that they are fighting a ―losing battle,‖ as far as
learning the foreign language is concerned. Furthermore, if learners
labour under the misconception that learning is successful only within the
context of the ―traditional classroom,‖ where the teacher directs, instructs,

and manages the learning activity, and students must follow in the
teacher‘s footsteps, they are likely to be impervious or resistant to
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learner-centred strategies aiming at autonomy, and success is likely to be
undermined. In a way, attitudes are ―part of one‘s perception of self, of
others, and of the culture in which one is living [or the culture of the
target language‖ (Brown, 1987), and it seems clear that positive attitudes
are conducive to increased motivation, while negative attitudes have the
opposite effect.
2.1.3.2.2. Learning Motivation
Motivation is probably the most important characteristics that
students bring to a learning task. Chomsky (1988) points out the
importance of activating learners‘ motivation, ―The truth of the matter is
that about 99 percent of teaching is making students feel interested in the
material‖. However, the relationship between motivation and autonomy
in language learning has been a very controversial issue, the controversy
being on whether it is autonomy that enhances motivation or it is
motivation that produces autonomy. Dickinson (1995) suggests that
―autonomous learners become more highly motivated and work more
effectively‖. According to Gardner and Miller (1993), motivation is
comprised of three components: ―desire to achieve a goal, effort extended
in this direction, and satisfaction with the task‖.
It is manifest that in language learning, people are motivated in
different ways and to different degrees. Some learners like doing
grammar and memorising; others want to speak and role-play; others
prefer reading and writing, while avoiding speaking. Furthermore, since
―the learning of a foreign language involves an alteration in self-image,
the adoption of new social and cultural behaviours and ways of being,
and therefore has a significant impact on the social nature of the learner‖

(Williams, 1994, cited in Dornyei, 1998), an important distinction should
be made between instrumental and integrative motivation. Learners with
an instrumental orientation view the foreign language as a means of
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finding a good job or pursuing a lucrative career; in other words, the
target language acts as a ‗monetary incentive‘ (Gardner & MacIntyre,
1993). On the other hand, learners with an integrative orientation are
interested in the culture of the target language; they want to acquaint
themselves with the target community and become integral parts of it.
Therefore, in helping learners develop motivation to learn and thus
promoting learning autonomy, teachers can allocate more class time for
students‘ engagement in activities and materials that interest them and
that they wish to engage in for their own sake. Teachers can introduce
into the classroom ―the kinds of motivating activities in which learner –
centeredness as a precursor to learner autonomy can be integrated‖
(Spratt, Humhreys & Chan, 2002). Teachers should also serve as models
of motivation themselves, which can be one of the most effective ways
for the development of motivation.

2.1.3.3. Self – esteem
Closely related to attitudes and motivation is the concept of self-
esteem, that is, the evaluation the learner makes of herself with regard to
the target language or learning in general. ―Self-esteem is a personal
judgement of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the
individual holds towards himself‖ (Coopersmith, 1967, cited in Brown,
1987). If the learner has a ―robust sense of self‖, his relationship to
himself as a learner is unlikely to be marred by any negative assessments
by the teacher (Benson & Voller, 1997). Conversely, a lack of self-esteem
is likely to lead to negative attitudes towards his capability as a learner,

and to ―a deterioration in cognitive performance‖, thus confirming his
view of himself as incapable of learning (Wenden, 1998).


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2.2. Peer Assessment
2.2.1. Definition of Peer Assessment
Traditional assessment techniques saw the student as a passive
receiver of information who should be held accountable for absorbing
information in the course, and giving it back to teacher in the test.
Recently, however, the student is being ever more increasingly seen as a
plausible source of self-assessment. Moreover, students are seen capable
enough to assess their peers. Self-assessment requires the individual to
assess oneself; peer assessment requires his peers to assess him. There has
been a larger number of definitions of peer assessment from scholars and
theorists. .
Peer assessment is a process of a group of individuals grading their
peers in which may or may not involve an agreed criteria among teachers
and students (Falchikov, 1995). More specifically, Topping (1998)
defined peer assessment as "an arrangement in which individuals
consider the amount, level, value, worth, quality, or success of the
products or outcomes of learning of peers of similar status" (p. 250). The
process of peer assessment ought to involve students grading and/or
giving feedback on their peers' work, and being judged for the quality
of the appraisals they made (Davies, 2006). Such an assessment
method is usually associated with group work in which students
wish to separate the assessment of individual contributions from the
assessment of the groups' final products. According to Patri (2002), in a
situation where learners are able to assess their own quality and level of

performance and those of their peers, it is very likely that they will
be capable of understanding the assessment criteria. Brown (2004)
said that both self and peer assessment involve students in their
own destiny, encourage autonomy, and increase motivation. Cheng and
Warren (2005) maintained that involvement in and control over the
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methods, procedures, and outcomes of assessment as well as
understanding the underlying rationale are crucial for both teachers and
students. Peer assessment is an alternative that has significant
pedagogical value because it enables learners to take part in the
evaluation process and gives learners opportunities to participate in and
evaluate their peers' learning process and products.
Peer assessment is an assessment method through which the peers
of a candidate or student are requested to provide information about his
performance. It is considered by many educators and teachers to be a key
technique to get students to take more responsibility for their learning.
Reinders and Lazaro (2007) claimed that that if conducted appropriately,
peer assessment can provide numerous benefits for the learners. Peer-
assessment has the advantage of helping students to critically examine
the learning in progress. Through this, students understand their own
learning better. It also helps the students to foster collaboration skills and
improve autonomy. Self and peer-assessment are often considered
together since they share many advantages. Peer assessment can help
self-assessment. When students judge their peers' work, they can actually
have the opportunity to examine their own work as well. Peer and
self-assessment help students develop the ability to make judgments
(Brown and Knight 1994). Simply defined, peer assessment is students'
evaluating their peers. Van Den Berg, Admiraal, and Pilot (2006) define
peer assessment as a process in which students assess the quality of their

fellow students' work and provide each other with feedback.

2.2.2. Advantages of Peer Assessment
Race (1998) and Bostock (2000) argued about the usefulness of peer
assessment and listed its advantages as follows:
 Peer assessment gives students a sense of belonging to the
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assessment process and fosters their motivation;
 Peer assessment encourages a sense of ownership of the
process in a sense that students feel they are a part of the
evaluation process;
 Peer assessment improves learning;
 Peer assessment makes assessment a part of the learning process;
 Peer assessment encourages students' sense of autonomy in
learning;
 Peer assessment helps students identify their weak and strong
points;
 Peer assessment encourages students to analyze each other's work;
 Peer assessment improves self-assessment capabilities;
 Peer assessment encourages deep, meaningful learning;
 Peer assessment helps students to become more involved in the
learning process;
 Peer assessment helps students recognize assessment criteria;
 Peer assessment reduces the instructor's marking load;
 Peer assessment provides better quality feedback;
 Peer assessment gives students a wider variety of feedback;
 Peer assessment saves time since several groups can be
evaluated without teacher's presence
 Peer assessment develops a wide range of transferable skills

that can be later transferred to future employment.

2.2.3. Disadvantages of Peer Assessment
In spite of the advantages of peer assessment, it can cause potential
problems which need to be taken into account. Bostock (2000) and White
(2009) argued that there are some potential problems in peer assessment.
They claimed that, at first sight, the validity and reliability of assessment
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done by students will be under question. It is not clear whether the
feedback from fellow students is accurate and valuable. Indeed, students
may not be qualified enough to be able to evaluate each other; students
may not take the assessment process seriously. The danger is that
students may be influenced by friendships and solidarity among
themselves; students may not like peers' marking because of the
possibility of being negatively or unfairly evaluated by their peers, or
being misunderstood. Another problem that may arise here is that since
teachers are not involved in the evaluation process, students may
provide each other with false information.
Given the fact that peer assessment is not void of problems, some
researchers (e.g., Karaca, 2009) have presented some rules for peer
assessment to be taken into consideration; these rules can
considerably decrease the problems of peer assessment and hence
make it more effective. The rules are listed below:
 Students should be presented with brief information on what they
are supposed to do and what is expected of them;
 Students need to be familiar with the purpose of the evaluation;
 Students need to know what criteria to follow;
 Teachers need to make sure that students are following the
criteria clearly and appropriately;

 Students need to practice the process in stress-free environments;
 Teachers should cooperate with colleagues who have already used
peer assessment;
 Teachers should not expect peer assessment to be perfect at first
attempt.