INVESTIGATING HOW GENERAL EDUCATION MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHERS SUPPORT THE SOCIAL INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

INVESTIGATING HOW GENERAL EDUCATION MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHERS
SUPPORT THE SOCIAL INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

by

Rebecca Lee Canges





A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION



August 2010






Copyright 2010 Rebecca Lee Canges

UMI Number:
3418003






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i

DEDICATION

I am under no illusion that I could have accomplished this without the unwavering
support of my family and I dedicate this to them.
To Thien, I cannot fully express the depth of my appreciation for your support
during this process. Not to mention all of the other "projects" I've taken on within the
years that you have known me. You have made many sacrifices...and I appreciate every
one of them. Can you believe it? No more school!
To Cooper, you have served as my inspiration from the beginning. Your laughter
kept me going when I felt overwhelmed...and watching you grow has inspired me to be a
better person, a better teacher, and the best mother I can be. You are everything I ever
hoped for and more.
To my mom, your faith in me is truly amazing. Thank you for providing me with

a lifetime of encouragement and strength so that I could accomplish this goal. My success
is truly a reflection of the principles you instilled in me.
Finally, to my dad. You are always on my mind. When I began this journey it
never occurred to me that you would not be here to celebrate its completion. However, I
know that you are watching and would, if you could, tell everyone about your
daughter...the doctor.








ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee; Dr. Margo
Pensavalle, Dr. Kim Hirabayashi, and Dr. Shireen Pavri, for their guidance and support
throughout this process. It was truly a journey...a journey that led me back to what
inspired me to become a teacher in the first place; helping kids feel accepted.
I would also like to thank the teachers, students, and school that participated in
this study. Your openness and acceptance of me was truly appreciated.
I would like to acknowledge my family at California State University, Long
Beach. From the beginning (literally) you were all there for me. Your ongoing support
and guidance helped me realize that I could achieve great things. Thank you for always
understanding...always listening...and always providing me with the encouragement I
needed throughout this process.
Thank you to my family and friends who have stuck with me during these three

years. It fills my heart to know that I have such caring, supportive and loving people
surrounding me.
Finally, to the educators that shared this three year journey with me. Thank you
for the laughs and words of encouragement along the way. I am proud to call you my
friends...and look forward to calling you doctor!









iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. ii
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW ...........................................................................................1
Definition of Terms .................................................................................................14
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .....................................................15
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................51
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ..........................................................................................66
FIGURE 1 ……………………………………………………………………….69
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................101
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................124
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................136

Appendix A: Social Support Interview: Teacher ....................................................136
Appendix B: Social Support Interview: Student .....................................................137
Appendix C: Observation Field Notes Template................................................... 138











iv

ABSTRACT
Because of the focus on inclusion in public schools today, the interest regarding
how to effectively support students with special needs in the general education
environment, both academically and socially has been ignited. While we have witnessed
an increase in the academic success of students included in general education classrooms,
we have not yet successfully identified specific strategies a teacher can use to meet the
social needs of students with special needs included in their classroom. Because of this,
the research question used to guide this study asked how general education teachers
promote the social inclusion of students with special needs in their classroom so that
effective strategies may be established for other teachers to implement.
Through a combination of teacher interviews, interviews with students with
special needs, and classroom observations, the findings of this study offers insight into
the strategies general education teachers identify as important to promote the social
acceptance of students with special needs included in their classrooms. Collectively, the

general education teachers that participated in this study reported that the following
strategies were essential to increasing the social acceptance of students with special needs
in their classrooms (1) Arranging the Environment, (2) Establishing a Tone of Respect in
the Classroom, (3) Providing Instructional Support, (4) Providing Peer Support, and (5)
Providing Direct Instruction for Social Support. However, classroom observations and
results from student interviews revealed significant discrepancies between the teacher's
knowledge of the strategies and their practice.



1

CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW

Securing acceptance in society can be a major obstacle for individuals with
special needs. Before the passage of Public Law 94-142, commonly known as the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1975, students with special needs
were educated in learning environments that were segregated from their non-disabled
peers, often receiving a sub-par education within institutions and specialized schools. In
some cases, parents were forced to pay for private schools because public schools did not
provide appropriate educational settings for their children (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010).
Schools are, possibly, the most important venue for social opportunities for children and
youth. Yet, through their use of labeling and segregation, schools unintentionally foster
the development of negative attitudes towards students with special needs. More often
than not, individuals with special needs are viewed as different and treated as somehow
less than others making it increasingly difficult for them to be socially accepted and
viewed as equal members of the school community (Swaim & Morgan, 2001).
Perhaps one of the greatest challenges faced by individuals with special needs lies

in the barriers created as a result of society’s adverse attitudes and persistent prejudice
toward them. Many sociologists agree that society plays a role in the development and
maintenance of prejudicial attitudes (Johnson, 2006). Generally each society maintains its
impermissible and permissible prejudices. Impermissible prejudices are those most
people recognize as such. However, permissible prejudices are those that may be inherent
and not recognized as prejudice. Instead, the prejudicial views are seen as truths based on

2

historical and cultural views (Johnson, 2006). According to Shapiro (1999), negative
attitudes about individuals with special needs are learned early in life through cultural
influences such as family, school, the media, and literature. For example, many children
are introduced to stereotypical images that portray people with special needs as those to
be ridiculed, feared, or dismissed when watching movies or reading classic fairy tales.
Examples of this can be seen in the Disney animated version of Victor Hugo’s (1831)
The Hunchback of Notre Dame where the title character is berated and ridiculed by the
townspeople who hail him as “the ugliest face in Paris”. Laughter fills this scene as the
Hunchback is mocked for his appearance and crowned the “King of Fools” teaching
children that those who look different from the mainstream public are different and
should be treated as such. Views such as these can also be seen in other childhood tales
such as Beauty and the Beast, The Frog Prince and The Ugly Duckling. The
consequences of such beliefs result in segregation and avoidance of individuals with
special needs and because there is no real pressure from society to think any differently,
the negative attitudes become permissible prejudice.
Though societal barriers persist, structural changes within schools have provided
individuals with special needs an avenue toward equality and acceptance. While many
school districts continue to segregate children with disabilities by placing them in special
education classrooms separate from their typically developing peers, mandates like IDEA
remind us that “the education of students with disabilities can be made more effective by
having high expectations for such children and ensuring their access to the general

education curriculum to the maximum extent possible” (IDEA-2007, Sec. 601 (c) (5)

3

(A)).As a result of legal mandates to protect the rights of individuals with special needs,
the move toward full-inclusion and educating students with special needs in the Least
Restrictive Environment (LRE) has become more prevalent.
Full inclusion refers to providing education for students with special needs,
regardless of the severity or type of disability, in the general education classroom for the
entire school day (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010). Advocates of inclusion maintain that all
students have the right to be educated along-side typical peers, and believe that by being
included in a general education classroom, students with special needs will experience
stronger academic and social achievements (Bunch & Valeo, 2004). Simultaneously,
proponents of inclusion feel that the stigma that exists about individuals with special
needs can be reduced when students with special needs are educated with their typical
peers (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996).Studies have shown that when students with special
needs are included in general education classrooms they improve their test performance,
have a higher rate of meeting Individualized Education Program (IEP) goals, and increase
their chances of completing high school and attending college (Rea, McLaughlin, &
Walther-Thomas, 2002). Family members of individuals with special needs that are
included in general education classrooms have pointed out that their children have greater
access to positive role models, increase their self-esteem, are more likely to form
friendships, and are better prepared for the real world (McLeskey, 2007).
While our education system continues to move toward more inclusive practices,
some fear that placement in the general education classroom is neither effective nor
appropriate for every student with a special need. Opponents of the inclusion movement

4

express concern stating that general education teachers are not prepared to educate

students with special needs and, therefore, cannot provide them with the specialized
curriculum and accommodations that they require (Dymond & Russel, 2004). Limited
materials and support in addition to the large class sizes are additional reasons related to
why some oppose inclusion. Furthermore, parents of students with special needs have
expressed concern that if placed in a general education classroom, their children will not
have access to an individualized education or instruction for functional life skills. Finally,
studies have noted that students that are included may feel frustrated, unsupported, and
isolated (Eisenman & Tascione, 2002). While many teachers often assume that the mere
physical presence of students with special needs in the classroom is enough to foster the
student's social acceptance research has revealed that without specific strategies to create
a socially accepting classroom environment, students with special needs struggle to
develop authentic friendships with their typically developing peers (Siperstein, Parker,
Norins-Bardon, & Widaman, 2007; Swaim & Morgan, 2001).
While much of the research has focused on ways general education teachers can
support the academic needs of students with special needs that are included, over the last
decade there has been an increased interest in the social functioning of students with
special needs in inclusive settings (Anderman, 2003; Chadsey & Gun Han, 2005;
Korinek, Walther-Thomas, McLaughlin, & Toler Williams, 1999; Meadan & Monda-
Amaya, 2008; Pavri & Luftig, 2001; Pearl, Van Acker, Rodkin, Bost, Coe, & Henley,
1998). Although studies have found that placement in an inclusive setting can improve a
student’s school experience by enhancing their self-esteem (Mastropieri& Scruggs,

5

2010), barriers hindering the social acceptance of students with special needs continue to
exist. Widespread implementation of inclusion programs has been paralleled by the
realization that children’s attitudes about their peers with special needs are a key element
in the success of inclusive education. In fact, negative attitudes held by students without
disabilities about their peers with special needs are generally recognized as a key barrier
to successful social inclusion at school (McDougall, DeWitt, King, Miller, & Killip,

2004) and are often the cause behind students with special needs feeling socially isolated.
Children bring a set of social interaction skills to social settings, such as a
classroom. However, many children with special needs possess social difficulties which
may prohibit their ability to engage a peer and establish friendships (Court & Givon,
2003). Teachers have revealed that typically developing students are unsure as to how to
enter into a relationship with their peers with special needs (Colwell, Thompson, &
Burke, 2001) and admit that they struggle with providing the skills and strategies to
facilitate these relationships in their classroom. These findings raise a variety of questions
about the availability of social supports for students with special needs that are included
in general education classrooms as well as how educators can assist in promoting the
social acceptance of students with special needs. Since one of the principal goals of
inclusion for children with special needs is to develop social acceptance and increase
positive social interactions with typical peers, research is needed to identify effective
skills and strategies that general education teachers can utilize to promote the social
acceptance of their students with special needs.

6

Over the past three decades, attempts to generate increased opportunities for
social inclusion and acceptance for students with special needs has focused on teaching
social skills to the target student with special needs (Sapon-Shevin, Dobbelaere,
Corrigan, Goodman, & Mastin, 1998). Although appropriate social behaviors typically
increase as a result of social skills interventions (McIntosh, Vaughn, & Zaragoza, 1991)
studies have shown that there is little correlation between the implementation of social
skills interventions and an increase in social acceptance of students with special needs
(Vaughn, McIntosh, & Spencer-Rowe, 1991). School-wide programs such as Circle of
Friends (Patterson, Liu, Goodvin, Hummel, & Nance, 2008) and Best Buddies (Grenot-
Scheyer, Staub, Peck, & Schwartz, 1998) have also been implemented to aid in the social
acceptance of students with special needs. These programs center on recruiting students
without disabilities in “befriending” a student with special needs. While such programs

continue to be implemented in schools as a way to promote social interactions between
students with and without special needs, a noted concern is that the programs fail to
produce true reciprocity and preservation of friendships (Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998).
Without a means to foster the social inclusion and acceptance of students with special
needs so that friendships can occur naturally within the classroom, the relationships that
are formed may remain superficial and one-sided (Sapon-Shevin, et al., 1998).
One fundamental building block to the successful inclusion of students with
special needs is to ensure that the classroom possesses essential elements of an effective
inclusive program with a culture of acceptance. Educators have agreed that some of the
critical components required in an inclusive classroom that may facilitate a student’s

7

social development include: a) creating an environment that embraces a sense of
community where differences are valued; b) employing a range of strategies that will
assist students in developing natural and ongoing social relationships; c) Implementing an
array of strategies to develop students pro-social skills; and d) structuring the classroom
and instruction to allow for flexible grouping and authentic learning experiences
(McLeskey, 2007). Given this, research must now focus on the skills and strategies
educators can use to consistently facilitate social learning opportunities in these settings
so that students with special needs are no longer seen as an inclusion student, but as a
valued and equal member of the classroom community.
Statement of the Problem

Inclusive schools and classrooms afford numerous opportunities for students with
special needs to develop social relationships with their typically developing peers.
However, time and time again, research reveals that students with special needs are
socially rejected by their typical peers both in and outside of the inclusive classroom
(Heward, 2006; Krajewski & Flaherty, 2000; Lucas, 1999; Pearl et al., 1998; Vaughn &
Haager, 1994). Being socially isolated from your peer group can result in depression that

can deepen over time; eventually contributing to a negative self-image and issues with
proper social functioning as an adult (Court & Givon, 2003). While schools have
recognized that peer rejection is a persistent problem for students with special needs,
there have been inadequate methods implemented to prevent it.
Although numerous policies and legislation for including students with special
needs have been put in place during the past 30 years, currently, many schools rely on

8

increased contact through the physical act of inclusion to promote the social acceptance
of students with special needs. However, research has revealed that it will take much
more than physically integrating students with special needs to alter typically developing
children's negative attitudes so that they will accept students with special needs into their
social network (Freeman, 2000). In a study that examined the attitudes of students with
varying levels of experience in inclusion programs, Krajewski and Hyde (2000)
concluded that, over time, some small positive shifts in attitude occurred among typically
developing peers when just contact was made. However, a review of the data also
suggested that, by and large, the attitudes of typically developing peers stayed the same
or in some instances, became more negative toward their peers with special needs. The
inconsistencies observed among the student's attitudes were attributed to the schools
over-reliance on contact between the peers as their primary method for breaking down
stereotypes rather than utilizing strategies for creating school and classroom cultures of
acceptance. Findings such as these indicate that contact is not enough; promoting social
acceptance needs to be intentionally facilitated by school personnel; and more
specifically, teachers.
Because children spend a substantial portion of their day in classrooms, the social
support they receive from their teachers could possibly play an important role in their
academic and social functioning. In fact, preliminary research has indicates that a
teacher's attitude toward their students with special needs is one of the most powerful
factors in the students being accepted by their peers (Pavri & Luftig, 2001). Furthermore,

students with special needs have reported feeling more comfortable in their inclusive

9

classroom when their teacher treats them as an equal member of the classroom culture
rather than segregating them by, for example, placing them in the back of the classroom
with a paraprofessional (Jordan & Stanovich, 2001). There is a need to explore effective
intervention strategies that a general education teacher can use to facilitate a climate of
acceptance for students with special needs in the general education classroom. Therefore,
this study investigated the strategies general education teachers are currently using to
provide a socially supportive and accepting classroom environment for students with
special needs so that concrete methods for promoting the social inclusion of students with
special needs in inclusive settings can be documented. In addition, the findings highlight
whether the teachers are implementing the strategies they deem as essential as well as if
the students with special needs are receptive to the strategies their teachers use. Without a
common consensus based on research findings related to effective methods for promoting
a socially accepting classroom, schools will persist in their over-reliance on mere
physical inclusion to promote social acceptance of students with special needs. This
dependence on ineffective habitual practices will make it increasingly difficult for
students with special needs to develop social networks among their typically developing
peers and, in the end, contribute to the social isolation they endure.
Purpose of the Study

The role that the teacher plays in creating the social environment within which
classroom peer relationships develop has received little attention in the literature
(Anderman, 2003; Ryan & Patrick, 2001). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
examine the strategies general education middle school teachers are implementing to

10

provide a socially accepting classroom for students with special needs. Furthermore, the
perceptions of students with special needs regarding their teacher’s ability to socially
support them in the classroom were investigated. Much of the literature suggests that
students with special needs have a difficult time engaging in social interactions and
forming friendships with their peers with and without disabilities (Freeman, 2000;
Heward, 2006; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010; Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998). In addition, a
vast number of studies have indicated that students without special needs possess
negative attitudes about their peers with special needs (Vaughn & Haager, 1994; Pearl et
al., 1998; Lucas, 1999; Krajewski & Flaherty, 2000; Heward, 2006). Though the
literature on teachers’ attitudes reveal overall positive perceptions toward the concept of
inclusion, limited understanding and inadequate preparation on how to deal with the
social and behavioral differences of students with special needs are frequently cited as
contributors to teacher failure to provide social support for them in the classroom
(Korinek et al., 1999; Pavri & Luftig, 2001). Furthermore, scarce research on the most
effective methods a teacher should employ to support the social inclusion and acceptance
of students with special needs in a general education classroom indicates a gap between
research-based theory and practice. To examine the current practices used to provide a
socially accepting classroom for students with special needs by general education
teachers the following research question will be explored in this study:
How do middle school general education teachers promote the social inclusion of
students with special needs in their classroom?




11

Importance of the Study
Historically, special education research has focused on placement, service-
delivery options, and providing support for general education teachers so that they can

academically support the students with special needs in the inclusive environment
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010). Few studies have focused on how general education
teachers are providing social support for students with special needs so that the students
are able to develop authentic relationships with their typical peers. However,
implementation of regular practice curricula that increases the acceptance and
socialization for students with special needs has been targeted by educational researchers
as an important element to explore (Freeman, 2000; Pavri & Luftig, 2001). Far too often,
educators are assuming that by simply physically including a student with special needs
in the general education classroom environment, you will see positive social interactions
unfold. As is evident from the number of studies that show typically developing students
continue to hold negative attitudes towards their peers with special needs, even when in
inclusive classroom settings, it is recognized that more needs to be done so that students
with special needs are seen as equal members of the classroom. Having equal status
would provide students with special needs with the same opportunities to engage and be
accepted into the classroom’s social networks.
Because the relationships developed during childhood play a central role in later-
life adjustment, it is imperative that schools create a culture that supports and promotes
acceptance of diverse students; especially those with special needs (Anderman, 2003;
Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008). Significant correlations have been found between

12

rejection by peers and high anxiety, maladjustment, and hostility among individuals with
special needs later in life (Damico & Sparks, 1986). Findings such as this highlight the
urgency to explore effective intervention strategies that will facilitate a climate of
acceptance for students with special needs in the inclusive setting. By providing
increased social and educational support in our schools and, more specifically, our
classrooms, we may be able to alter students’ negatives attitudes towards their peers with
special needs. Such support can assist with breaking down the barriers that exist between
these two groups of students so that authentic friendships may develop and students with

special needs are not condemned to endure the ramifications of social isolation that they
experience as adolescents into their adult lives.
School programs that are developed to increase contact and encourage supportive,
respectful, and responsible relationships among students with and without special needs
have proven to be effective in establishing a more accepting school climate (McDougall
et al., 2004). Without the efforts of a school to promote social acceptance, students tend
to associate only with other students whom they already know and who are most like
themselves (Korinek et al., 1999). However, by creating a classroom and school
community of social acceptance and appreciation of diversity, schools will witness a
culture that exhibits social benefits for all students (Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008) and
could subsequently, aid in the successful implementation of inclusion programs. This
study will contribute to the field by identifying effective strategies implemented by
general education teachers to provide a socially accepting classroom environment for
students with special needs.

13

Limitations and Delimitations
Certain limitations must be considered when reviewing this study. First, the data
was gathered from a relatively small sample of teachers in one school district in Southern
California. Future investigations that focus on larger numbers of teachers and expand
data collection beyond one school district would help to provide evidence regarding
generalizability to these findings.
A second limitation involves the use of interviews as a source of qualitative data.
As Patton (2002) notes, interviews have the possibility of containing distorted
information due to anxiety within the participant. Further, interview data is subject to
recall error of the researcher. To account for these limitations, running field notes were
included within the data to provide checks and corroboration on what is stated during the
interview. In addition, each interview was digitally recorded to account for any possible
recall error.

A noted delimitation in this study stems from the use of purposeful, rather than
random sampling of the study participants. Though random sampling lends itself to
increased empirical generalizations, purposeful sampling can yield critical information
and in-depth understandings about specific questions asked (Patton, 2002). Given that
this study sought to investigate how exemplary general education middle school teachers
were providing social support for their included students, it was vital to use purposeful
sampling in order to select participants that would serve as high-quality examples.





14

Definition of Terms
______________________________________________________________________
Terms Definitions

Attitude Attitudes are complex and, therefore, difficult to
define. However, researchers agree that attitudes
consist of cognitive, affective, and behavioral
intentions (Lee & Rodda, 1994). A number of
definitions regarding the term attitude exist. For the
purposes of this paper, attitude is defined as, “a
psychological tendency that is expressed by
evaluating a particular entity with some degree of
favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1, as
cited in Beck & Fritz-Verticchio, 2003).

Inclusion The education of students with special needs in the

general education classroom, under the
guidance of the general education classroom
teacher (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010).

Individuals with Disabilities “A law passed in 1975 that specified that all
Education Act (IDEA) children-including those with disabilities formerly
excluded from school-were entitled to a free,
appropriate public education” (Mastropieri &
Scruggs, 2010, p. 3).

Social Acceptance Associated with a child's acceptance level among
his/her peers; how much other children want to be
with that child (Freeman, 2000)

Social Support A process by which individuals feel valued, cared
for and connected to a group of people”
(Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001, p. 391).

Student with special needs Students served by IDEA under one of the 13
disability categories.

Typically developing students Most people look, move, communicate, behave, and
learn in general patterns that we call “typical” or
“average”. Therefore, students who have developed
without any identifiable disabilities, as noted by
IDEA, will be referred to as typically developing.



15

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

Over the last 30 years, educating students with special needs in the general
education classroom environment has received considerable attention. The movement
toward a more inclusive education for students with special needs gained legislative
recognition in the United States with the passing of Public Law 94-142, The Education
for all Handicapped Children’s Act, in 1975. Although the goals of inclusion include both
academic and social objectives, research has revealed that for it to be considered truly
successful, the inclusive environment must support the development of authentic
relationships between students with and without special needs (Meyer, Park, Grenot-
Scheyer, Schwartz, & Harry, 1998). Unfortunately, studies have shown that students with
special needs that are included in the general education classroom setting are frequently
teased and insulted by their typically developing peers (Bunch & Valeo, 2004) resulting
in them feeling socially isolated and unaccepted by their peer group. Although general
education teachers, on average, feel prepared to support the academic needs of their
included students (Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008), many report that they do not feel
equipped to effectively support their social inclusion (Freeman, 2000; Korinek et al.,
1999).
In order to maximize the effectiveness of an inclusive placement for a student
with special needs, there needs to be a clear understanding and awareness of the tools and
strategies general education teachers can put into practice to create a socially accepting

16

classroom environment for students with special needs. Without this, teachers may

overlook the critical need behind the implementation of social learning opportunities to
promote the acceptance of students with special needs in their classrooms, leaving the
students feeling socially segregated from their peers.
For this literature review, the following key ideas have been identified to support
the research question:
1. Inclusion: A Brief Overview
2. Theoretical Perspective: Contact Theory
3. Barriers to the Social Acceptance of Students with Special Needs
4. The Need for Social Acceptance
5. Building a Classroom Culture of Social Acceptance
Before offering a summary, a literature-based rationale for the methodologies
used in the study to collect data is presented.
Inclusion: A Brief Overview

“Have you ever been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut
you in and the great ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and
sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship
before my education began, only I was without compass or sounding line, and no way of knowing
how near the harbor was. "Light! Give me light!" was the wordless cry of my soul, and the light
of love shone on me in that very hour.”
--Helen Keller

As students with special needs have gained equal access to a public education we
have witnessed a move from separate schools and institutions to special education classes
on public school campuses. Further, some students with special needs are now receiving
their education alongside typically developing peers in general education classroom
settings. This placement option, frequently referred to as inclusion, is an educational

17

reform movement seeking to establish full integration of students with special needs in
the general education environment. Though the literature offers a multitude of
definitions, for the purposes of this study, inclusion refers to “placing and serving all
students with special needs, regardless of the severity or type of disability, entirely within
the general education classroom for the entire school day” (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010,
p. 19). According to Friend and Bursuck (2009), inclusive practices have three
dimensions: a) physical integration, where students are placed in a classroom with their
typical peers; b) instructional integration, where curriculum is provided with the same
level of high quality instruction for all learners in the classroom; and c) social integration,
where relationships between students with and without special needs are nurtured.
The notion of inclusive education is based on the belief that students with special
needs should be fully integrated into their school communities by participating in all
facets of general education including but not limited to the classroom, cafeteria, hallways,
and common social meeting areas, for example, a school quad used for lunch. In addition,
the instruction they receive should be based on their abilities, not their disabilities. When
students with special needs are selectively integrated in general education settings they
are said to be mainstreamed (Friend & Bursuck, 2009). With mainstreaming, students
continue to be pulled-out of the general education environment to a special education
classroom setting for the majority of the day. Whereas in inclusive models the general
education teacher maintains the responsibility for the child’s education throughout the
school day (Grenot-Scheyer, Jubala, Bishop, & Coots, 1996). Therefore, it is essential

18

that general education teachers are prepared to support these students both academically
and socially so that their inclusion experience is successful.
While many educators agree that students with special needs should have access
to the general education curriculum by being included, many question the appropriateness
of placing all students with special needs in a general education classroom. Anti-
inclusion attitudes are commonly found among educators and parents of students with

special needs who express concern that the general education teachers are not prepared to
accommodate their children (Salend & Duhaney, 1999) stating that there are few pre-
service credential programs that explicitly prepare general education teachers to work
with students with special needs (Pugach, Shaker, Shanley, & Yinger, 2002). In addition,
with the recent reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
and the onset of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) there has been a push to educate all
students according to the state standards. Subsequently, some parents of students with
special needs are concerned that their children will not develop the functional life skills
they perceive their children need to be successful in their community (Billingsley &
Albertson, 1999). Finally, though advocates believe that inclusion in the general
education environment will result in increased social opportunities with typical peers;
several studies have shown that students that are included are often ridiculed by students
in their classroom (Pivak, McComas & Laflamme, 2002). Subsequently, opponents of
inclusion elect to keep their students in special education classrooms to “protect” them
from the possibility of rejection from their typical peers.

19

While steeped in controversy, many educators and parents of students with special
needs agree that inclusive placements are associated with positive outcomes in academics
and promote social learning opportunities between students with and without special
needs that would not otherwise occur in a segregated special education classroom
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001; Palmer Fuller, Aurora, & Nelson, 2001; Pavri & Monda-
Amaya, 2001). Placement in the general education environment, even for part of the day,
can provide opportunities for expanding social networks and building authentic
relationships with typical peers (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001). Further, research has
shown that student’s attitudes toward them are more positive when their peers with
special needs are fully included (Freeman, 2000). Not only do they benefit from the
experience of being in an inclusive school environment, but they can increase their
awareness by learning about their peers with special needs (McDougall, et al., 2004).

Finally, it has been recognized that students who are included are more likely to pass
state-wide assessments and increase their chances of completing high school, going to
college, and obtaining a job (Salend & Duhaney, 1999).
In their book The Inclusive Classroom Grenot-Scheyer, Bishop, Jubala, & Coots
(1996) sum up inclusion by stating:
Inclusion is really about school change to improve the educational system for all students.
It means changes in the curriculum, changes in how teachers teach and how students
learn, as well as changes in how students with and without disability labels interact with
and relate to one another (p. 1).

Although many battles have been waged to achieve equal access to education for
individuals with special needs they continue to be labeled as the least understood
minority. Opposition towards inclusion can lead to further segregation of individuals with