Multidisciplinary know how for smart textiles developers

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Multidisciplinary know- how for smart- textiles
developers
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
The Textile Institute and Woodhead Publishing
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individual and corporate members in over 90 countries. The aim of the Institute is
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A list of Woodhead books on textile science and technology, most of which
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We are always happy to receive suggestions for new books from potential
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name, contact address and details of the topic/s you are interested in to sarah.
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The Woodhead team responsible for publishing this book
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles: Number 139
Multidisciplinary
know- how for
smart- textiles
developers
Edited by
Tünde Kirstein
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited in association with The Textile Institute
Woodhead Publishing Limited,
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First published 2013, Woodhead Publishing Limited
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013; Chapter 13 © Awa Garlinska and Andreas
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2012954112
ISBN 978-0-85709-342-4 (print)
ISBN 978-0-85709-353-0 (online)
ISSN 2042-0803 Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles (print)
ISSN 2042-0811 Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles (online)

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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Contents

Contributor contact details xi
Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles xv
1 The future of smart- textiles development: new
enabling technologies, commercialization and
market trends 1
T. K IRSTEIN , TechPublish, Switzerland
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The technological trade- off between smartness
and integration 2
1.3 New enabling technologies for smart textiles 5
1.4 New approaches in commercialization of smart textiles 13
1.5 Future trends 18
1.6 Conclusion 22
1.7 References 22
Part I Materials 27
2 Types and processing of electro- conductive
and semiconducting materials for smart textiles 29
A. S CHWARZ , RWTH Aachen University, Germany
and L. V
AN L ANGENHOVE , Ghent University, Belgium
2.1 Introduction 29

2.2 Electro- conductive and semi conductive materials 30
2.3 Electro- conductive materials and their properties 36
2.4 Metals 37
2.5 Carbon: carbon black (CB), graphite and carbon
nanotubes (CNT) 42
2.6 Intrinsically conductive polymers (ICP) 45
2.7 Semiconductive materials and their properties 47
v
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
vi Contents
2.8 Processing electro- conductive and semiconductive
materials into textile structures 51
2.9 Future trends 58
2.10 Sources of further information and advice 58
2.11 Notes 59
2.12 References 60
3 Optical fi bers for smart photonic textiles 70
S. G ORGUTSA , J. B ERZOWKSA and M. S KOROBOGATIY , Ecole
Polytechnique de Montréal, Canada
3.1 Introduction to photonic textiles 70
3.2 Total internal refl ection (TIR) fi ber- based photonic textiles 73
3.3 Photonic bandgap (PBG) fi ber- based photonic textiles 76
3.4 Photonic textile manufacturing 82
3.5 Refl ective properties of photonic bandgap textiles
under ambient illumination 85
3.6 Animated photonic bandgap textiles using mixing
of ambient and emitted light 86
3.7 Potential applications of photonic bandgap textiles 86
3.8 Conclusion 89
3.9 Acknowledgments 89

3.10 References 89
4 Conductive nanofi bres and nanocoatings
for smart textiles 92
S. M. S HANG and W. Z ENG , The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hong Kong
4.1 Introduction 92
4.2 Conductive nanofi bres 92
4.3 Conductive nanocoating 101
4.4 Application of nanotechnology in smart textiles 110
4.5 Future trends 120
4.6 Sources of further information and advice 120
4.7 References 120
5 Polymer- based resistive sensors for smart textiles 129
C. C OCHRANE and A. C AYLA , University Lille Nord de
France, ENSAIT / GEMTEX, France
5.1 Introduction 129
5.2 Mechanical resistive sensors 132
5.3 Chemical resistive sensors 139
5.4 Temperature resistive sensors 144
5.5 Conclusion and future trends 148
5.6 References 148
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Contents vii
6 Soft capacitance fi bers for touch- sensitive
smart textiles 154
S. G ORGUTSA and M. S KOROBOGATIY , Ecole Polytechnique
de Montréal, Canada
6.1 Introduction: overview of capacitive sensing 154
6.2 Soft capacitor fi bers for electronic textiles 156
6.3 Electrical characterization of the isolated capacitor

fi ber 162
6.4 Capacitor fi ber as a one- dimensional distributed
touch sensor 170
6.5 Fully woven two- dimensional touch pad sensor
using a one- dimensional array of capacitance fi bers 183
6.6 Conclusion 186
6.7 References 186
Part II Technologies 189
7 Textile fabrication technologies for embedding
electronic functions into fi bres, yarns and fabrics 191
J. E ICHHOFF , A. H EHL , S. J OCKENHOEVEL and
T. G
RIES , RWTH Aachen University, Germany
7.1 Introduction 191
7.2 Fibre and yarn production processes: natural fi bres 192
7.3 Fibre and yarn production processes: continuous
(man- made) fi bres 197
7.4 Functionalisation of fi bres and yarns 199
7.5 Fabric production: weaving 202
7.6 Fabric production: knitting 208
7.7 Fabric production: braiding 212
7.8 Embroidery 218
7.9 Challenges in smart-textile production 224
7.10 Notes 224
7.11 References 225
8 Fabrication technologies for the integration
of thin- fi lm electronics into smart textiles 227
C. Z YSSET , T. K INKELDEI , N. M ÜNZENRIEDER and
G. T RÖSTER , ETH Zurich, Switzerland and K. C HERENACK ,
Philips Research Eindhoven, The Netherlands

8.1 Introduction 227
8.2 Merging fl exible electronics and smart textiles 229
8.3 Demonstrators 238
8.4 Mechanical reliability of contacts 246
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
viii Contents
8.5 Conclusion and future trends 247
8.6 Sources of further information and advice 249
8.7 Notes 249
8.8 References 250
9 Organic and large- area electronic (OLAE)
technologies for smart textiles 253
F. E LLINGER and C. C ARTA , Technische Universität Dresden,
Germany, A. H ÜBLER and G. S CHMIDT , Technische Universität
Chemnitz, Germany, J. Z APF , Siemens, Germany, G. T RÖSTER ,
ETH Zürich, Switzerland, A. T ALO , Enfucell, Finland, D. K OZAKIS ,
Data Control Systems, Greece, D. V
ASSILIADIS , Exoduss, Greece,
R. P
ARADISO , Smartex, Italy, M. K REBS , Varta, Germany, M. S CHARBER ,
Konarka, Germany and M. T UOMIKOSKI , VTT, Finland
9.1 Introduction 253
9.2 Flexible technologies for textile integration 258
9.3 Circuit design 273
9.4 Textile integration 277
9.5 Packaging integration and service life issues 279
9.6 References 280
9.7 Appendix: abbreviations and acronyms 283
10 Joining technologies for smart textiles 285
I. L OCHER , SEFAR AG, Switzerland

10.1 Introduction 285
10.2 Components of an electronic system in textiles 286
10.3 Conductive threads as electrical traces 287
10.4 Introduction to joining technologies for electronics 289
10.5 Overview of existing jointing technologies in the
electronics and in the textile world 290
10.6 Summary to the joining technology overview 299
10.7 Protection of electrical connections 301
10.8 Challenges for electronic systems on textiles 302
10.9 Challenges for automated processes in electronic
systems on textiles 303
10.10 Future trends 304
10.11 References 305
11 Kinetic, thermoelectric and solar energy
harvesting technologies for smart textiles 306
S. P. B EEBY , Z. C AO and A. A LMUSSALLAM , University of
Southampton, UK
11.1 Introduction 306
11.2 Energy sources and storage: key issues 307
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Contents ix
11.3 Fabrication processes 308
11.4 Kinetic energy harvesting for smart textiles 309
11.5 Thermoelectric energy harvesting for smart textiles 315
11.6 Solar energy harvesting for smart textiles 323
11.7 Conclusion 326
11.8 References 326
12 Signal processing technologies for activity- aware
smart textiles 329
D. R OGGEN and G. T RÖSTER , ETH Zurich, Switzerland

and A. B ULLING , University of Cambridge, UK
12.1 Introduction: from on- body sensing to smart assistants 329
12.2 Activity- aware applications 331
12.3 Sensing principles for activity recognition 332
12.4 Principles of activity recognition 339
12.5 Signal processing and pattern analysis 342
12.6 Experimental aspects 351
12.7 Future trends 356
12.8 Sources of further information and advice 357
12.9 Acknowledgements 358
12.10 Notes 358
12.11 References 358
Part III Product development and applications 367
13 Technology management and innovation strategies
in the development of smart textiles 369
A. G ARLINSKA and A. R ÖPERT , Interactive Wear AG, Germany
13.1 Introduction 369
13.2 Fundamentals of innovation, technology and
intellectual property management 370
13.3 Business models for smart textiles 382
13.4 Opportunities and challenges in the e- textiles business 388
13.5 Conclusion 393
13.6 Sources of further information and advice 394
13.7 References 397
14 Improving the sustainability of smart textiles 399
S. H. W. O SSEVOORT , Lucerne University of Applied Sciences
and Arts, Switzerland
14.1 Introduction 399
14.2 Sustainable production of smart textiles 401
14.3 Recycling, a necessity 403

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
x Contents
14.4 Product durability 407
14.5 Sustainable design approach for a smart-textile
product, an example 411
14.6 General guidelines for the design of sustainable
smart-textile products 416
14.7 References 416
15 Medical applications of smart textiles 420
S. C OYLE and D. D IAMOND , Dublin City University, Ireland
15.1 Introduction 420
15.2 Monitoring of body parameters 421
15.3 Challenges in medical smart textiles 432
15.4 Trends and applications of medical smart textiles 435
15.5 Conclusions 439
15.6 References 439
16 Automotive applications of smart textiles 444
M. W AGNER , Daimler AG, Germany
16.1 Introduction 444
16.2 The use of textiles in vehicles 445
16.3 Smart-textile applications and their potential for use in cars 449
16.4 Prototypes of smart-textiles applications in vehicles 451
16.5 Key safety and quality requirements 461
16.6 The impact of electric vehicles on smart-textiles
applications 463
16.7 Future trends 465
16.8 References 466
17 Architectural applications of smart textiles 468
A. R ITTER , ritter architekten, Germany
17.1 Introduction: key themes in modern architecture 468

17.2 Smart materials 470
17.3 Applications 472
17.4 Future trends 481
17.5 References and further reading 487
Index 489
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
xi
Editor and Chapter 1
Dr Tünde Kirstein
TechPublish
Römerfeldstrasse 1
8623 Wetzikon
Switzerland
E-mail:
Chapter 2
Dr Anne Schwarz*
Institut für Textiltechnik
RWTH Aachen University
Otto-Blumenthal-Straße 1
52074 Aachen
Germany
E-mail: Anne.Schwarz@ita.
rwth- aachen.de
Professor Dr Lieva Van Langenhove
Department of Textiles
Ghent University
Technologiepark 907
9052 Zwijnaarde
Belgium
E-mail:

Chapter 3
Professor Maksim Skorobogatiy
Department of Engineering Physics
Ecole Polytechnique de Montréal
C.P. 6079, succ. Centre- ville
Montréal
Québec H3C 3A7
Canada
E-mail: maksim.skorobogatiy@
polymtl.ca
Contributor contact details
(* = main contact)
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
xii Contributor contact details
Chapter 4
Dr Songmin Shang* and
Dr Wei Zeng
Institute of Textiles and Clothing
The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University
Hung Hom
Kowloon
Hong Kong
China
E-mail:
Chapter 5
Dr Cédric Cochrane* and
Dr Aurélie Cayla
ENSAIT / GEMTEX
2 Allée Louise et Victor Champier

F-59100 Roubaix
France
E-mail: ;

Chapter 6
Professor Maksim Skorobogatiy
Department of Engineering Physics
Ecole Polytechnique de Montréal
C.P. 6079, succ. Centre- ville
Montréal
Québec H3C 3A7
Canada
E-mail: maksim.skorobogatiy@
polymtl.ca
Chapter 7
Dr Julian Eichhoff and A. Hehl*
Institut für Textiltechnik of RWTH
Aachen University
Otto-Blumenthal-Str. 1
52074 Aachen
Germany
E-mail: aachen.
de ; ; achim.
aachen.de
Chapter 8
Christoph Zysset*, T. Kinkeldei,
N. Münzenrieder and G. Tröster
ETH Zurich
Switzerland
E-mail:

K. Cherenack
Philips Research Eindhoven
The Netherlands

Chapter 9
Dr Corrado Carta* and Professor
Frank Ellinger
Dresden University of Technology
Germany
E-mail: corrado.carta@tu- dresden.de ;
frank.ellinger@tu- dresden.de
Professor Arved Hübler and Dr
Georg Schmidt
Chemnitz University of Technology
Germany
E-mail: chemnitz.
de ; chemnitz.
de
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Contributor contact details xiii
Dr Jörg Zapf
Siemens AG
Munich
Germany
E-mail:
Professor Gerhard Tröster
ETH Zurich
Switzerland
E-mail:
Anja Talo

Enfucell Oy
Finland
E-mail:
Dionyssis Kozakis
Data Control Systems Ltd
Athens
Greece
E-mail:
Dimitris Vassiliadis
Exoduss A.E.
Athens
Greece
E-mail:
Rita Paradiso
Smartex S.R.L.
Pisa
Italy
E-mail:
Martin Krebs
Varta Microbatteries GmbH
Germany
E-mail: martin.krebs@varta-
microbattery.com
Markus Scharber
Konarka Technologies GmbH
Germany
E-mail:
Markus Tuomikoski
Teknologian Tutkimuskeskus VTT
Finland

E-mail: markus.tuomikoski@vtt.fi
Chapter 10
Dr Ivo Locher
SEFAR AG
Hinterbissaustrasse 12
CH-9410 Heiden
Switzerland
E-mail:
Chapter 11
Professor Stephen Beeby*, Zhuo
Cao and Ahmed Almusallam
Electronics and Computer Science
University of Southampton
SO17 1BJ
UK
E-mail:
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
xiv Contributor contact details
Chapter 12
Dr Daniel Roggen* and G. Tröster
ETH Zurich
Switzerland
E-mail:
A. Bulling
University of Cambridge
UK

Chapter 13
Awa Garlinska and Andreas Röpert*
Interactive Wear AG

Starnberg
Germany
E-mail: awa.garlinska@interactive- wear.
com ; andreas.roepert@interactive-
wear.com
Chapter 14
Stijn Ossevoort
Department of Design and Art
Lucern University of Applied
Sciences and Arts
Sentimatt 1/Dammstrasse
6003 Lucerne
Switzerland
E-mail:
Chapter 15
Dr Shirley Coyle* and Professor
Dermot Diamond
CLARITY: Centre for Sensor Web
Technologies
National Centre for Sensor Research
Dublin City University
Glasnevin
Dublin 9
Ireland
E-mail: ; dermot.

Chapter 16
Manfred Wagner, Dipl Phys
Daimler AG
Hanns-Klemm-Strassee 45

71034 Boeblingen
Germany
E-mail: Manfred.mw.wagner@daimler.
com
Chapter 17
Dr Axel Ritter
ritter architekten
Telegrafenstrasse 11
53474 Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler
Germany
E-mail: info@ritter- architekten.com
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
xv
Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles
1 Watson’s textile design and colour Seventh edition
Edited by Z. Grosicki
2 Watson’s advanced textile design
Edited by Z. Grosicki
3 Weaving Second edition
P. R. Lord and M. H. Mohamed
4 Handbook of textile fi bres Volume 1: Natural fi bres
J. Gordon Cook
5 Handbook of textile fi bres Volume 2: Man- made fi bres
J. Gordon Cook
6 Recycling textile and plastic waste
Edited by A. R. Horrocks
7 New fi bers Second edition
T. Hongu and G. O. Phillips
8 Atlas of fi bre fracture and damage to textiles Second edition
J. W. S. Hearle, B. Lomas and W. D. Cooke

9 Ecotextile ’98
Edited by A. R. Horrocks
10 Physical testing of textiles
B. P. Saville
11 Geometric symmetry in patterns and tilings
C. E. Horne
12 Handbook of technical textiles
Edited by A. R. Horrocks and S. C. Anand
13 Textiles in automotive engineering
W. Fung and J. M. Hardcastle
14 Handbook of textile design
J. Wilson
15 High- performance fi bres
Edited by J. W. S. Hearle
16 Knitting technology Third edition
D. J. Spencer
17 Medical textiles
Edited by S. C. Anand
18 Regenerated cellulose fi bres
Edited by C. Woodings
19 Silk, mohair, cashmere and other luxury fi bres
Edited by R. R. Franck
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
xvi Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles
20 Smart fi bres, fabrics and clothing
Edited by X. M. Tao
21 Yarn texturing technology
J. W. S. Hearle, L. Hollick and D. K. Wilson
22 Encyclopedia of textile fi nishing
H-K. Rouette

23 Coated and laminated textiles
W. Fung
24 Fancy yarns
R. H. Gong and R. M. Wright
25 Wool: Science and technology
Edited by W. S. Simpson and G. Crawshaw
26 Dictionary of textile fi nishing
H-K. Rouette
27 Environmental impact of textiles
K. Slater
28 Handbook of yarn production
P. R. Lord
29 Textile processing with enzymes
Edited by A. Cavaco-Paulo and G. Gübitz
30 The China and Hong Kong denim industry
Y. Li, L. Yao and K. W. Yeung
31 The World Trade Organization and international
denim trading
Y. Li, Y. Shen, L. Yao and E. Newton
32 Chemical fi nishing of textiles
W. D. Schindler and P. J. Hauser
33 Clothing appearance and fi t
J. Fan, W. Yu and L. Hunter
34 Handbook of fi bre rope technology
H. A. McKenna, J. W. S. Hearle and N. O’Hear
35 Structure and mechanics of woven fabrics
J. Hu
36 Synthetic fi bres: nylon, polyester, acrylic, polyolefi n
Edited by J. E. McIntyre
37 Woollen and worsted woven fabric design

E. G. Gilligan
38 Analytical electrochemistry in textiles
P. Westbroek, G. Priniotakis and P. Kiekens
39 Bast and other plant fi bres
R. R. Franck
40 Chemical testing of textiles
Edited by Q. Fan
41

Design and manufacture of textile composites
Edited by A. C. Long
42 Effect of mechanical and physical properties on fabric hand
Edited by H. M. Behery
43 New millennium fi bers
T. Hongu, M. Takigami and G. O. Phillips
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles xvii
44 Textiles for protection
Edited by R. A. Scott
45 Textiles in sport
Edited by R. Shishoo
46 Wearable electronics and photonics
Edited by X. M. Tao
47 Biodegradable and sustainable fi bres
Edited by R. S. Blackburn
48 Medical textiles and biomaterials for healthcare
Edited by S. C. Anand, M. Miraftab, S. Rajendran
and J. F. Kennedy
49 Total colour management in textiles
Edited by J. Xin

50 Recycling in textiles
Edited by Y. Wang
51 Clothing biosensory engineering
Y. Li and A. S. W. Wong
52 Biomechanical engineering of textiles and clothing
Edited by Y. Li and D. X-Q. Dai
53 Digital printing of textiles
Edited by H. Ujiie
54 Intelligent textiles and clothing
Edited by H. R. Mattila
55 Innovation and technology of women’s intimate apparel
W. Yu, J. Fan, S. C. Harlock and S. P. Ng
56 Thermal and moisture transport in fi brous materials
Edited by N. Pan and P. Gibson
57 Geosynthetics in civil engineering
Edited by R. W. Sarsby
58 Handbook of nonwovens
Edited by S. Russell
59 Cotton: Science and technology
Edited by S. Gordon and Y-L. Hsieh
60 Ecotextiles
Edited by M. Miraftab and A. R. Horrocks
61 Composite forming technologies
Edited by A. C. Long
62 Plasma technology for textiles
Edited by R. Shishoo
63 Smart textiles for medicine and healthcare
Edited by L. Van Langenhove
64 Sizing in clothing
Edited by S. Ashdown

65 Shape memory polymers and textiles
J. Hu
66 Environmental aspects of textile dyeing
Edited by R. Christie
67 Nanofi bers and nanotechnology in textiles
Edited by P. Brown and K. Stevens
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
xviii Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles
68 Physical properties of textile fi bres Fourth edition
W. E. Morton and J. W. S. Hearle
69 Advances in apparel production
Edited by C. Fairhurst
70 Advances in fi re retardant materials
Edited by A. R. Horrocks and D. Price
71 Polyesters and polyamides
Edited by B. L. Deopura, R. Alagirusamy, M. Joshi and B. S. Gupta
72 Advances in wool technology
Edited by N. A. G. Johnson and I. Russell
73 Military textiles
Edited by E. Wilusz
74 3D fi brous assemblies: Properties, applications and modelling of
three- dimensional textile structures
J. Hu
75 Medical and healthcare textiles
Edited by S. C. Anand, J. F. Kennedy, M. Miraftab and S. Rajendran
76 Fabric testing
Edited by J. Hu
77 Biologically inspired textiles
Edited by A. Abbott and M. Ellison
78 Friction in textile materials

Edited by B. S. Gupta
79 Textile advances in the automotive industry
Edited by R. Shishoo
80 Structure and mechanics of textile fi bre assemblies
Edited by P. Schwartz
81 Engineering textiles: Integrating the design and manufacture of textile products
Edited by Y. E. El-Mogahzy
82 Polyolefi n fi bres: Industrial and medical applications
Edited by S. C. O. Ugbolue
83 Smart clothes and wearable technology
Edited by J. McCann and D. Bryson
84 Identifi cation of textile fi bres
Edited by M. Houck
85 Advanced textiles for wound care
Edited by S. Rajendran
86 Fatigue failure of textile fi bres
Edited by M. Miraftab
87 Advances in carpet technology
Edited by K. Goswami
88 Handbook of textile
fi
bre structure Volume 1 and Volume 2

Edited by S. J. Eichhorn, J. W. S. Hearle, M. Jaffe and T. Kikutani
89 Advances in knitting technology
Edited by K-F. Au
90 Smart textile coatings and laminates
Edited by W. C. Smith
91 Handbook of tensile properties of textile and technical fi bres
Edited by A. R. Bunsell

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles xix
92 Interior textiles: Design and developments
Edited by T. Rowe
93 Textiles for cold weather apparel
Edited by J. T. Williams
94 Modelling and predicting textile behaviour
Edited by X. Chen
95 Textiles, polymers and composites for buildings
Edited by G. Pohl
96 Engineering apparel fabrics and garments
J. Fan and L. Hunter
97 Surface modifi cation of textiles
Edited by Q. Wei
98 Sustainable textiles
Edited by R. S. Blackburn
99 Advances in yarn spinning technology
Edited by C. A. Lawrence
100 Handbook of medical textiles
Edited by V. T. Bartels
101 Technical textile yarns
Edited by R. Alagirusamy and A. Das
102 Applications of nonwovens in technical textiles
Edited by R. A. Chapman
103 Colour measurement: Principles, advances and industrial
applications
Edited by M. L. Gulrajani
104 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering applications
Edited by R. Fangueiro
105 New product development in textiles: Innovation and production

Edited by L.Horne
106 Improving comfort in clothing
Edited by G. Song
107 Advances in textile biotechnology
Edited by V. A. Nierstrasz and A. Cavaco-Paulo
108 Textiles for hygiene and infection control
Edited by B. McCarthy
109 Nanofunctional textiles
Edited by Y. Li
110 Joining textiles: Principles and applications
Edited by I. Jones and G. Stylios
111 Soft computing in textile engineering
Edited by A. Majumdar
112 Textile design
Edited by A. Briggs-Goode and K. Townsend
113 Biotextiles as medical implants
Edited by M. King and B. Gupta
114 Textile thermal bioengineering
Edited by Y. Li
115 Woven textile structure
B. K. Behera and P. K. Hari
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
xx Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles
116 Handbook of textile and industrial dyeing. Volume 1: Principles,
processes and types of dyes
Edited by M. Clark
117 Handbook of textile and industrial dyeing. Volume 2: Applications of dyes
Edited by M. Clark
118 Handbook of natural fi bres. Volume 1: Types, properties and factors
affecting breeding and cultivation

Edited by R. Kozłowski
119 Handbook of natural fi bres. Volume 2: Processing and applications
Edited by R. Kozłowski
120 Functional textiles for improved performance, protection
and health
Edited by N. Pan and G. Sun
121 Computer technology for textiles and apparel
Edited by J. Hu
122 Advances in military textiles and personal equipment
Edited by E. Sparks
123 Specialist yarn and fabric structures
Edited by R. H. Gong
124 Handbook of sustainable textile production
M. I. Tobler-Rohr
125 Woven textiles: Principles, developments and applications
Edited by K. Gandhi
126 Textiles and fashion: Materials design and technology
Edited by R. Sinclair
127 Industrial cutting of textile materials
I. Vilumsone-Nemes
128 Colour design: Theories and applications
Edited by J. Best
129 False twist textured yarns
C. Atkinson
130 Modelling, simulation and control of the dyeing process
R. Shamey and X. Zhao
131 Process control in textile manufacturing
Edited by A. Majumdar, A. Das, R. Alagirusamy and V. K. Kothari
132 Understanding and improving the durability of textiles
Edited by P. A. Annis

133 Smart textiles for protection
Edited by R. A. Chapman
134 Functional nanofi bers and applications
Edited by Q. Wei
135 The global textile and clothing industry: Technological advances
and future challenges
Edited by R. Shishoo
136 Simulation in textile technology: Theory and applications
Edited by D. Veit
137 Pattern cutting for clothing using CAD: How to use Lectra Modaris pattern
cutting software
M. Stott
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles xxi
138 Advances in the dyeing and fi nishing of technical textiles
M. L. Gulrajani
139 Multidisciplinary know- how for smart- textiles developers
Edited by T. Kirstein
140 Handbook of fi re resistant textiles
Edited by F. Selcen Kilinc
141 Handbook of footwear design and manufacture
Edited by A. Luximon
142 Textile- led design for the active ageing population
Edited by J. McCann and D. Bryson
143 Optimizing decision making in the apparel supply chain using artifi cial
intelligence (AI): From production to retail
W. K. Wong, Z. X. Guo and S. Y. S. Leung
144 Mechanisms of fl at weaving technology
V. Choogin, P. Bandara and E. Chepelyuk
145 Innovative jacquard textile design using digital technologies

F. Ng and J. Zhou
146 Advances in shape memory polymers
J. Hu
147 Clothing manufacture management: A systematic approach to planning,
scheduling and control
J. Gersak
148 Anthropometry, apparel sizing and design
D. Gupta and N. Zakaria

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
29
2
Types and processing of electro- conductive
and semiconducting materials for
smart textiles
A. SCHWARZ, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
and L. VAN LANGENHOVE, Ghent University, Belgium
DOI: 10.1533/9780857093530.1.29
Abstract: The latest technological advances in new materials and devices
enabled textile solutions to wearable systems. These solutions require electro-
conductive textile materials as a basic component. This chapter fi rst discusses
key terms used in the context of electro- conductive textiles. It then addresses
different conductive and semiconductive materials and their production
methods that are applied in textiles.
Key words: electronic textiles, conductive and semiconductive yarns,
production methods, coating technology.
2.1 Introduction
For a long time, the textile industry has used metallic yarn in weaving and
knitting for aesthetic and decorative purposes. The fi rst known conductive fabric
was silk organza, which consisted of two types of yarns: a plain silk yarn running

in the warp direction and, as the weft, a silk yarn wrapped in thin copper foil.
Copper provided a shiny and refl ective appearance; the silk core gave tensile
strength. These yarns have been woven in India over the last century utilizing other
metals such as silver and gold. In the 1920s and 1930s, metallic yarns were also
used for ecclesiastical and courtly robes to give them the appearance of ‘golden
clothes’. In the 1950s, Lurex
®
, made from a thin strip of aluminium, entered the
market. It could be added to a number of conventional fi bres and yarns to create
metallic fabrics, which were very popular at that time (Braddock et al. , 1999).
However, let us turn away from the aesthetic and decorative purposes of
metallic yarns in clothing and take a look at the functional aspects that metallic
fi laments and yarns can fulfi l. In more technically- oriented areas, conductive
materials have been in use for anti- static and shielding purposes for the last
30 years. However, the conductivity needed for these purposes is rather low,
which is explained in Section 2.2. With the increasing interest in smart textiles,
the demand on highly conductive textile materials has also increased. They are
used, for instance, in sensors, as transmission lines or as heating elements.
Besides using metals, such as copper, silver, stainless steel or aluminium, in
fi bre or fi lament form or incorporated into yarns, other types of conductive
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30 Multidisciplinary know-how for smart-textiles developers
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
materials are now used, such as conductive polymers, conductive coatings and
inks. In Sections 2.3 and 2.4, a range of conductive and semiconductive textile
materials is discussed.

Conductivity can be introduced at different levels in a textile material:

•
on a fi bre, yarn or fabric level;

•
during production; or

•
applied as after- treatments.
The different possibilities are further discussed in Section 2.5.
2.2 Electro- conductive and semiconductive
materials
2.2.1 What is electrical conductivity?
This section focuses on terms used to describe electrical properties of materials,
such as electrical current, conductivity, resistance and resistivity, starting with the
former term. Electrical current means charges in motion through an object.
Depending on the matter, this charge is transported either by electrons (in a metal
conductor), by ions (in an electrolyte) or by a combination of both, electrons and
ions (in a plasma). Here, only electrons as charge carriers in solid conductors,
such as metal fi laments, are addressed, as they are of the most interest in the
context of smart textiles.
To constitute an electrical current, there must be a fl ow of charge through an
object along a potential difference that corresponds to an electrical voltage.
Without a potential difference, no current will fl ow. This phenomenon can be
depicted with the help of a copper wire ( Fig. 2.1(a) ). If we consider a closed- loop
copper wire, free electrons will travel through it in all directions. Although
electrons are available, no electrical force acts on them, as they are all at the same
potential, and thus there is no current. If a battery is inserted into the loop
( Fig. 2.1(b) ), the conducting loop will no longer be at a single potential. Electrical

fi elds act inside the copper wire, causing the electrons to move and thus establishing
a current (Halliday et al. , 2001).
Conventional electrical current is defi ned by the movement of positive charge
carriers in an electrical fi eld (called drift movement). However, in metallic solids,
such as copper wires, charge carriers are electrons, which are negative and
therefore fl ow in the opposite direction. As illustrated in Fig. 2.1(b) , the fl ow of
current is indicated by an arrow associated with the symbol i to indicate the
direction of the conventional current fl ow.
The electrical current that fl ows through an object is dependent on the material
it is made of. For instance, if the same potential difference between the ends of
copper wires or glass rods is applied, having the same geometry, different currents
result. The object’s resistance towards the fl ow of current through it plays a role.
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Electro-conductive and semiconducting materials 31
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
The resistance between any two points of a conductor is determined by applying
a potential difference V between those points and measuring the current I that
results. The resistance R is:
[2.1]
The resistance is expressed in Ohm ( Ω ). It can be seen in the formula, that for a
given potential difference, the greater the resistance is (to the current), the smaller
the current. This formula is often referred to as Ohm’s Law. However, it should be
noted that resistance can be linear or non- linear. Only linear resistance obeys
Ohm’s Law, which states that the current is directly proportional to the potential
difference between the two ends of the copper wire.
It is often necessary to take a general view and deal with materials instead of

particular objects, because if the dimensions of the object change, the resistance
will also change. However, a material’s ability to oppose or conduct the fl ow of
electrical current should be defi nable regardless of its dimension or shape. In this
case, the potential difference V across a particular resistor should be regarded as
an electrical fi eld E

 at a point in a resistive material. It should not be focused on
the current I through the resistor, but on current density J

at the point in question.
Instead of the resistance R of an object, it then needs to be referred to the resistivity

ρ
of the material:
[2.2]
Combining the SI units for E and J , ohm- metre ( Ω m) results as unit of
ρ
:
2.1 (a) A closed loop of copper wire; the wire is at one potential;
(b) An electrical potential difference is caused between the ends of
the copper wire due to a battery to which the ends are connected. The
battery produces an electric fi eld within the wire and causes charges
(current i ) to move around in one direction.
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