Understanding young singaporeans gathering and credibility assessments of online sexual health information 2

Appendices

134


Appendix 1.1: Overview of Singapore Education Landscape (MOE, 2009)

135


Appendix 1.2: Figures and tables extracted from IDA Annual Survey on
Infocomm usage in households and by individuals

1.2a: Access to computer at any location (2007) 1

1.2b: Usage of Computer over 12 months by age (2007)2

1

Computer access to computers at any location is highest for age groups 7 to 14 and 15 to
29 years.
2
Computer users are highest for age group 15 to 29 years.
136


1.2c: Internet activities engaged by users from the various age groups (2007)3

3

The top three Internet activities engaged by 15 to 29 years old are for communicating,

getting information and leisure activities.
137


1.2d: Use of Portable Equipment 4

4

The various uses of portable equipment are highest for age group 15 to 29 years.
138


Appendix 2.1: Blurbs of 2001 to 2010 studies related to young people, Singapore, sexual health and/or Internet

2010
No.

Author(s), Year

1

Buhi, Daley,
Fuhrmann, &
Smith (2010).

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
The purpose of this study was
to determine how college
students search for online

sexual health information and
whether they retrieve accurate
answers to sexual health
questions.

Respondents, Research Methods and Results
In fall 2007, 34 first-year, first-semester undergraduates participated in an observational
research study, using Camtasia Studio. Most students found accurate answers to the 12
sexual health questions posed. Finding local information and resources online proved more
difficult than finding answers to general sexual health questions.
Based on their findings, the authors argue that young people must be educated about how
Web search engine results are prioritized/ displayed and trained to evaluate Web sites for
reliable information.

Related
Topics
Information
seeking
Internet
Health
information
Sexual health

2009
No.

Author(s), Year

2

Rains & Karmikel
(2009)

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
The study reported here
examined perceptions of
health website credibility
during the process of acquiring
health information using the
World Wide Web. The
relationships between
perceptions of website
credibility and both message
characteristics (e.g., statistics,
testimonials) and structural
features of health websites
(e.g., privacy policy statement,
third-party endorsements)
were assessed. Additionally,
one’s Web-use orientation
(i.e., searching or surfing) was
evaluated as a moderator of
the preceding relationships.

Respondents, Research Methods and Results
The study sample consisted of 86 undergraduate students recruited from Communication
courses at a large Southwestern university. Participants’ ages ranged between 19 and 32
years. Sixty-three (73.3%) of the participants were female and 22 (25.6%) were male. A 2 x
2 between-participants design was used in this study. Web-use orientation

(searching/surfing) and the health topic (smoking cessation/Type I diabetes) were the
independent variables. The health topic was manipulated in this study in order mitigate the
possibility of fixed-message effects and increase the external validity of the study. The
participants met in a computer lab and were informed that they would be completing an
information-seeking task and a questionnaire. Participants were randomly assigned to one
of the four experimental conditions: searching for smoking cessation information (n = 21),
surfing about smoking cessation information (n = 22), searching for diabetes information (n
= 19), surfing about diabetes (n = 24).

Related
Topics
Web credibility
Informationseeking
Internet
Health website

The results showed a positive relationship between the presence of structural features and
perceptions of website credibility as well as a positive relationship between the presence of
message characteristics and attitudes about the health topic. Although Web-use orientation
moderated the relationship between message characteristics and perceptions of website
credibility, the nature of this relationship was inconsistent with study predictions.

139


No.

Author(s), Year

3

Walraven, BrandGruwel &
Boshuizen
(2009).

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
The study investigates the
criteria secondary educational
students use while searching
the Web for information.

Respondents, Research Methods and Results
23 students from two secondary school participated in this study. All students (8 boys and
15 girls; mean age 14.22, SD 0.422) were in the 9th grade of secondary education (Dutch:
VWO, 6 year program). Students solved two information problems while thinking aloud.
After completing the tasks, they were interviewed in groups on their use of criteria.

Related
Topics
Information
problem
solving
Internet

4

Makenzius,Ga°di
n, Tyde´n,
Romild, &

Larsson (2009).

To investigate young male
students’ behaviour,
knowledge, attitudes, and
needs related to sexual and
reproductive health.
Differences between students
on vocational and academic
study programmes were also
investigated.

Results showed that students did not evaluate results, source and information very often.
The criteria students mentioned when asked which criteria were important for evaluating
information were not always the same criteria they mentioned while solving the information
problems. They mentioned more criteria but also admitted not always using these criteria
while searching the Web.
A questionnaire consisting of 87 multiple choice questions was distributed to 253 male
students attending three upper secondary schools in a single Swedish county. During the
spring of 2007, 252 young male students (*18 years old), from the third year of three upper
secondary schools were invited to participate in the study. The response rate was 76% and
respondents were equally distributed between two groups: academic students (n=97), and
vocational students (n=95). They were in the final stages of the programme, only two
months ahead of graduation.

Sexual health

A study-specific questionnaire, containing 87 multiple-choice questions investigated
participants’ behaviour, knowledge, attitudes, and needs related to sexual and reproductive
health. Two-thirds of the questions had been used in a large national survey in 1996. Onethird of the questions were constructed specifically for this study. The respondents were not

asked for their sexual orientation but in the missive and in the questionnaire, it was explicitly
stated that the questions were directed at everyone: heterosexual, bisexual and
homosexual, experienced and inexperienced. Questions about intercourse were defined as
either vaginal or/and anal. All questions, except for the one on ECPs, were relevant to
everyone regardless of sexual orientation.
The principals of each school were informed about the study and they approved the
questionnaire. The principals and the class teacher received a missive containing all
information about the study. All participants received an enhanced missive, informing them
about the aim of the study and the fact that participation was anonymous and voluntary. The
questionnaires were distributed during regular lessons, by the first author or by the class
teacher, and took between 20 and 40 minutes to complete. This study confirmed previous
findings that vocational students have a higher risk lifestyle than those in academic
programme. Vocational students reported more tobacco use, had an earlier sexual debut,
more sexual partners, and more frequent unprotected sex at the first date. School and

140


friends were the two most reported sources of knowledge about sexuality, but some young
males over estimated their own knowledge. The respondents wanted more information
about female and male anatomy and physiology, STIs, and relations. Contemporary
Swedish studies, including this one, have identified more liberal attitudes in sexual matters
than earlier surveys1,2. These liberal attitudes are probably contributing to the rising
number of CT infections and unplanned pregnancies.
One hundred and thirty-six of the 192 respondents (71%) reported experience of sexual
intercourse. The median age at first intercourse among these students was 17 years (Table
1). However, the vocational students had had their sexual debut at a younger age than
those in academic study programmes.
The main sources of the students’ knowledge of sexual and reproductive matters were the
secondary school (grades 6–9) and friends, in that order (Table 2). No one reported upper

secondary school as the main source of knowledge. Only 3% of the academic students and
7% of the vocational students considered that the Internet was their main source of sexual
and reproductive knowledge.
Two thirds (66%) of the respondents considered they had sufficient knowledge of sexual
and reproductive health matters. More academic students (79%) than those in vocational
programmes (59%) had sometimes felt a need to talk to someone about their own sexuality,
with the aim of getting advice and counselling
2008
No.
5

Author(s), Year
Hargittai &
Hinnant (2008).

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
This article examined differences in
young adults’ online activities to
expand understanding of the digital
divide.

Respondents, Research Methods & Results
A telephone survey was conducted using a sample of listed households of 18- to 26year-olds compiled from more than 3,200 original public and private sources including
white pages and census information. The survey was conducted using computerassisted telephone interviewing to reduce interview length and minimize recording
errors.
Findings suggested that those with higher levels of education and of a more resourcerich background used the Web for more “capital enhancing” activities. Detailed
analyses of user attributes also revealed that online skill was an important mediating
factor in the types of activities people pursued online.

Related
Topics
skill
self-perceived
knowledge
Internet; Web
use
online
behaviour
young adults

141


No.
6

Author(s), Year
Rains (2008)

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
To test the preceding model, data
were collected using a
questionnaire posted on a secure
website.
Students in a communication
course at a large Southwestern.

7

Harvey,
Churchill,
Crawford,
Brown, Mullany,
Macfarlane &
McPherson
(2008)

This paper reports on a study of
emails written in to Teenage Health
Freak, a UK-based website
concerned with health issues for
young people.
seeking online health advice
The aims of this study were to
investigate concerns and difficulties
relating to communication among
adolescents.

Respondents, Research Methods & Results
Hypothesized Model of Internet Self-Efficacy as a Partial Mediator of One’s Motivation
to be Involved in One’s Health and Experience using the Web and Information Seeking
Processes and Outcomes.

Related
Topics
Web
information
seeking

University were given extra-credit for soliciting respondents who were (a) at least 18
years of age, (b) not a student nor an employee of the university, and who (c) had used
the Internet=Web during the previous 6 months to acquire health information. Students
were sent a form e-mail message explaining the study and asked to forward it to
potential respondents. The form e-mail message contained a link directing respondents
to the study website. A total of 157 respondents completed the questionnaire.

It is widely known that barriers exist in communication between adolescents and health
professionals. However, little is known about the actual language used by young people
articulating such difficulties and whether email might allow them to overcome these
problems.

Health
Internet

The study design was a corpus linguistic analysis of a million-word adolescent health
email database based on 62 794 emails from young people requesting health advice
from
a prominent UK-hosted and doctor-led website.
Results show that young people reported various concerns about their health. They
described numerous difficulties in disclosing such concerns to other people, in
particular to parents and doctors. However, they readily expressed their concerns by
email, displaying elevated levels of directness, particularly in relation to potentially
sensitive or embarrassing topics.
Email has the potential to facilitate and supplement face-to-face consultations with
health professionals. Increased adoption of email by health providers may be an
efficient means of engaging with a generation often reluctant to access more traditional
health care services and thus encourage them to enter the primary care setting more
readily.

142


2007
No.
8

Author(s), Year
Flanagin &
Metzger (2007).

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
RQ1:What is the relative
importance of aspects of the
source (i.e. familiarity with website
sponsors) and website attributes in
people’s credibility assessments?
RQ2: What is the relation between
self-reported and observed
information verification behaviours?

Respondents, Research Methods & Results
574 individuals participated in the study. Of the participants 39 percent were male and
61 percent were female. The range of participant ages was 18 to 83 years, with a mean
age of 31.99 years.
This study used a 4 x 2 experimental design that varied the genre of website (news
organization, e-commerce, special interest, or personal sites) with verity of the site (a
fictional or real site) to test the hypotheses and research questions. The dependent

variables were the three types of credibility perceptions.

Related
Topics
Credibility
Information
verification
Internet

The results show that perceptions of credibility differed, such that news organization
websites were rated highest and personal websites lowest, in terms of message,
sponsor, and overall site credibility, with e-commerce and special interest sites rated
between these.
The results also indicated that credibility assessments appear to be primarily due to
website attributes (e.g. design features, depth of content, site complexity) rather than to
familiarity with website sponsors.
Finally, there was a negative relationship between self-reported and observed
information verification behaviour and a positive relationship between self-reported
verification and internet/web experience
.

9

Warner &
Procaccino.
(2007).

RQ1. Why do women who use the
Web, as compared with those who
do not, look for health information?

RQ2. Is the Web making it easier to
find information?
RQ3. How do women who use the
Web, as compared with those who
do not, use the health information
they find?
RQ4. Are Web users more aware
of health information resources?

Based on previously collected data, this article represents an extension of the earlier
analysis with its focus on women who, at least to some extent, seek health care
information via The Web (herein, Web user), a topic not thoroughly addressed in the
earlier study.

Health
information
Internet

A comparison of female Web users and non-Web users who seek health information
revealed that Web users sought health information at a higher rate than non-Web
users. Web users were more likely to communicate with medical professionals about
the health information found and claimed that their decisions about health treatments
were influenced by the health information. In most cases, Web users expressed a
higher awareness of resources, regardless of format. Web users did not report that
finding health information, from any channel, however, was noticeably easier.

143


2006

No.
10

2005
No.
11

Author(s),
Year
Gray & Klein
(2006).

Author(s),
Year
Gray, Klein,
Noyce,
Sesselberg
&Cantrill,
(2005).

Study Objectives/
Research Questions

Respondents, Research Methods & Results
Adolescents are using the Internet in order to find health information on a range of subjects. Search
engines are the primary strategy for such searches. The quality of the online experience is often limited
by health/online literacy skills. The only reference to adolescents' quests for online information about
sexuality was that they frequently sought this information from a Web site created primarily to provide
information about sexually transmitted diseases.

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
This paper seeks to explore UK and US
adolescents’ perceptions and experiences of
online health information relating to previous
experience of use, saliency of the information, and
credibility of the medium.

Respondents, Research Methods & Results
157 English-speaking adolescents (aged 11- 19) in diverse geographical and
socioeconomic settings in UK secondary schools and US middle / high
schools.
Qualitative: A series of 26 single gender focus groups - discussions were
recorded on audiotape and transcribed.
Focus group discussions included perceptions of how the Internet had
changed participants’ leisure/work activities and experiences, and
perceptions of how the Internet could be use to find health information.
A short Internet exercise was undertaken in 20 of the 26 groups. Each group
was asked to choose a health-related topic and search for information on the
Internet.

12

Sun, Unger,
et al. (2005).

Research studies how Internet accessibility and
usage are related to demographic, psychosocial,
behavioural, and other health related
characteristics.

Many students cited difficulties in accessing health information online.
Functional health literacy challenges included, for example, spelling medical
terms correctly and being able to construct questions describing symptoms
accurately. Critical challenges included discerning relevance of information
retrieved by search engines and knowing which sites to trust. Interactive
challenges included the appropriate application of health information to
address personal health concerns within their local neighbourhood.
2373 7th grade students of various ethnic groups in Southern California

Related
Topics
Sexual Health
Internet

Related
Topics
Health
Internet
Informationseeking
Literacy
Credibility

Internet

Cross-sectional survey. Logistic regressions were conducted to assess the
associations between Internet users with selected demographic,
psychosocial, behavioural variables and self-reported health statuses.
Nearly all (99%) of the respondents could access the Internet either at school
or at home. Higher SES and Asian ethnicity were associated with higher

144


internet use. Among those who could access the Internet and after adjusting
for the selected demographic and psychosocial variables, depression was
positively related with chat-room use and using the Internet longer than 1
hour per day at home, and hostility was positively related with Internet
favouring (All ORs = 1.2 for +1 STD, p < 0.05). Less parental monitoring and
more unsupervised time were positively related to email use, chat-room use,
and at home Internet use (ORs for +1 STD ranged from 1.2 to 2.0, all p <
0.05), but not related to at school Internet use.
2004
No.
13

14

15

Author(s),
Year
Spink,
Koricich &
Jansen
(2004).

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
The objective is was to enhance understanding of

sexually-related information
seeking on the Web, including:
1. Identify the proportion of sexually-related
queries.
2. Compare the characteristics of sexual queries
submitted by Alta Vista and AlltheWeb.com users.

Spink,,
Ozmutlu &
Lorence
(2004).

The study of Web sexual queries provides insight
into sexual-related information-seeking behaviour
including: (1) Identifying the proportion of sexualrelated queries, and (2) Comparing the
characteristics of sexual and non-sexual queries.
It examined the characteristics of sexually related
queries, including visual images or textual
descriptions of sexual behaviour.
• To develop a deeper understanding of
students, their information-seeking practices
and what motivated them to learn.
• To understand their own practices as teachers
in online classrooms.
• To design, evaluate and iteratively refine the
curriculum for exploratory learning, through
drawing based on research conducted.

Walton &
Archer

(2004).

Respondents, Research Methods & Results
Qualitatively analyzed queries from logs of 1,025,910 Alta Vista and
AlltheWeb.com Web user queries from 2001. Compared the differences in
sexually-related Web searching between Alta Vista and AlltheWeb.com
users.
Data showed a slightly higher percentage of searches for sexual material by
the EuropeanAlltheWeb.com users. Alta Vista users submitted more terms
per sexually-related query, but submitted fewer queries per session than the
AlltheWeb.com users. In both AlltheWeb.com and Alta Vista sexually-related
queries, the term “sex” was the most frequently occurring term, but shared
many of the most frequently used terms, but with a different percentage of
use.
Qualitative: Study analyzed 58,027 queries from a log of 1,025,910 Excite
Web user queries from 1999.

Related
Topics

Sexual Health
Internet

Findings show that sexual and non-sexual-related queries exhibited
differences in session duration, query outcomes, and search term choices.

Three cohorts of first year University of Cape Town engineering students
from previously disadvantaged schooling backgrounds.
Qualitative: online discussions, end of-term interviews, course evaluations,
participatory evaluations, student assignments, web-searching case studies,

and web searching exercises.

Internet
InformationSeeking
Literacy

At the start of the course, students provided with ‘canned searches’ or pre-

145


planned detective-hunts for information. Students are required to interpret
the search results and make selections.
Prior tests were conducted on these searches using a range of keywords
which will eventually present students with pre-formulated queries that will
lead them to at least one useful source.

2003
No.
16

Author(s),
Year
Becker
(2003).

•
•
•

2002
No.
17

18

Author(s),
Year
Cothey
(2002).

Gordon
(2002).

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
To explore student perceptions of the role of
the Internet in information searching,
To collect data on how students seek
information on the Internet, and
To identify skill gaps in seeking for information.

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
To detect change in an individual’s Web
information-seeking behaviour as s/he gains
experience.
(a) Individuals would increase their active
information seeking, for example, by an increased
use of search engines;

(b) There would be increasing commonality
among individuals in the selection of Web sites as
more useful sites are revisited and less useful
sites ignored.
How did tenth-grade biology students who learnt
and used concept mapping in the classroom for
seven months search for information in the
context of a library research assignment?
(a) How did student mappers and nonmappers
search for information in the context of the same
library research assignment?

Respondents, Research Methods & Results
20 undergraduate students.

Related
Topics
Internet

Quantitative: Data generated by the background questionnaire was
tabulated. Frequency distributions were computed.

InformationSeeking

Qualitative: Use of semi-structured interview and content analysis. During
the interview sessions, each respondent has to describe two critical incidents
- a successful and unsuccessful Web search.

Literacy

Respondents, Research Methods & Results
206 students drawn from the general population of students at a Higher
Education institution in the UK.
Quantitative: Data analysis combined the technique of Web transaction log
analysis with the conditional regression model of longitudinal analysis using a
split-half technique.

Related
Topics
Internet
InformationSeeking
Literacy

The study took place in the “real world” context of the user’s Web information
seeking. Information tasks were constructed by the users and reflected the
users’ own particular information needs.
10 tenth grade students at a private American school in Europe.

Internet

Quantitative: Bayesian statistics and Fano method from information
theory were used to triangulate the qualitative data.

InformationSeeking

Qualitative: Audio-taped think-aloud search sessions followed by structured
interviews. Stimulated recall was used as an interview method, key

Literacy

146


No.
19

Author(s),
Year
Vansickle
(2002).

(b) How did concept formation influence search
strategies and relate to developing search
strategies?
(c) How did expert searches of the librarian and
teacher compare with each other and with the
searching of mappers and nonmappers?
(d) How did student searching relate to stages of
Kuhlthau (1993) Information Search Process?
Study Objectives/
Research Questions
• To examine which tenth-grade students
enrolled in three academic tracks of language
arts know about using the Web and how they
search for information located on it.
• To explore if high school students who
spanned a range of academic abilities (a)
differ in their knowledge about the Web; and
(b) differ in how they search for and use
information.

• Hypothesis 1: There is a relationship between
academic placement and a student’s general
knowledge and use of the Web.
• Hypothesis 2: There is a relationship between
academic placement and a student’s Web
searching skills.

informants were provided with written transcriptions of their think-aloud
sessions. Participant maintained journals.
Respondent searched print and electronic sources for the purpose of
completing a research assignment as part of the school’s biology curriculum.

Respondents, Research Methods & Results
136 students (40 technical students, 52 college preparatory students, and 44
honors students) across seven sections of tenth-grade language arts classes.
Quantitative: The major research hypotheses addressed in this study focused
on two dependent variable sets, general knowledge (GK) and search
knowledge (SK), and their relationship to academic track (the independent
variable). Multivariate analysis of variance tests were conducted to determine
whether students in the three academic groups varied significantly from one
another on the GK and SK dependent variable sets.

Related
Topics
Internet
InformationSeeking
Literacy

Qualitative: Search protocol.
A search protocol of four hierarchically arranged search tasks was developed

for the qualitative portion of this study.

2001
No.
20

Author(s),
Year
Eastin.
(2001).

Study Objectives/
Research Questions
Research indicates that medical professionals do
not author an extensive amount of health
information available on the Internet. This creates
a possibility for false information, thereby
potentially leading ill people away from proper
care. One way to begin addressing this problem is
to assess perceptions of credibility about
information found online.

Respondents, Research Methods & Results
A total of 125 students from two introductory communication courses at a
large midwestern university were used to conduct a between-groups, 2
(message type) x 3 (source type) factorial design experiment. Participants
were randomly assigned to one of the six conditions. Upon assignment,
participants were instructed to assess a health-related Web site they were
told was pre-selected from the Internet earlier that day.(Appendix A). They
were then instructed this information would be used to write a report for class.

While students are considered convenient and non-representative, such a
sample for this project was useful as it represents the largest population of
Internet users. However, it should be noted that the largest group of online

Related
Topics
Internet
Credibility
Information
online

147


health information seekers are adults.
Each participant viewed a Web site containing one of two types of
information. Specifically, this Web-based information related to one of two
topics: (1) an unknown health topic syphilis; and (2) a known health topic,
HIV. Using information obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, a pretest indicated twelve facts about syphilis that at least 90
percent of the population did not know,1 and twelve facts about HIV that at
least 90 percent of the population were aware of (n=78). Prior research (Petty
& Cacioppo, 1988) suggests that relevancy can also affect message
perception; therefore, a 10-point Likert type item was used to assess the
relevancy of syphilis (M = 8.38) and HIV (HIV, M = 8.13) (t = .167, p = .868).
These findings suggest that both topics were perceived as highly personally
relevant.
Also manipulated was the putative author of each Web site. Using10-point
Likert-type items, a pretest using the HIV topic identified three significantly
different sources consistent with those available online (F(2,171) = 1,261.93,

p < .000). "Dr. William Blake -- HIV specialist" was identified as an expert
source (M = 9.74, SD = .26); "Esther Smith -- Widow of an AIDS victim" was
identified as a moderately expert source (M = 5.62, SD = 1.22); and "Tim
Alster- a high school freshman" was identified as a low expert source (M =
1.72, SD = .73). All three credibility means were found to be significantly
different from one another at p < .001 using the Scheffé test. These sources
were also applied to the syphilis condition. Each source was prominently
displayed on all Web pages. (Both doctors and high school students have
commonly been used as high and low credible sources (O'Keefe, 1990)).
While findings did not indicate a significant interaction between source and
content type, they did indicate an overall tendency to rate all information as
relatively credible. In addition, results indicate that both knowledge of content
and source expertise affect perceptions of online health information
While no significant interaction was found between knowledge of content and
source expertise (Hypothesis 1), the findings did suggest that source
expertise (and/or age and/or gender) and knowledge of content (and/or order
effects) affect perception of message credibility. This suggests that when
people evaluate online health information, the heuristic cues they attend to
vary, depending on the subject matter.

148


Appendix 3.1: Age-group statistics according to ethnic group

149


Appendix 3.2: Detailed Profiles of Respondents
Table 3.2b

Prior experiences seeking information on:
Education

Pseudonym

Race

Gender

Birth
yr

Internet Use
1 - 6 hrs

University

Gabriella

Chinese

Female

1988

•
•
•

Barbara

Malay

Chinese

Female

Female

1989

1988

Polytechnic

Chinese

Male

1991

Ellen

Chinese

Female

Female

1990

Yes

Yes

•

Had utilised the Internet to get physical health
information.

•
•

•

Initially indicates that had not sought health related
information online.
During interview, found that had sought physical
and sexual health issues using search engine.
Yes
Yes
Yes

Seek information for school such as homework and project.
For leisure such as movies and dramas, and read international
news.

Yes

Yes

•

•
•

•
•

Yes

For school such as homework and project.
For leisure such as movies and music, and read international and
local news.
6 - 12 hrs

•

•

•

1990
•
•

No

Yes

Yes

No

Reads international, “worldwide” news online.
Chats with his classmates on MSN and uses the Internet for
schoolwork.
For entertainment such as sports, movies, music, and games.

1 - 6 hrs
Chinese

Yes

•
Reads international, regional and local news online.
•
For schoolwork and personal interests, namely movies and music.
•
Uses new social networking browser, Flock.
1 - 6 hrs

•

Denisa

Health using
Internet

Had sought physical health information previously

for a social work module using Google.

6 - 12 hrs
Darren

Sexual Health

•

To do schoolwork, find jobs and internships.
Looks at interests like music, baking, shopping,
Uses Facebook.

12 - 16 hrs
Zarina

Health in
general

Although in questionnaire stated using the Internet for 1 to 6 hours,
said that used Internet between 9am to 5pm on weekdays in
school.
Reads international and local news online, and blogs.
To do homework, find jobs, and get entertainment like music and
movies.

Yes

Yes

Had sought physical, psychological and sexual
information online.
Yes

No

Yes

Had sought information on physical health
previously by visiting Health Promotion Board
website.

150


Education

Pseudonym

Race

Gender

Prior experiences seeking information on:

Birth
yr

Internet Use
6 - 12 hrs

Eric

Felix

Chinese

Chinese

Male

Male

1991

1991

•
•
•

Male

1989

Gordon

Chinese

Female

Male

1991

1991

Had sought physical health information by looking
at magazines.
Came across sexual health information in
magazine as well.

•
•
•

Yes

•

Yes
•

Male

Yes

No

No

Yes

•

Had sought physical health, and medicinal health
information.
Medicinal health information conducted for school
project was on cholesterol.
During interview, mentioned that he had learnt
about sex-related information during the biology
classes in secondary school.
Yes
No
No

Reads regional and local news online.
For schoolwork, and spends time online for entertainment
specifically, movies and music.
6 - 12 hrs

•

Had sought psychological health information.

•
•
•

•

Reads regional and local news online.
For school, particularly project and research work.
For entertainment specifically, movies and music.

•
•

•
Chinese

Yes

•

Seeks information related to school and personal interest.
For personal interest, gets information on sports, movies, music,
Manga and fashion.
Had recently lost his laptop and therefore, lost his bookmark list.

•

In the questionnaire, stated that he used Internet for 1 to 6 hours.
However, during interview, said that he uses Internet for half day.
Uses Internet to seek information for school and for interest such as
sports, movies, and music, and read international and local news.

Yes

1 - 6 hrs

Haoren

Yes

•
•

6 - 12 hrs
Chinese

Yes

Had looked for physical, psychological, and sexual
health-related information.

Polytechnic

Hannah

Health using
Internet

•

6 - 12 hrs

Malay

Sexual
Health

Reads regional and local news online.
For school, particularly homework, project, and personal research.
Spends time on the Internet for entertainment specifically, sports,
movies, and music.
1 - 6 hrs

•

Jamal

Health in
general

1991
•

Seek information for school and for interest such as sports, movies,
and music, and read international, regional, and local news.
Uses Internet to look for jobs.

Yes

Had sought physical health information.

Yes
•

Yes

Yes

Yes

Had sought physical, psychological, and sexual
information.

151


Prior experiences seeking information on:
Education

Pseudonym

Race

Gender

Birth
yr

Internet Use

6 - 12 hrs

Ian

Chinese

Male

1991

•
•
•
•
•

Has a personal laptop.
Internet usage leans towards 12 hours.
School holidays: mostly uses Internet at home
Term time: mainly uses in school.
Uses the Internet to log into MSN and Facebook,
watches television shows, and play games.

•
•
•
•

1 - 6 hrs
Adeela

Indian

Female

1991

•

Had used Internet to sought information for schoolwork
and music, and find jobs.

Sunil

Indian

Male

1991

Polytechnic

Reads international news online, gathers information for
schoolwork, and personal interests like movies and
music, and looks for jobs.

Chinese

Male

1991

•
•
•

Amelia

Chinese

Other

Male

Female

1991

No

No

No

Said that he did not think he had looked for health-related
information online.
Could not remember if had learnt about sex-related
information in secondary two or secondary three.
Could not remember subject taught which includes sex – “I
don’t know what it is called...moral education or
something...part of the subject.”
Nonetheless, remembered learning “about STDs and
everything.”
Yes
Yes
Yes

•

Had used Internet to get physical health information.

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

Reads international, regional, and local news online.
“Blog hopping” and uses Facebook.
Uses Internet to get information for schoolwork and for
topics of interest like music, film making, uni-cycling, and
anime.

1 - 6 hrs

Kaijie

Health using
Internet

Had looked for psychological and sexual information online.

1 - 6 hrs

Jonathan

Sexual Health

•

12 - 16 hrs
•

Health in general

•
•

Reads the local news online.
Uses Internet to get information for schoolwork and
music interest.
1 - 6 hrs

•

Had sought sexual health information by looking at books in
the library.

•

•

In getting information for Food and Nutrition course, used
search engines, Yahoo and Google.

1991
•
•

Looks at online information for school and for interest
such as movies and music,
Reads international, regional, and local news.
Find jobs.

No

No

No

152


Education

Pseudonym

Race

Gender

Prior experiences seeking information on:

Birth
yr

Internet Use
6 - 12 hrs

NAFA

Cathy

Chinese

Female

1990

•
•

Reads international and local news online.
Seeks information for school projects, for entertainment like
movies and music.

1 - 6 hrs
•
•
•

Anthony

Chinese

Male

1991
•
•
•
•
1•
•
•

Junior
College
Yuping

Chinese

Female

•

1991

•
•
•

•
•
6 - 12 hrs
Bard

Chinese

Male

1991

•

Reads international, regional, and local news online.
Seeks information internships, schoolwork, scholarships, and
school events.
For entertainment such as movies, music, and computer games.

Chinese

Male

1991

•
•
•

Reads international, regional, and local news online.
For schoolwork.
For entertainment such as movies, music, and video games.

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes
•

6 - 12 hrs

Caleb

Health using
Internet

For school, had sought health related information in
library.
Secondary school: learnt about sex education and
remembered watching same video several times.
Initially in questionnaire, did not indicate sought
health related information online.
During interview, found that she has looked for sexrelated information in magazine websites.
Happened because her friends (males and females)
refused to provide her meaning of orgasm.
Went online for understand what word means.

•

•
•

Sexual
Health

Had sought physical health information

Uses both at home and in school.
As the school filters several sites such as social networking sites,
visits those sites at home.
At home, uses a personal laptop. However, parents only allow

using Internet in the dining room so that they can see what he was
doing.
For school and personal interests.
For personal interests, seeks movies and music.
Reads international news.
Does not bookmark websites.
6 hrs
Shared computer but mostly uses PC.
PC placed in the dining room due to space constraints.
Looks at social networking sites, and receives entertainment topics
such as movies, music and fashion.

Health in
general

No
•

Yes

Yes

Had sought physical and sexual health information.

No

No

Had sought physical, psychological, and sexual healthrelated information.

153


Education

Pseudonym

Race

Gender

Birth
yr

Prior experiences seeking information on:
Health in
Sexual
Health using
general
Health
Internet
Yes
No
No

Internet Use
1 - 6 hrs

Faisal

Malay

Male

1991

•

•

Had sought physical and psychological information.

•

For school and for interest such as movies, music, recipes, and
fashion.
•
Reads international and local news online.
1 - 6 hrs

•

Had sought physical and sexual information using
Wikipedia and Google.

•

Had sought physical and sexual information.

•

In questionnaire, ticked that he had sought physical
health information only.
During interview, found that he had sought human
reproduction information on the Internet.
Yes
Yes
Yes

For school and for interest such as sports, movies, music, and
photography, and read international, regional and local news.

1 - 6 hrs
Feifei

Chinese

Female

1990

Gayathri

Indian

Female

1991

•

•

1991

•
•
•

Junior
College

For school and for interest such as movies and music.
Read international and local news.

Yes

Yes

1 - 6 hrs
Bharat

Indian

Male

For school projects.
For areas of interest like sports, movies, and music.
Reads regional news.

Yes

•

1 - 6 hrs

Centralised
institution

Aishah

Malay

Female

1988

•
•
•
•
•

Uses shared PC placed near the living room.
Surfs about five hours at home.
Limited to 1-hr usage in school.
For school, and personal interest.
Personal interest: looks for jobs, music, and reads up on the local
news, and health issues.

•

•
•
•

< 1hr
Ali

Malay

Male

1989

ITE

•
•
•

Uses shared PC placed in the study room.
Read soccer news and looks for music.
For school projects, normally uses Yahoo to seek information.

•

1 - 6 hrs
Ingrid

Chinese

Female

1989

•
•
•

Reads international news online.
For schoolwork.
Sought entertainment information like music and movies.

•

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Had sought information relating to one’s physical,
psychological, and sexual well-being.
Typically uses Wikipedia.
Seeks such information and posts on blog to “create
awareness" for friends involved in unhealthy activities.
Had conducted school project on abortion using

Internet.
No
No
No
Used the term 'vaguely' to describe memory of learning
sex education in school.
Yes

•

Yes

Yes

Yes

Had sought information on physical and sexual health
previously and visited the Health Promotion Board
website to do so.
Had sought sexual health information for a science
project presentation, and smoking for a life skills class.

154


Education

Pseudonym

Race

Gender

Birth
yr

Prior experiences seeking information on:
Sexual
Health using
Health in general
Health
Internet
Yes
No
No

Internet Use
6 - 12 hrs

ITE

ITE

ITE

Special
School

Jessica

Kai Ling

Keegan

Agnes

Chinese

Chinese

Chinese

Chinese

Female

Female

Male

Female

1988

1989

1989

1991

• Has a personal laptop.
• For school project, and spends time online for entertainment
specifically, movies, music, and dramas.
1 - 6 hrs

•

Had looked for physical health information.

• For schoolwork and projects, entertainment, like music and
movies.
• Had used the Internet for projects.
• Forgot to bring her bookmarks.
6 - 12 hrs

•
•

Did not click on sexual health.
During interview, found that she had sought abortion for
school project using the Internet.

•
Reads international, regional and local news online.
•
For schoolwork and personal interests.
•
Sought jobs.
1 - 6 hrs

•

Had sought information on different vitamins using Yahoo for
tuition homework.

•
•
•

•

In questionnaire, indicated that she had not sought sexual
health information.
Found that she had sought such information using Wikipedia
and Yahoo for a school project.
Also visited .org and .gov websites.
No
No
No

Recently completed her 1-yr stay on campus.
During that period, she spent a longer time on the Internet.
At home, must use personal laptop in living room to have
Internet access as it is wired to the main PC.

Yes

No

Yes

•

1 - 6 hrs
Secondary
5

Secondary
5

Priya

Badrisah

Indian

Malay

Female

Female

1990

1991

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

• Uses shared PC placed in the study room.
• Typically visit social networking websites, Friendster and
Facebook.
For school projects, and seeks information on jobs, movies,
and music.
1 - 6 hrs

•
•
•

Had learnt sex education from school.
School showed sex education videos.
Therefore, did not see a need to look for such information.

• Uses shared PC placed in the living room.
• When she is at home, she is mostly on the Internet.
• Does not keep a list of favourite websites because she does
not know about bookmarking – “I don’t know it exists in the
first place.”
• Typically logs on Instant Messenger (IM).
• For school: Researched for projects and homework.

• For personal interests: Visits social networking sites and
blogs.

•
•

Had sought online health diseases unrelated to sex.
Remembered that in Secondary 2, school showed different
videos during pastoral care period held weekly.
Separate gender viewings of videos.
Main ideas taught in school were to say no, as sex leads to
pregnancy.
Explained that lessons did not teach students how to prevent
pregnancy.
Instead, showed how youths’ live were ruined once they
engaged in sexual activity.
Also remembered reading about sexual abuse in Cleo and
Teenage magazines.

Yes

•
•
•
•
•

No

Yes

155


Appendix 3.3: Coding
3.3a: Coding Frame for Video Recording
Keys website URL directly into
browser address box
Keys search string into search engine
box
Amends search string in search
engine box
Studies information on search engine
search results page
Clicks on hyperlink/button in search
engine results page
Studies information on site
Saves webpage on site
Download file from the site
Keys search string into retail site
search engine

Clicks on hyperlink/button in site
Clicks on image in site
Clicks on hyperlink/button in thirdparty site
Clicks on online advertisement
Studies information in pop-up window
Closes pop-up window
Leaves website
Opens additional Internet browser

Opens additional tab

3.3b: Coding Frame during Interview
1. Site access and usability
□ Bibliographic information
□ Sponsor
□ Rules for use
□ Security of information
2. Resource Identification and
documentation
□ Title
□ URL: Does .gov /.com
have any significance to
you?
□ Apparent audience
□ Mission
□ Scope of document

3. Navigation within the document
□ Organization scheme
□ Use of image maps
□ Indexes
□ Search
□ Help system

4. Information structure and design
□ Access
□ Use of icons
□ Document language
□ Scope suited to audience

5. Identity of author (name,
affliations, training, experience,
contact information)
Do you actively look for this
information?
Do you notice this information?
What significance does it play in your
web search? Should there be a
difference since you are looking for
information on health?
6. Quality of links (Evaluation and
selection of links on the site)
How do you know which link you
should click on / look at?

3.3c: Wilkenson, Bennet & Oliver (1997) List of evaluation criteria and
selected indicators
156


Criterion 1: Site Access and Usability
What is the name of the site?
What individual, group, or organization sponsors and/or maintains the site?
What is the URL of the site?
Is the document source code free of bugs and breaks?
Does the page take a long time to download?
Does the site require a log-on?

Criterion 2: Resource Identification and Documentation
What is the title of the document?

What is the mission, purpose, or scope of the document?
Is there a description of the document's content?
Is the user informed of improper or controversial materials (e.g., adult language,
sexually explicit material, gratuitous violence, etc.) within the document?
When was the document created?
When was the document placed on the Internet?
When was the document last revised?
Is the document stable, or likely to be replaced or removed from the site at any time?
What is the URL of the document?

Criterion 3: Author Identification
What is the author's name?
What is the author's professional or institutional affiliation?
What is the author's position title or academic rank?
Was the development of the document funded or otherwise supported by an
individual, group, or organization other than the identified author?

Criterion 4: Authority of Author
Is the author a recognized authority on the topic of the document?
Has the author published related materials dealing with the topic of the document?
Is the author's training appropriate and related to the topic of the document?
Is the author's experience appropriate and related to the topic of the document?
Is the author affiliated with an educational institution, research laboratory,
governmental agency, or other reputable organization related to the topic of the
document?

157


Criterion 5: Information Structure and Design

Is the scope of the document clearly stated?
Is the title of the document descriptive of its content?
Are headings clear and descriptive or do they use jargon meaningful only to the
author?
Does the content fit the stated scope, purpose, and audience?
Are the visual metaphors employed (icons) appropriate for pre-defined age
groups (e.g., icons and visuals for kids, or text links and indexes for adults,
etc.)?
Has an appropriate treatment been applied (e.g., game, simulation, tutorial,
etc.) to meet the objectives?
Is interactivity employed (e.g., can users click or input an answer and receive
feedback, have an opportunity to practice what is presented, etc.)?

Criterion 6: Relevance and Scope of Content
Is the content related to the user's needs?
Is the information sufficiently current to meet the user's needs?

Criterion 7: Validity of Content
Has the document been linked to or referenced by a recognized authority?
Is the document a primary (original, unfiltered material) or secondary (modified,
selected, or rearranged information about primary materials) source?
Does the information provided contradict or confirm the information from other
sources?
Does the author provide a bibliography or cite references to confirm the accuracy of
the information?
Is the site maintained by a university, governmental agency, or other reputable
organization?

Criterion 8: Accuracy and Balance of Content
Are there any obvious errors or misleading omissions in the document?

Is the site sponsored or cosponsored by an individual or group that has an
established position regarding the issues discussed in the document?
Are there indications of careless or hasty preparation, such as spelling or
grammatical errors?
Is the information presented in the document of a consistent quality?

158