Principles of administrative law

CP
Cavendish
Publishing
Limited

London • Sydney


EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
PRINCIPLES OF LAW SERIES

Professor Paul Dobson
Visiting Professor at Anglia Polytechnic University

Professor Nigel Gravells
Professor of English Law, Nottingham University

Professor Phillip Kenny
Professor and Head of the Law School, Northumbria University

Professor Richard Kidner
Professor and Head of the Law Department, University of Wales,
Aberystwyth

In order to ensure that the material presented by each title maintains the
necessary balance between thoroughness in content and accessibility in
arrangement, each title in the series has been read and approved by an
independent specialist under the aegis of the Editorial Board. The Editorial
Board oversees the development of the series as a whole, ensuring a
conformity in all these vital aspects.

David Stott, LLB, LLM
Deputy Head, Anglia Law School
Anglia Polytechnic University
Alexandra Felix, LLB, LLM
Lecturer in Law, Anglia Law School
Anglia Polytechnic University

CP
Cavendish
Publishing
Limited

London • Sydney


First published in Great Britain 1997 by Cavendish Publishing Limited, The
Glass House, Wharton Street, London WC1X 9PX.
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© Stott, D and Felix, A 1997

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
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London W1P 9HE, UK, without the permission in writing of the publisher.

Stott, David
Principles of administrative law
1. Administrative law – England 2. Administrative law – Wales
I. Title II. Felix, Alexandra
342.4’2
1 85941 370 6

Printed and bound in Great Britain


PREFACE
Administrative law is an exciting topic, in particular for those with an interest
in how the law seeks to control the exercise of the enormous powers of the
modern state. In the development of the law generally, modern administrative
law is a recent, very largely post-Second World War, phenomenon. In legal education, it has grown over the past 20 years from being a component within
established constitutional law courses to being a subject in its own right. Its
relationship with constitutional law, however, must not be forgotten. The principles and theories received in your study of constitutional law will inform
your study of administrative law. Administrative law is also exciting because
of its continuous development. Just as modern administrative law was very
largely a response to the development of the welfare state, so recent government initiatives such as the privatisation of the great public corporations and
the proposed adoption of the European Convention on Human Rights will
demand further judicial responses.
The aim of this text is to provide a comprehensive and accessible review of
the law as it has developed from both the national and the European perspective.
We would like to thank Jo Reddy and Cathy West for the patience they have
shown in the writing of this text and the Editorial Board for their valuable comments on the draft manuscript. We also thank Russell Richardson for his
research.
David Stott and Alexandra Felix

Anglia Law School
August 1997

v



CONTENTS
Preface
Table of cases
Table of statutes
Table of abbreviations

1

v
xix
xxxv
xxxix

THE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW

1

1.1

INTRODUCTION

1

1.2

DEFINITION OF ADMINISTRATIVE LAW

3

1.3

JUDICIAL REVIEW OF ADMINISTRATIVE ACTION

4

1.4

POWERS AND DUTIES

5

1.5

THE PUBLIC/PRIVATE DICHOTOMY

7

1.6

THE SOURCE OF POWER

9

1.7

THE ROLE OF THE COURTS

13

1.8

THE BALANCE OF POWER

15

1.9

REVIEW/APPEAL

21

1.10 THE RULE OF LAW

22

1.11 THE PRINCIPLE OF ACCOUNTABILITY

24

1.11.1

Discretionary versus arbitrary power

25

1.12 THE DISCRETIONARY NATURE OF THE REMEDIES

27

1.13 LAW AND POLITICS

28

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1

31

2

THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW

33

2.1

HISTORY

33

2.2

JUDICIAL RESTRAINT

36
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Principles of Administrative Law
2.3

JUDICIAL INTERVENTIONISM

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2

3

39
41

JUDICIAL REVIEW OF ADMINISTRATIVE
ACTION I – PREREQUISITES TO REVIEW

43

3.1

INTRODUCTION

43

3.2

PREREQUISITES TO JUDICIAL REVIEW

45

3.3

NON-JUSTICIABILITY

46

3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5
3.3.6

46
47
48
52
57
57

3.4

3.5

Foreign affairs, defence and national security

The treaty-making power
The defence of the realm
Law enforcement
Prisons – operational decisions
Political judgments considered by Parliament

SURRENDER OF DISCRETION

60

3.4.1
3.4.2

60
62

Unlawful delegation – delegatus non potest delegare
Acting under dictation

POLICY
3.5.1

63
Self-created rules of policy

63

3.6

KEEPING AN OPEN MIND

64

3.7

FETTERING DISCRETION BY CONTRACT

65

3.8

FETTERING DISCRETION BY ESTOPPEL

66

3.9

FETTERING DISCRETION BY LEGITIMATE EXPECTATION

68

3.10 PRESUMPTIONS OF STATUTORY INTERPRETATION
3.10.1
3.10.2
3.10.3
3.10.4

Taxation cannot be levied without
the authority of Parliament
In favour of the rule of law

Against ousting the jurisdiction of the courts
In favour of international law

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 3

73
73
74
76
77
79

viii


Contents

4

JUDICIAL REVIEW OF ADMINISTRATIVE
ACTION II – SUBSTANTIVE ULTRA VIRES
AND ABUSE OF POWER

81

4.1

DEFINITION

81

4.2

CLASSIFICATION

81

4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3

Substantive ultra vires
Procedural ultra vires
Abuse of power

81
81
82

SUBSTANTIVE ULTRA VIRES

83

4.3.1
4.3.2

83
84

4.3

4.4

Illustrations
Incidental objectives

ABUSE OF POWER
4.4.1
4.4.2
4.4.3
4.4.4
4.4.5
4.4.6
4.4.7
4.4.8
4.4.9
4.4.10
4.4.11
4.4.12
4.4.13
4.4.14
4.4.15
4.4.16
4.4.17

86

Introduction
Unreasonableness
Narrow unreasonableness

Claims of narrow unreasonableness
Narrow unreasonableness and justiciability
Broad unreasonableness
Non compliance with the objectives of the Act
Improper purpose/irrelevant considerations
Mixed motives
Punishment motive alleged
Electoral promises
The manifesto argument and the
principle of reasonableness
Fiduciary duty/misplaced philanthropy
Bad faith
Human rights
Failure to fulfil statutory duties
Opposition to the policy of Parliament

86
86
88
90
95
95
96
98
102
103
105
106
106
107

109
110
111

4.5

PROPORTIONALITY

111

4.6

CONCLUSION

115

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4

117
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Principles of Administrative Law

5

JUDICIAL REVIEW OF ADMINISTRATIVE
ACTION III – PROCEDURAL ULTRA VIRES

121

5.1

INTRODUCTION

121

5.2

STATUTORY PROCEDURES

121

5.2.1
5.2.2

121
124

5.3

5.4

5.5

Nature and effect
Substantial compliance

NATURAL JUSTICE/FAIRNESS

125

5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5

125
125
127
130
131

Content
History and development
Legitimate expectation
The development of fairness
Flexibility of content

THE RIGHT TO A FAIR HEARING

132

5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
5.4.5
5.4.6

5.4.7
5.4.8
5.4.9
5.4.10
5.4.11
5.4.12
5.4.13

132
132
133
133
134
135
136
136
136
138
139
141
142

Introduction
Disclosure of evidence
Limits on disclosure
Preliminary hearings/recommendations
Nature of the hearing
Time
Witnesses
Cross-examination

Legal representation
Reasons
Why are reasons for decisions needed?
What kind of reasons?
Can an unfair hearing be cured by a fair appeal?

THE RULE AGAINST BIAS – NEMO IUDEX IN CAUSA SUA

142

5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5
5.5.6

142
143
143
144
144
145

What is bias?
Pecuniary interest
Professional interest
Personal interest
Involvement in the decision-making process
Closed mind

x


Contents
5.5.7
5.5.8
5.5.9
5.5.10

R v Gough (1993)
Discretionary nature of remedies
Fault
Waiver of natural justice

146
147
148
149

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5

151

6

REMEDIES IN ADMINISTRATIVE LAW

155

6.1

INTRODUCTION

155

6.2

HISTORY

156

6.3

THE PRIVATE LAW REMEDIES

156

6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3

156
157
158

6.4

6.5

Injunction

Declaration
Damages

THE PUBLIC LAW REMEDIES

158

6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4

158
158
159
159

Nature and form
Certiorari/prohibition
Mandamus
Habeas corpus

THE INTRODUCTION OF THE APPLICATION FOR
JUDICIAL REVIEW

159

6.6

RULES OF THE SUPREME COURT (RSC) ORDER 53

160

6.7

SECTION 31 OF THE SUPREME COURT ACT 1981

161

6.8

PROCEDURE

163

6.8.1
6.8.2

163
164

6.9

Leave stage
Merits stage

TIME LIMITS

165

6.10 LIMITS ON THE APPLICATION FOR JUDICIAL REVIEW
– THE PUBLIC/PRIVATE LAW DICHOTOMY

167

6.11 AGAINST WHOM IS THE APPLICATION FOR JUDICIAL REVIEW
AVAILABLE?
176
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Principles of Administrative Law
6.12 STANDING – LOCUS STANDI
6.12.1
6.12.2
6.12.3
6.12.4

179

Rationale and application
Pressure groups
Waiver of standing
Relator actions

179
184
187
187

6.13 DISCRETIONARY NATURE OF THE REMEDIES

188

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6

191

7

STATUTORY REMEDIES AND EXCLUSION OF
JUDICIAL REVIEW

195

7.1

STATUTORY REMEDIES

195

7.2

EXHAUSTION OF ALTERNATIVE REMEDIES

196

7.3

EXCLUSION OF ALTERNATIVE REMEDIES

198

7.4

EXCLUSION OF JUDICIAL REVIEW

199

7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.4.4
7.4.5

199
201
201
206
207

7.5

Introduction
Indirect ouster
Direct ouster
Time limit clauses
Statutory limitations on exclusion of judicial review

CONCLUSION

208

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7

209

8

PUBLIC INTEREST IMMUNITY

211

8.1

INTRODUCTION

211

8.2

HISTORY

212

8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3

212

214
215

Duncan v Cammell Laird & Co (1942)
Judicial criticism
Conway v Rimmer (1968)

xii


Contents
8.3

THE MODERN APPLICATION OF PUBLIC
INTEREST IMMUNITY
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.3.4
8.3.5
8.3.6

8.4

8.5

For what types of document can immunity be claimed
on the class ground?
Who can make a claim for immunity?
Who determines the public interest?

Can a claim of immunity be made in the context of
criminal proceedings?
Does a minister have a power or is he or she under
a duty to claim immunity?
Can immunity be waived?

216
216
223
223
224
228
230

POST MATRIX CHURCHILL

231

8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3

231
234

Ex parte Wiley (1994)
Criminal trials
Sir Richard Scott’s recommendations on public interest
immunity in criminal cases

CONCLUSION

234
235

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 8

237

9

EXTRA-JUDICIAL AVENUES OF REDRESS

241

9.1

INTRODUCTION

241

9.2

THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMISSIONER
FOR ADMINISTRATION

241

9.2.1
9.2.2

9.2.3
9.2.4

241
243
245
248

Background
Terms of reference
Procedure
Accountability of the Parliamentary Commissioner

9.3

REFORM OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMISSIONER

253

9.4

THE NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE COMMISSIONER

255

9.5

THE COMMISSIONS FOR LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

255

9.6

THE CITIZEN’S CHARTER

255

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Principles of Administrative Law
9.7

TRIBUNALS

256

9.7.1
9.7.2
9.7.3

256
257
258

Nature and development
The Tribunals and Inquiries Acts
Procedure

9.8

INQUIRIES

260

9.9

CONCLUSION

263

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9

265

10 EUROPEAN ADMINISTRATIVE LAW I –
THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY

269

PART 1 UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES OF EC LAW

269

10.1 INTRODUCTION

269

10.2 THE SOURCES OF RIGHTS

270

10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3

Primary legislation
Secondary legislation
General principles of law

10.3 HOW INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS CAN BE ACQUIRED
AND ENFORCED IN EC LAW
10.3.1
10.3.2
10.3.3
10.3.4
10.3.5

The creation of rights for individuals
The direct effect of Treaty articles
The direct effect of regulations
The direct effect of decisions
The direct effect of directives

270
270
271
277
277
278

279
280
280

10.4 SUPREMACY OF EC LAW

285

10.5 THE ENFORCEMENT OF COMMUNITY LAW

287

PART II JUDICIAL REVIEW OF COMMUNITY ACTS

290

10.6 ARTICLE 173

290

10.6.1
10.6.2

The act must be of the challengeable kind
When does an act produce legal effects?

xiv

291
292

Contents
10.6.3
10.6.4
10.6.5
10.6.6

The legal status of acts of the institutions
Standing/locus standi
Time limits
The grounds of challenge

10.7 WRONGFUL FAILURE TO ACT
10.7.1

298

Article 175

298

10.8 INDIRECT CHALLENGE (PLEA OF ILLEGALITY)
10.8.1
10.8.2

293
294
296
296

Article 184
Who can make the challenge?

300
300
301

PART III EC LAW AND JUDICIAL REVIEW IN THE UK

302

10.9 A NEW JUDICIAL REVIEW ROLE FOR THE COURTS
IN RELATION TO LEGISLATION?

302

10.10REMEDIES FOR BREACHES OF EC LAW

307

10.11 JUDICIAL REVIEW AS A MEANS OF CHALLENGING
BREACHES OF EC LAW

311

10.12 THE IMPACT OF EC LAW ON NATIONAL JUDICIAL REVIEW

312

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 10

317

11 EUROPEAN ADMINISTRATIVE LAW II –
THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON
HUMAN RIGHTS

321

11.1 ‘RIGHTS’ IN ENGLISH LAW

321

11.2 THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE ECHR

322

11.3 A BILL OF RIGHTS FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM?

324

11.4 THE OPERATION OF THE ECHR

328

11.5 MAKING AN APPLICATION

329

11.6 STATE APPLICATIONS

329

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Principles of Administrative Law
11.7 EXHAUSTION OF DOMESTIC REMEDIES

330

11.8 TIME LIMIT

331

11.9 THE APPLICANT MUST BE A ‘VICTIM’

331

11.10 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

332

11.12 FRIENDLY SETTLEMENT OR COURT?

333

11.13 THE RIGHTS

333

11.14 THE LIMITATIONS ON THE RIGHTS

334

11.14.1

Definitions: ‘prescribed by law’/‘in accordance
with the law’
11.14.2 ‘Necessary in a democratic society’
11.14.3 The margin of appreciation
11.14.4 General limitations

334
335
336
336

11.15 THE FUTURE – HUMAN RIGHTS AS A GROUND
FOR JUDICIAL REVIEW?

337

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 11

341

12 LIABILITY OF PUBLIC BODIES IN PRIVATE LAW

345

12.1 INTRODUCTION

345

12.2 LIABILITY IN TORTS

346

12.2.1
12.2.2
12.2.3
12.2.4

12.2.5
12.2.6

Introduction
Breach of statutory duty
The careless performance of a statutory duty in
the absence of a common law duty of care
Actions based on a common law duty of care arising
either from the imposition of a statutory duty or
from the performance of it
Stovin v Wise (Norfolk County Council,
third party) (1996)
Misfeasance in a public office

xvi

346
347
349

349
354
356


Contents
12.2.7
12.2.8

Can an ultra vires act give rise to an action
for damages in private law?
Order 53 as a bar to a private law action

12.3 LIABILITY IN CONTRACT
12.3.1
12.3.2
12.3.3
12.3.4
12.3.5

357
358
359

Introduction

Breach of contract
Effect of plea of public policy
The relationship between breach of
contract and ultra vires
Contracting out and privatisation

359
360
361
362
362

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 12

363

FURTHER READING

365

Index

373

xvii



TABLE OF CASES
Administration des Douanes v Societé Anonyme Gondrand Freres

(Case 169/80) [1981] ECR 1931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Agricultural, Horticultural and Forestry Training Board v Aylesbury Mushrooms
[1972] 1 WLR 190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Air Canada v Secretary of State for Trade [1983] 2 AC 394 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217, 224
Alfons Lutticke v Commission (Case 33/62) [1962] ECR 501 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Allen v Gulf Oil Refining Ltd [1981] AC 1001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Allingham v Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries [1948] 1 All ER 780 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
American Cyanamid v Ethicon [1975] AC 396. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Amministrazione Delle Finanze Dello Stato v Simmenthal SPA
(Case 106/77) [1978] ECR 629 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Anisminic v Foreign Compensation Commission [1969] 2 AC 147. . . . . . . . . . . 40, 126, 202–04, 207
Anns v Merton London Borough Council [1978] AC 728 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346, 352, 359
Armand v Home Secretary and Minister of Defence of Royal
Netherlands Government [1943] AC 147. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Asher v Secretary of State for the Environment [1974] Ch 208 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 103, 105, 195
Associated Provincial Picture Houses v Wednesbury Corporation
[1948] 1 KB 223 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52, 57, 73, 82, 83, 86–91
93–95, 109, 114, 115
250, 251, 328, 351, 354
Attorney General v Crayford UDC [1962] Ch 575. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Attorney General v De Keyser’s Royal Hotel [1920] AC 508. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Attorney General v Fulham Corporation [1921] 1 Ch 440 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, 85
Attorney General v Guardian Newspaper (No 2) [1990] 1 AC 109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Attorney General v Johnathan Cape Ltd [1976] QB 752. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Attorney General v Wilts United Dairies (1921) 37 TLR 884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73, 92
Attorney General ex rel McWhirter v Independent Broadcasting
Authority [1973] QB 629 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 181, 188
Attorney General of Hong Kong v Ng Yuen Shui [1983] 2 AC 629 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Avon County Council v Buscott [1988] 2 QB 656. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Ayr Harbour Trustees v Oswald (1883) 8 App Cas 623 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Backhouse v Lambeth London Borough Council (1972) 116 SJ 802 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90, 111
Baggs Case (1615) 11 Co Rep 93b; 77 ER 1271 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Barnard v National Dock Labour Board [1953] 2 QB 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Bennett v Horseferry Road Magistrates’ Court [1994] 1 AC 42. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Blackburn v Attorney General [1971] 1 WLR 1037 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 47, 158, 180
Blackpool Corporation v Locker [1948] 1 KB 349 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Board of Education v Rice [1911] AC 179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Bourgoin SA v Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food [1986] QB 716 . . . . . . . . . . . 311, 356–58
Bowles v Bank of England [1913] 1 Ch 57. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Bradbury v Enfield London Borough Council [1967] 1 WLR 1311. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

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Principles of Administrative Law
Brasserie du Pecheur SA v Germany (Case 46/93);
R v Secretary of State for Transport, ex p Factortame Ltd and Others
(Case 48/93) [1996] All ER (EC) 301 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283, 312, 358
Breen v Amalgamated Engineering Union [1971] 2 QB 175 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
British Oxygen v Board of Trade [1971] AC 610. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
British Steel Corporation v Granada Television Ltd [1982] AC 1096 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219, 362
British Steel plc v Customs and Excise Commissioners [1996] 1 WLR 48. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175, 362
Broome v Broome [1955] P 190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Buckley v Law Society (No 2) [1984] 1 WLR 1101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Bugdaycay v Secretary of State for the Home Department [1987] AC 514 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Bulmer v Bolinger [1974] Ch 410 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Burmah Oil v Bank of England [1980] AC 1090. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217, 219
Burmah Oil v Lord Advocate [1965] AC 75; [1964] All ER 348, HL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 15
Burn v National Amalgamated Labourers’ Union [1920] 2 Ch 364 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Bushell v Secretary of State for the Environment [1981] AC 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 131, 136, 261

Buttes Gas & Oil v Hammer [1982] AC 888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
CILFIT v Ministry of Health (Case 283/81) [1982] ECR 3415 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Calvin v Carr [1980] AC 574 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Campbell v Tameside Metropolitan Borough Council [1982] QB 1065 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 230
Campbell v United Kingdom (1993) 15 EHRR 137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Campbell and Cosans v United Kingdom (1982) 4 EHRR 293 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Campbell and Fell v United Kingdom (1984) 5 EHRR 207 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138, 331
Caparo v Dickman [1990] 2 AC 605 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Cardot v France A200 (1991) 13 EHRR 853 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Carltona v Commissioner of Works [1943] 2 All ER 546 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 62
Case of Proclamations (1611) 12 Co Rep 74; 77 ER 1352 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Castells v Spain A236 (1992) 14 EHRR 445 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Central Control Board (Liquor Traffic) v Canyon Brewery Co Ltd [1919] AC 744 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Chandler v DPP [1964] AC 763 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Chester v Bateson [1920] 1 KB 829 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Chief Constable of North Wales v Evans [1982] 1 WLR 1155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 133
Cinnamond v British Airports Authority [1980] 1 WLR 582 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129, 189
Cocks v Thanet District Council [1983] 2 AC 286 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169–71, 175
Commission v Council (the ERTA Case) (Case 22/70) [1971] ECR 263 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Commission v Ireland (Dundalk Water Case) (Case 45/87) [1988] ECR 4929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Commission v United Kingdom (Case 40/82) [1982] ECR 2793. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Commissioner of Crown Land v Page [1960] 2 QB 274 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 361
Commissioners of Customs and Excise v Cure & Deeley [1962] 1 QB 340 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Coney v Choyce [1975] 1 WLR 422. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Confederation Nationale des Producteurs de Fruits et
Legumes v Council (Case 17/62) [1962] ECR 471 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

xx

Table of Cases
Congreve v Home Office [1976] QB 629. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 57, 73, 91, 93 98
102, 104, 241, 248
Conway v Rimmer [1968] AC 910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 48, 126, 211, 212, 215
216, 223, 224, 230, 233
Cooper v Wandsworth Board of Works (1863) 14 (CB) NS 180;
143 ER 414 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 121, 125, 132
Cooper v Wilson [1937] 2 KB 309 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144, 196
Cory v London Corporation [1951] 2 KB 476 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Costa v ENEL (Case 6/64) [1964] ECR 585 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Cottle v Cottle [1939] 2 All ER 535 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service
[1985] AC 3742, 7, 10, 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44–47, 49, 82, 111, 127–29
131, 158, 167, 313
Credit Suisse v Allerdale Borough Council [1996] 4 All ER 129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86, 173
Credit Suisse v Waltham Forest London Borough Council [1996] 4 All ER 176. . . . . . . . . . . . 86, 173
Crompton Amusement Machines Ltd v Customs and Excise Commissioners
(No 2) [1974] AC 405 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220, 230
Cutler v Wandsworth Stadium [1949] AC 398 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347, 348
D v NSPCC [1978] AC 171 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Davy v Spelthorne Borough Council [1984] 2 AC 262 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 171
Dawkins v Antrobus (1881) 17 Ch D 615. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Daymond v South West Water Authority [1976] AC 609 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
De Becker v Belgium (1958) 2 YBECHR 214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
de Freitas v Benny [1976] AC 239 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Decker KG v Hauptzollant Landau (Case 99/78) [1979] ECR 101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Defrenne v SABENA (No 2) (Case 43/75) [1976] ECR 455 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276, 279
Derbyshire County Council v Times Newspapers [1993] AC 534 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Dillenkofer & Others v Germany (Cases 178, 179, 188, 189, 190/94)
[1996] 1 All ER (EC) 917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

Dimes v Grand Junction Canal (1852) 3 HL Cas 759. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Doe d Bishop of Rochester v Bridges (1831) 1 B & Ad 847; 109 ER 1001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Dowty Boulton Paul v Wolverhampton Corporation [1971] 1 WLR 204 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 361
Dr Bonham’s Case (1610) 8 Co Rep 113b; 77 ER 638 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 33, 125
Dudgeon v United Kingdom (1981) 4 EHRR 149 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 331
Duke v Reliance [1988] AC 618 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Duncan v Cammell Laird & Co Ltd [1942] AC 624. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 48, 212, 213
215, 216, 223, 224, 230
Duncan v Jones [1936] 1 KB 218 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Durayappah v Fernando [1967] 2 AC 337. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
EC Commission v BASF AG (Case 137/92P) [1994] ECR I 2555. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
EC Commission v EC Council (Generalised Tariff Preferences Case)
(Case 45/86) [1987] ECR 1493 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

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Principles of Administrative Law
ENU v Commission (Case 107/91) [1993] ECR I 599 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Edinburgh & Dalkeith Railway v Wauchope (1842) 8 Cl & F 710; 8 ER 279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Ellis v Dubowski [1921] 3 KB 621 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Ellis v Home Office [1953] 2 QB 135. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Enderby Town Football Club v Football Association [1971] Ch 591 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Entick v Carrington (1765) 19 St Tri 1030; 95 ER KB 807 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 25–27, 74, 324
Equal Opportunities Commission v Secretary of State for Employment
[1995] 1 AC 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 167, 306
European Parliament v Council (the Chernobyl Case) (Case 70/88)
[1990] I ECR 2041 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
European Parliament v Council (the Comitology Case) (Case 302/87)
[1988] ECR 5615 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294, 299

Extramet Industrie v EC Council (Case 358/89) [1991] I ECR 2501 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Faccini Dori v Recreb SRL (Case 91/92) [1994] ECR I 325 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Fairmount Investments Ltd v Secretary of State for the Environment
[1976] 1 WLR 1255 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Fedechar v High Authority (Case 8/55) [1956] ECR 292 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Federation European de las Sante Anim ale v Council (Case 160/88)
[1988] ECR 4121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Felixstowe Dock v British Transport Docks Board [1976] 2 CMLR 655. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Ferwerda v Produktschap voor Vee en Vlees (Case 265/78) [1980] ECR 617. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Findlay, Re [1985] AC 318. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Fletcher’s Application, Re [1970] 2 All ER 527 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Foglia v Novello (Case 104/79) [1980] ECR 745 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Foster v British Gas [1991] 2 AC 306, HL; (Case 188/89) [1990] ECR 3313 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 281
Francovich and Bonifaci v Italy (Cases 6 & 9/90) [1991] ECR I 5357. . . . . . . . 283, 284, 310, 312, 357
Franklin v Minister of Town and Country Planning [1948] AC 87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, 65, 145, 260
Fraser v Mudge [1975] 1 WLR 1132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Friends of the Earth, Re [1988] JPL 93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fronancais SA v FORMA (Case 66/82) [1983] ECR 395 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Fry, ex p [1954] 1 WLR 730. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fulbrook v Berkshire Magistrates’ Courts Committee (1970) 69 LGR 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Garland v British Rail Engineering [1983] 2 AC 751 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Gaskin v Liverpool City Council [1980] 1 WLR 1549 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Geddis v Proprietors of the Bann Reservoir (1878) 3 App Cas 430 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Germany v Commission (Case 24/64) [1963] ECR 63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority [1986] AC 112. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Glasgow Corporation v Central Land Board (1956) SC 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Glynn v Keele University [1971] 1 WLR 487 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135, 148
Golden Chemical Products Ltd, Re [1976] Ch 300. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Golder v United Kingdom (1975) 1 EHRR 524 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

xxii


Table of Cases
Gouriet v Union of Post Office Workers [1978] AC 435 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 57, 180, 188
Government of Gibraltar v Council (Case 298/89) [1994] 3 CMLR 425 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Governors of Peabody Fund v Sir Lindsay Parkinson & Co Ltd [1985] AC 210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Grad (Case 9/70) [1970] ECR 825 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Griffin v South West Water Services (unreported, 23 May 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Grosvenor Hotel, Re (No 2) [1965] Ch 1210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
HK, Re [1967] 2 QB 617. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Halford v Sharples [1992] 1 WLR 736 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Hall & Co Ltd v Shoreham-by-Sea UDC [1964] 1 WLR 240 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74, 99
Handyside v United Kingdom (1976) 1 EHRR 737 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335, 336
Hanks v Minister of Housing and Local Government [1963] QB 999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Hannam v Bradford Corporation [1970] 1 WLR 937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Hanratty v Lord Butler of Saffron Walden (1971) 115 SJ 386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Hazell v Hammersmith and Fulham Council [1990] 2 WLR 17, DC;
[1990] 2 WLR 1038, CA; [1992] 2 AC 1, HL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 86, 360
Hehir v Commissioner of the Police for the Metropolis [1982] 1 WLR 715 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222, 232
Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire [1989] AC 53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Hoffman La Roche v Secretary of State for Trade and Industry [1975] AC 295 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Holgate-Mohammed v Duke [1984] AC 437; [1984] 1 All ER 1054. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Home Office v Dorset Yacht Club [1970] AC 1004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350, 351, 358
Howard v Secretary of State for the Environment [1975] QB 235. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
IBM v Commission [1981] ECR 2639 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Institute of Patent Agents v Lockwood [1894] AC 347 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
International Fruit Company BV v Commission (Case 41-4/70) [1971] ECR 411 . . . . . . . . . 295, 296
Internationale Handelsgesellschaft mbH v Einfuhr-und Vorratsstelle fur
Getreide und Futtermittel (Case 11/70) [1970] ECR 1125. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272, 274, 277, 286

Ireland v United Kingdom (1978) 2 EHRR 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330, 337
Italy v Commission (Case 32/65) [1966] ECR 389 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
John v Rees [1970] Ch 345 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Johnston v Chief Constable of the Royal Ulster Constabulary
(Case 222/84) [1986] ECR 1651 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275, 315
Johnston v Ireland (1987) 9 EHRR 203. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Jones v Swansea County Council [1990] 1 WLR 54. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Julius v Bishop of Oxford (1880) LR 5 App Cas 214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Kaur v Lord Advocate (1981) SLT 322 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275, 315
Kent v Metropolitan Police Commissioner (1981) The Times, 15 May . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Kolpinghuis Nijmegen BV (Case 80/86) [1987] ECR 3969. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Kruse v Johnson [1898] 2 QB 91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

xxiii


Principles of Administrative Law
Laker Airways Ltd v Department of Trade [1977] QB 643. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 11, 68, 83
Lavender v Minister of Housing and Local Government [1970] 1 WLR 1231 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Leary v National Union of Vehicle Builders [1971] Ch 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 142
Lee v Bude & Torrington Railway (1871) LR 6 CP 577 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Lee v Showmen’s Guild [1952] QB 329 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
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London & Clydeside Estates Ltd v Aberdeen District Council [1980] 1 WLR 182 . . . . . . . . 122, 123

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Macarthys v Smith [1979] 3 All ER 325, CA; Macarthys v Smith
(Case 129/79) [1981] QB 180 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 304
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Malone v Metropolitan Police Commissioner [1979] Ch 344 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 27, 325
Malone v United Kingdom (1982) 5 EHRR 385 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Marbury v Madison (1803) 1 Cranch 103 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
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Marleasing SA v La Comercial Interacional DE Alimentacion SA
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Marshall v Southampton and South West Hampshire Health Authority (No 1)
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Matrix Churchill Case (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216, 225–28, 231
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Mercury Communications Ltd v Director General of Fair Trading
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Mortensen v Peters (1906) 8 F 93. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
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Murphy v Brentwood District Council [1991] 1 AC 398. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

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