TỔNG hợp 10 bài READINGS tự học ielts

TỔNG HỢP 10 BÀI READINGS – Tự học IELTS
Ms. Hồng Hà
Reading 1
Questions 14-17
Reading Passage 162 has four sections A-D
Choose the correct heading for the each section from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number i-vi in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet.
___________________________________
List of Headings

i Causes of volcanic eruption
ii Efforts to predict volcanic eruption
iii Volcanoes and the features of our planet
iv Different types of volcanic eruption
v International relief efforts
vi The unpredictability of volcanic eruption
___________________________________
14 Section A
15 Section B
16 Section C
17 Section D

Volcanoes – earth-shattering news
When Mount Pinatubo suddenly erupted on 9 June 1991, the power of volcanoes past and
present again hit the headlines

A Volcanoes are the ultimate earth-moving machinery. A violent eruption can blow the top few


kilometres off a mountain, scatter fine ash practically all over the globe and hurt rock fragments
into the stratosphere to darken the skies a continent away.

But the classic eruption – cone-shaped mountain, big bang, mushroom cloud and surges of
molten lava – is only a tiny part of a global story. Volcanism, the name given to volcanic
processes, really has shaped the world. Eruptions have rifted continents, raised mountain chains,
constructed islands and shaped the topography of the earth. The entire ocean floor has a
basement of volcanic basalt.
Volcanoes have not only made the continents, they are also thought to have made the world‘s
first stable atmosphere and provided all the water for the oceans, rivers and ice-caps. There are
now about 600 active volcanoes. Every year they add two or three cubic kilometres of rock to the
continents. Imagine a similar number of volcanoes smoking away for the last 3,500 million
years. That is enough rock to explain the continental crust.

What comes out of volcanic craters is mostly gas. More than 90% of this gas is water vapour
from the deep earth: enough to explain, over 3,500 million years, the water in the oceans. The
rest of the gas is nitrogen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, methane, ammonia and hydrogen.
The quantity of these gases, again multiplied over 3,500 million years, is enough to explain the
mass of the world‘s atmosphere. We are alive because volcanoes provided the soil, air and water
we need.

B Geologists consider the earth as having a molten core, surrounded by a semi-molten mantle
and a brittle, outer skin. It helps to think of a soft-boiled egg with a runny yolk, a firm but
squishy white and a hard shell. If the shell is even slightly cracked during boiling, the white
material bubbles out and sets like a tiny mountain chain over the crack – like an archipelago of
volcanic islands such as the Hawaiian Islands. But the earth is so much bigger and the mantle
below is so much halter.
Even though the mantle rocks are kept solid by overlying pressure, they can still slowly ‗flow‘
like thick treacle. The flow, thought to be in the form of convection currents, is powerful enough
to fracture the ‗eggshell‘ of the crust into plates, and keep them bumping and grinding against


each other, or even overlapping, at the rate of a few centimetres a year. These fracture zones,

where the collisions occur, are where earthquakes happen. And, very often, volcanoes.

C These zones are lines of weakness, or hot spots. Every eruption is different, but put at its
simplest, where there are weaknesses, rocks deep in the mantle, heated to 1,350oC, will start to
expand and rise. As they do so, the pressure drops, and they expand and become liquid and rise
more swiftly.
Sometimes it is slow: vast bubbles of magma – molten rock from the mantle – inch towards the
surface, cooling slowly, to show through as granite extrusions (as on Skye, or the Great Whin
Sill, the lava dyke squeezed out like toothpaste that carries part of Hadrian‘s Wall in northern
England). Sometimes – as in Northern Ireland, Wales and the Karoo in South Africa – the
magma rose faster, and then flowed out horizontally on to the surface in vast thick sheets. In the
Deccan plateau in western India, there are more than two million cubic kilometres of lava, some
of it 2,400 metres thick, formed over 500,000 years of slurping eruption.

Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. It does not have time to cool as it surges
upwards. The gases trapped inside the boiling rock expand suddenly, the lava glows with heat, it
begins to froth, and it explodes with tremendous force. Then the slightly cooler lava following it
begins to flow over the lip of the crater. It happens on Mars, it happened on the moon, it even
happens on some of the moons of Jupiter and Uranus. By studying the evidence, vulcanologists
can read the force of the great blasts of the past. Is the pumice light and full of holes? The
explosion was tremendous. Are the rocks heavy, with huge crystalline basalt shapes, like the
Giant‘s Causeway in Northern Ireland? It was a slow, gentle eruption.

The biggest eruption are deep on the mid-ocean floor, where new lava is forcing the continents
apart and widening the Atlantic by perhaps five centimetres a year. Look at maps of volcanoes,
earthquakes and island chains like the Philippines and Japan, and you can see the rough outlines
of what are called tectonic plates – the plates which make up the earth‘s crust and mantle. The
most dramatic of these is the Pacific ‗ring of fire‘ where there have the most violent explosions –
Mount Pinatubo near Manila, Mount St Helen‘s in the Rockies and El Chichón in Mexico about

a decade ago, not to mention world-shaking blasts like Krakatoa in the Sunda Straits in 1883.

D But volcanoes are not very predictable. That is because geological time is not like human
time. During quiet periods, volcanoes cap themselves with their own lava by forming a powerful
cone from the molten rocks slopping over the rim of the crater; later the lava cools slowly into a
huge, hard, stable plug which blocks any further eruption until the pressure below becomes
irresistible. In the case of Mount Pinatubo, this took 600 years.

Then, sometimes, with only a small warning, the mountain blows its top. It did this at Mont
Pelée in Martinique at 7.49 a.m. on 8 May, 1902. Of a town of 28,000, only two people survived.
In 1815, a sudden blast removed the top 1,280 metres of Mount Tambora in Indonesia. The
eruption was so fierce that dust thrown into the stratosphere darkened the skies, canceling the
following summer in Europe and North America. Thousands starved as the harvest failed, after
snow in June and frosts in August. Volcanoes are potentially world news, especially the quiet
ones.
Questions 18-21
Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/ OR A
NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 18-21 on your answer sheet.
18. What are the sections of the earth‘s crust, often associated with volcanic activity, called?
19. What is the name given to molten rock from the mantle?
20. What is the earthquake zone on the Pacific Ocean called?
21. For how many years did Mount Pinatubo remain inactive?
Questions 22-26
Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for
each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 22-26 on your answer sheets.
Volcanic eruptions have shaped the earth‘s land surface. They may also have produced the
world‘s atmosphere and 22 …...…… Eruptions occur when molten rocks from the earth‘s mantle

rise and expand. When they become liquid, they move more quickly through cracks in the
surface. There are different types of eruption. Sometimes the 23 ……...… moves slowly and
forms outcrops of granite on the earth‘s surface. When it moves more quickly it may flow out in
thick horizontal sheets. Examples of this type of eruption can be found in Northern Ireland,
Wales, South Africa and 24 …...…… A third type of eruption occurs when the lava emerges
very quickly and 25 …...…… violently. This happens because the magma moves so suddenly
that 26 …...…… are emitted.

Reading 2

Experience versus speed
Certain mental functions slow down with age, but the brain compensates in ways that can keep
seniors as sharp as youngsters.
Jake, aged 16, has a terrific relationship with his grandmother Rita, who is 70. They live close
by, and they even take a Spanish class together twice a week at a local college. After class they
sometimes stop at a cafe for a snack. On one occasion, Rita tells Jake, 'I think it's great how fast
you pick up new grammar. It takes me a lot longer.' Jake replies, 'Yeah, but you don't seem to
make as many silly mistakes on the quizzes as I do. How do you do that?'

In that moment, Rita and Jake stumbled across an interesting set of differences between older
and younger minds. Popular psychology says that as people age their brains 'slow down'. The
implication, of course, is that elderly men and women are not as mentally agile as middle-aged
adults or even teenagers. However, although certain brain functions such as perception and
reaction time do indeed take longer, that slowing down does not necessarily undermine mental
sharpness. Indeed, evidence shows that older people are just as mentally fit as younger people
because their brains compensate for some kinds of declines in creative ways that young minds do
not exploit.

Just as people's bodies age at different rates, so do their minds. As adults advance in age, the
perception of sights, sounds and smells takes a bit longer, and laying down new information into


memory becomes more difficult. The ability to retrieve memories also quickly slides and it is
sometimes harder to concentrate and maintain attention.

On the other hand, the ageing brain can create significant benefits by tapping into its extensive
hoard of accumulated knowledge and experience. The biggest trick that older brains employ is to
use both hemispheres simultaneously to handle tasks for which younger brains rely
predominantly on one side. Electronic images taken by cognitive scientists at the University of
Michigan, for example, have demonstrated that even when doing basic recognition or
memorization exercises, seniors exploit the left and right side of the brain more extensively than
men and women who are decades younger. Drawing on both sides of the brain gives them a
tactical edge, even if the speed of each hemisphere's process is slower.

In another experiment, Michael Falkenstein of the University of Dortmund in Germany found
that when elders were presented with new computer exercises they paused longer before reacting
and took longer to complete the tasks, yet they made 50% fewer errors, probably because of their
more deliberate pace.

One analogy for these results might be the question of who can type a paragraph 'better': a I6year-old who glides along at 60 words per minute but has to double back to correct a number of
mistakes or a 70-year-old who strikes keys at only 40 words per minute but spends less time
fixing errors? In the end, if 'better' is defined as completing a clean paragraph. both people may
end up taking the same amount of time.

Computerized tests support the notion that accuracy can offset speed. In one so-called distraction
exercise, subjects were told to look at a screen, wait for an arrow that pointed in a certain
direction to appear, and then use a mouse to click on the arrow as soon as it appeared on the
screen. Just before the correct symbol appeared, however, the computer displayed numerous

other arrows aimed in various other directions. Although younger subjects cut through the
confusion faster when the correct arrow suddenly popped up, they more frequently clicked on
incorrect arrows in their haste.


Older test takers are equally capable of other tasks that do not depend on speed, such as language
comprehension and processing. In these cases, however. the elders utilize the brain's available
resources in a different way. Neurologists at Northwest University came to this conclusion after
analyzing 50 people ranging from age 23 to 78. The subjects had to lie down in a magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) machine and concentrate on two different lists of printed words posted
side by side in front of them. By looking at the lists, they were to find pairs of words that were
similar in either meaning or spelling.

The eldest participants did just as well on the tests as the youngest did, and yet the MRI scans
indicated that in the elders' brains, the areas which are responsible for language recognition and
interpretation were much less active. The researchers did find that the older people had more
activity in brain regions responsible for attentiveness. Darren Gleitman, who headed the study,
concluded that older brains solved the problems just as effectively but by different means.
Questions 1-3
Choose the correct answer A, B, C or D ans write them on your answer sheet from 1-3

1 The conversation between Jake and Rita is used to give an example of
A the way we learn languages.
B the changes that occur in our brains over time.
C the fact that it is easier to learn a language at a young age.
D the importance of young and old people doing things together.

2 In paragraph six, what point is the analogy used to illustrate?
A Working faster is better than working slower.
B Accuracy is less important than speed.

C Accuracy can improve over time.
D Working faster does not always save time.

3 In the computerized distraction exercises, the subjects had to
A react to a particular symbol on the screen.


B type a text as quickly as possible.
C move an arrow in different directions around the screen.
D click on every arrow that appeared on the screen.

Questions 4-7
Complete each sentence with the correct ending A-F.
Write the correct letter A-F in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet

4 According to popular psychology
5 Researchers at the University of Michigan showed that
6 Michael Falkenstein discovered that
7 Scientists at Northwest University concluded that

A the older we get the harder it is to concentrate for any length of time.
B seniors take longer to complete tasks but with greater accuracy.
C old people use both parts of their brain more than young people.
D older people use their brains differently but achieve the same result.
E the speed of our brain decreases with age.
F older people do not cope well with new technology.

Questions 8-12
Complete the summary below.

Choose NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in spaces 8-12 of your answer sheet.
People's bodies and 8 __________ grow older at varying stages. As we age our senses take
longer to process information and our aptitude for recalling 9 __________ also decreases.
However, older people's brains do have several advantages. Firstly, they can call upon both
the 10 __________ and 11 __________ which is already stored in their brain. Secondly,
although the 12__________ of each side of their brain is reduced, they are able to use both
sides at once.


Reading 3

Questions 28-31
Reading Passage 165 has five sections A-E
Choose the correct heading for section A and C-E from the list of headings below.

Write the correct number i-viii in boxes 28-31 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

i The connection between health-care and other human rights
ii The development of market-based health systems.
iii The role of the state in health-care
iv A problem shared by every economically developed country
v The impact of recent change
vi The views of the medical establishment
vii The end of an illusion
viii Sustainable economic development

28 Section A

Example
Section B

Answer
viii

29 Section C
30 Section D
31 Section E

The Problem of Scarce Resources


Section A
The problem of how health-care resources should be allocated or apportioned, so that they are
distributed in both the most just and most efficient way, is not a new one. Every health system in
an economically developed society is faced with the need to decide (either formally or
informally) what proportion of the community‘s total resources should be spent on health-care;
how resources are to be apportioned; what diseases and disabilities and which forms of treatment
are to be given priority; which members of the community are to be given special consideration
in respect of their health needs; and which forms of treatment are the most cost-effective.
Section B
What is new is that, from the 1950s onwards, there have been certain general changes in outlook
about the finitude of resources as a whole and of health-care resources in particular, as well as
more specific changes regarding the clientele of health-care resources and the cost to the
community of those resources. Thus, in the 1950s and 1960s, there emerged an awareness in
Western societies that resources for the provision of fossil fuel energy were finite and
exhaustible and that the capacity of nature or the environment to sustain economic development
and population was also finite. In other words, we became aware of the obvious fact that there

were ‗limits to growth‘. The new consciousness that there were also severe limits to health-care
resources was part of this general revelation of the obvious. Looking back, it now seems quite
incredible that in the national health systems that emerged in many countries in the years
immediately after the 1939-45 World War, it was assumed without question that all the basic
health needs of any community could be satisfied, at least in principle; the ‗in visible hand‘ of
economic progress would provide.

Section C
However, at exactly the same time as this new realization of the finite character of health-care
resources was sinking in, an awareness of a contrary kind was developing in Western societies:
that people have a basic right to health-care as a necessary condition of a proper human life. Like
education, political and legal processes and institutions, public order, communication, transport
and money supply, health-care came to be seen as one of the fundamental social facilities
necessary for people to exercise their other rights as autonomous human beings. People are not in


a position to exercise personal liberty and to be self-determining if they are poverty-stricken, or
deprived of basic education, or do not live within a context of law and order. In the same way,
basic health-care is a condition of the exercise of autonomy.

Section D
Although the language of ‗rights‘ sometimes leads to confusion, by the late 1970s it was
recognized in most societies that people have a right to health-care (though there has been
considerable resistance in the United Sates to the idea that there is a formal right to health-care).
It is also accepted that this right generates an obligation or duty for the state to ensure that
adequate health-care resources are provided out of the public purse. The state has no obligation
to provide a health-care system itself, but to ensure that such a system is provided. Put another
way, basic health-care is now recognized as a ‗public good‘, rather than a ‗private good‘ that one
is expected to buy for oneself. As the 1976 declaration of the World Health Organisation put it:
‗The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of

every human being without distinction of race, religion, political belief, economic or social
condition‘. As has just been remarked, in a liberal society basic health is seen as one of the
indispensable conditions for the exercise of personal autonomy.

Section E
Just at the time when it became obvious that health-care resources could not possibly meet the
demands being made upon them, people were demanding that their fundamental right to healthcare be satisfied by the state. The second set of more specific changes that have led to the present
concern about the distribution of health-care resources stems from the dramatic rise in health
costs in most OECD countries, accompanied by large-scale demographic and social changes
which have meant, to take one example, that elderly people are now major (and relatively very
expensive) consumers of health-care resources. Thus in OECD countries as a whole, health costs
increased from 3.8% of GDP in 1960 to 7% of GDP in 1980, and it has been predicted that the
proportion of health costs to GDP will continue to increase. (In the US the current figure is about
12% of GDP, and in Australia about 7.8% of GDP.)

As a consequence, during the 1980s a kind of doomsday scenario (analogous to similar


doomsday extrapolations about energy needs and fossil fuels or about population increases) was
projected by health administrators, economists and politicians. In this scenario, ever-rising health
costs were matched against static or declining resources.

Note
OECD: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
GDP: Gross Domestic Products
___________________________________________________
Questions 32-35
Classify the following as first occurring

A between 1945 and 1950

B between 1950 and 1980
C after 1980

Write the correct letter A, B or C in boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet.

32 the realisation that the resources of the national health system were limited
33 a sharp rise in the cost of health-care.
34 a belief that all the health-care resources the community needed would be produced by
economic growth
35 an acceptance of the role of the state in guaranteeing the provision of health-care.

Questions 36-40
Do the following statements agree with the view of the writer in Reading Passage 165?
In boxes 136-40 on your answer sheet write:

YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this


36 Personal liberty and independence have never been regarded as directly linked to health-care.
37 Health-care came to be seen as a right at about the same time that the limits of health-care
resources became evident.
38 IN OECD countries population changes have had an impact on health-care costs in recent
years.
39 OECD governments have consistently underestimated the level of health-care provision
needed.
40 In most economically developed countries the elderly will to make special provision for their
health-care in the future.

Reading 4

Urban planning in Singapore
British merchants established a trading post in Singapore in the early nineteenth century, and for
more than a century trading interests dominated. However, in 1965 the newly independent island
state was cut off from its hinterland, and so it set about pursuing a survival strategy. The good
international communications it already enjoyed provided a useful base, but it was decided that if
Singapore was to secure its economic future, it must develop its industry. To this end, new
institutional structures were needed to facilitate, develop, and control foreign investment. One of
the most important of these was the Economic Development Board (EDB), an arm of
government that developed strategies for attracting investment. Thus from the outset, the
Singaporean government was involved in city promotion.

Towards the end of the twentieth century, the government realised that, due to limits on both the
size of the country‘s workforce and its land area, its labour-intensive industries were becoming
increasingly uncompetitive. So an economic committee was established which concluded that
Singapore should focus on developing as a service centre, and seek to attract company
headquarters to serve South East Asia, and develop tourism, banking, and offshore activities. The
land required for this service-sector orientation had been acquired in the early 1970s, when the
government realised that it lacked the banking infrastructure for a modern economy. So a new


banking and corporate district, known as the ‗Golden Shoe‘, was planned, incorporating the
historic commercial area. This district now houses all the major companies and various
government financial agencies.
Singapore‘s current economic strategy is closely linked to land use and development planning.
Although it is already a major city, the current development plan seeks to ensure Singapore‘s
continued economic growth through restructuring, to ensure that the facilities needed by future
business are planned now. These include transport and telecommunication infrastructure, land,
and environmental quality. A major concern is to avoid congestion in the central area, and so the

latest plan deviates from previous plans by having a strong decentralisation policy. The plan
makes provision for four major regional centres, each serving 800,000 people, but this does not
mean that the existing central business district will not also grow. A major extension planned
around Marina Bay draws on examples of other ‗world cities‘, especially those with waterside
central areas such as Sydney and San Francisco. The project involves major land reclamation of
667 hectares in total. Part of this has already been developed as a conference and exhibition
zone, and the rest will be used for other facilities. However the need for vitality has been
recognised and a mixed zoning approach has been adopted, to include housing and
entertainment.

One of the new features of the current plan is a broader conception of what contributes to
economic success. It encompasses high quality residential provision, a good environment, leisure
facilities and exciting city life. Thus there is more provision for low-density housing, often in
waterfront communities linked to beaches and recreational facilities. However, the lower housing
densities will put considerable pressure on the very limited land available for development, and
this creates problems for another of the plan‘s aims, which is to stress environmental quality.
More and more of the remaining open area will be developed, and the only natural landscape
surviving will be a small zone in the centre of the island which serves as a water catchment area.
Environmental policy is therefore very much concerned with making the built environment more
green by introducing more plants – what is referred to as the ‗beautification‘ of Singapore. The
plan focuses on green zones defining the boundaries of settlements, and running along transport


corridors. The incidental green provision within housing areas is also given considerable
attention.

Much of the environmental provision, for example golf courses, recreation areas, and beaches, is
linked to the prime objective of attracting business. The plan places much emphasis on good
leisure provision and the need to exploit Singapore‘s island setting. One way of doing this is
through further land reclamation, to create a whole new island devoted to leisure and luxury

housing which will stretch from the central area to the airport. A current concern also appears to
be how to use the planning system to create opportunities for greater spontaneity: planners have
recently given much attention to the concept of the 24-hour city and the cafe society. For
example, a promotion has taken place along the Singapore river to create a cafe zone. This has
included the realisation, rather late in the day, of the value of retaining older buildings, and the
creation of a continuous riverside promenade. Since the relaxation in 1996 of strict guidelines on
outdoor eating areas, this has become an extremely popular area in the evenings. Also, in 1998
the Urban Redevelopment Authority created a new entertainment area in the centre of the city
which they are promoting as ‗the city‘s one-stop, dynamic entertainment scene‘.

In conclusion, the economic development of Singapore has been very consciously centrally
planned, and the latest strategy is very clearly oriented to establishing Singapore as a leading
‗world city‘. It is well placed to succeed, for a variety of reasons. It can draw upon its historic
roots as a world trading centre; it has invested heavily in telecommunications and air transport
infrastructure; it is well located in relation to other Asian economies; it has developed a safe and
clean environment; and it has utilised the international language of English.
Question 14-19
Complete the summary below using words from the box.

Singapore
When Singapore became an independent, self-sufficient state it decided to build up its 14
...................., and government organisations were created to support this policy. However, this
initial plan met with limited success due to a shortage of 15 .................... and land. It was


therefore decided to develop the 16 .................... sector of the economy instead.

Singapore is now a leading city, but planners are working to ensure that its economy continues to
grow. In contrast to previous policies, there is emphasis on 17 .................... . In addition, land
will be recovered to extend the financial

district, and provide 18 .................... as well as housing. The government also plans to improve
the quality of Singapore‘s environment, but due to the shortage of natural landscapes it will
concentrate instead on what it calls 19 .................... .

Question 20-26
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 62? Write:

True if the statement agrees with the information
False if the statement contradicts the information
Not Given if there is no information on this.
20. After 1965, the Singaporean government switched the focus of the island‘s economy.
........................................................................................
21. The creation of Singapore‘s financial centre was delayed while a suitable site was found.
........................................................................................
22. Singapore‘s four regional centres will eventually be the same size as its central business
district.
........................................................................................

23. Planners have modelled new urban developments on other coastal cities.
........................................................................................
24. Plants and trees are amongst the current priorities for Singapore‘s city planners.
........................................................................................


25. The government has enacted new laws to protect Singapore‘s old buildings.
........................................................................................

26. Singapore will find it difficult to compete with leading cities in other parts of the world.
........................................................................................

Reading 5
Questions 14-18
Reading Passage 149 contains six Key Points.
Choose the correct heading for Key Points TWO to SIX .from the list of headings below.

Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet.
_____________________________________________
List of Headings

i Ensure the reward system is fair
ii Match rewards lo individuals
iii Ensure targets are realistic
iv Link rewards to achievement
v Encourage managers to take more responsibility
vi Recognise changes in employees' performance over time
vii Establish targets and give feedback
viii Ensure employees are suited to their jobs
Example
Key Point One
14 Key Point Two
15 Key Point Three
16 Key Point Four

Answer
viii


17 Key Point Five
18 Key Point Six

Motivating Employees under Adverse Condition
THE CHALLENGE
It is a great deal easier to motivate employees in a growing organisation than a declining one.
When organisations are expanding and adding personnel, promotional opportunities, pay rises,
and the excitement of being associated with a dynamic organisation create Slings of optimism.
Management is able ta use the growth to entice and encourage employees. When an organisation
is shrinking, the best and most mobile workers are prone to leave voluntarily. Unfortunately,
they are the ones the organisation can least afford to lose- those with me highest skills and
experience. The minor employees remain because their job options are limited.
Morale also surfers during decline. People fear they may be the next to be made redundant.
Productivity often suffers, as employees spend their time sharing rumours and providing one
another with moral support rather than focusing on their jobs. For those whose jobs are secure,
pay increases are rarely possible. Pay cuts, unheard of during times of growth, may even be
imposed. The challenge to management is how to motivate employees under such retrenchment
conditions. The ways of meeting this challenge can be broadly divided into six Key Points,
which are outlined below.
KEY POINT ONE
There is an abundance of evidence to support the motivational benefits that result from carefully
matching people to jobs. For example, if the job is running a small business or an autonomous
unit within a larger business, high achievers should be sought. However, if the job to be filled is
a managerial post in a large bureaucratic organisation, a candidate who has a high need for
power and a low need for affiliation should be selected. Accordingly, high achievers should not
be put into jobs that are inconsistent with their needs. High achievers will do best when the job
provides moderately challenging goals and where there is independence and feedback. However,
it should be remembered that not everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in independence,
variety and responsibility.

KEY POINT TWO

The literature on goal-setting theory suggests that managers should ensure that all employees
have specific goals and receive comments on how well they are doing in those goals. For those
with high achievement needs, typically a minority in any organisation, the existence of external
goals is less important because high achievers are already internally motivated. The next factor
to be determined is whether the goals should be assigned by a manager or collectively set in
conjunction with the employees. The answer to that depends on perceptions the culture, however,
goals should be assigned. If participation and the culture are incongruous, employees are likely
to perceive the participation process as manipulative and be negatively affected by it.

KEY POINT THREE
Regardless of whether goals are achievable or well within management's perceptions of the
employee's ability, if employees see them as unachievable they will reduce their effort. Managers
must be sure, therefore, that employees feel confident that their efforts can lead to performance
goals. For managers, this means that employees must have the capability of doing the job and
must regard the appraisal process as valid.

KEY POINT FOUR
Since employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcement far one may not for another.
Managers could use their knowledge of each employee to personalise the rewards over which
they have control. Some of the more obvious rewards that managers allocate include pay,
promotions, autonomy, job scope and depth, and the opportunity lo participate in goal-setting
and decision-making.

KEY POINT FIVE
Managers need to make rewards contingent on performance. To reward factors other than
performance will only reinforce those other factors. Key rewards such as pay increases and
promotions or advancements should be allocated for the attainment of the employee's specific
goals. Consistent with maximising the impact of rewards, managers should look for ways to
increase their visibility. Eliminating the secrecy surrounding pay by openly communicating
everyone's remuneration, publicising performance bonuses and allocating annual salary increases

in a lump sum rather than spreading them out over an entire year are examples of actions that
will make rewards more visible and potentially more motivating.
KEY POINT SIX
The way rewards ore distributed should be transparent so that employees perceive that rewards
or outcomes are equitable and equal to the inputs given. On a simplistic level, experience,
abilities, effort and other obvious inputs should explain differences in pay, responsibility and
other obvious outcomes. The problem, however, is complicated by the existence of dozens of
inputs and outcomes ana by the Fact that employee groups place different degrees of importance
on them. For instance, a study comparing clerical and production workers identified nearly
twenty inputs and outcomes. The clerical workers considered factors such as quality of work
performed and job knowledge near the top of their list, but these were at the bottom of the
production workers' list. Similarly, production workers thought that the most important inputs
were intelligence and personal involvement with task accomplishment, two factors that were
quite low in the importance ratings of the clerks. There were also important, though less
dramatic, differences on the outcome side. For example, production workers rated advancement
very highly, whereas clerical workers rated advancement in the lower third of their list. Such
findings suggest that one person's equity is another's inequity, so an ideal should probably weigh
different inputs and outcomes according to employee group.
Questions 19-24
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 149?
In boxes 19-24 on your answer sheet, write:

YES if the statement t agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

19 A shrinking organisation lends to lose its less skilled employees rather than its more skilled
employees.

20 It is easier to manage a small business ban a large business.
21 High achievers are well suited lo team work.
22 Some employees can fee! manipulated when asked to participate in goal-setting.


23 The staff appraisal process should be designed by employees.
24 Employees' earnings should be disclosed to everyone within the organisation.
Questions 25-27
Look at the follow groups of worker (Question25-27 )and the list of descriptions below
Match each group with the correct description, A -E.
Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet.

25 high achievers
26 clerical workers
27 production workers
List of Descriptions

A They judge promotion to be important.
B They have less need of external goats.
C They think that the quality of their work is important.
D They resist goals which are imposed.
E They have limited job options.

Reading 6

PAPER RECYCLING
A Paper is different from other waste produce because it comes from a sustainable resource:
trees. Unlike the minerals and oil used to make plastics and metals, trees are replaceable. Paper is
also biodegradable, so it does not pose as much threat to the environment when it is discarded.
While 45 out of every 100 tonnes of wood fibre used to make paper in Australia comes from

waste paper, the rest comes directly from virgin fibre from forests and plantations. By world
standards this is a good performance since the world-wide average is 33 per cent waste paper.
Governments have encouraged waste paper collection and sorting schemes and at the same time,
the paper industry has responded by developing new recycling technologies that have paved the


way for even greater utilization of used fibre. As a result, industry‘s use of recycled fibres is
expected to increase at twice the rate of virgin fibre over the coming years.
B Already, waste paper constitutes 70% of paper used for packaging and advances in the
technology required to remove ink from the paper have allowed a higher recycled content in
newsprint and writing paper. To achieve the benefits of recycling, the community must also
contribute. We need to accept a change in the quality of paper products; for example stationery
may be less white and of a rougher texture. There also needs to be support from the community
for waste paper collection programs. Not only do we need to make the paper available to
collectors but it also needs to be separated into different types and sorted from contaminants such
as staples, paperclips, string and other miscellaneous items.
C There are technical limitations to the amount of paper which can be recycled and some paper
products cannot be collected for re-use. These include paper in the form of books and permanent
records, photographic paper and paper which is badly contaminated. The four most common
sources of paper for recycling are factories and retail stores which gather large amounts of
packaging material in which goods are delivered, also offices which have unwanted business
documents and computer output, paper converters and printers and lastly households which
discard newspapers and packaging material. The paper manufacturer pays a price for the paper
and may also incur the collection cost.
D Once collected, the paper has to be sorted by hand by people trained to recognise various types
of paper. This is necessary because some types of paper can only be made from particular kinds
of recycled fibre. The sorted paper then has to be repulped or mixed with water and broken down
into its individual fibres. This mixture is called stock and may contain a wide variety of
contaminating materials, particularly if it is made from mixed waste paper which has had little
sorting. Various machineries are used to remove other materials from the stock. After passing

through the repulping process, the fibres from printed waste paper are grey in colour because the
printing ink has soaked into the individual fibres. This recycled material can only be used in
products where the grey colour does not matter, such as cardboard boxes but if the grey colour is
not acceptable, the fibres must be de-inked. This involves adding chemicals such as caustic soda
or other alkalis, soaps and detergents, water-hardening agents such as cal-cium chloride, frothing
agents and bleaching agents. Before the recycled fibres can be made into paper they must be
refined or treated in such a way that they bond together.


E Most paper products must contain some virgin fibre as well as recycled fibres and unlike glass,
paper cannot be recycled indefinitely. Most paper is down-cycled which means that a prod-uct
made from recycled paper is of an inferior quality to the original paper. Recycling paper is
beneficial in that it saves some of the energy, labour and capital that go into producing virgin
pulp. However, recycling requires the use of fossil fuel, a non-renewable energy source, to
collect the waste paper from the community and to process it to produce new paper. And the
recycling process still creates emissions which require treatment before they can be disposed of
safely. Nevertheless, paper recycling is an important economical and environmental practice but
one which must be carried out in a rational and viable manner for it to be useful to both industry
and the community.
Questions 30-36
Complete the summary below of the first two paragraphs of the Reading Passage.
Choose ONE OR TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 30-36 on your answer sheet.
SUMMARY
Example ....
From the point of view of recycling, paper has two advantages over minerals and ...........oil..........
in that firstly it comes from a resource which is ........ (30) ........ and secondly it is less
threatening to our environment when we throw it away because it is ....... (31) ...... Although
Australia‘s record in the re-use of waste paper is good, it is still necessary to use a combination
of recycled fibre and ........ (32) ........ to make new paper. The paper industry has contributed

positively and people have also been encouraged by .........(33) ......... to collect their waste on a
regular basis. One major difficulty is the removal of ink from used paper but ......... (34) ......... are
being made in this area. However, we need to learn to accept paper which is generally of a
lower ......... (35) ......... than before and to sort our waste paper by removing ......... (36)
........ before discarding it for collection.
Look at paragraphs C, D, and E and, using the information in the passage, complete the flow
chart below. Write your answers in boxes 37-41 on your answer sheet. Use ONE OR TWO
WORDS for each answer.


Reading 7

Creating Artificial Reefs
In the coastal waters of the US, a nation's leftovers have been discarded. Derelict ships, concrete
blocks, scrapped cars, army tanks, tyres filled with concrete and redundant planes litter the sea
floor. However, this is not waste disposal, but part of a coordinated, state-run programme. To
recently arrived fish, plants and other sea organisms, these artificial reefs are an ideal home,
offering food and shelter.
Sea-dumping incites widespread condemnation. Little surprise when oceans are seen as
'convenient' dumping grounds for the rubbish we have created but would rather forget. However,
scientific evidence suggests that if we dump the right things, sea life can actually be enhanced.
And more recently, purpose-built structures of steel or concrete have been employed - some the
size of small apartment blocks -principally to increase fish harvests.
Strong currents, for example, the choice of design and materials for an artificial reef depends on
where it is going to be placed. In areas of a solid concrete structure will be more appropriate than


ballasted tyres. It also depends on what species are to be attracted. It is pointless creating highrise structures for fish that prefer flat or low-relief habitat. But the most important consideration
is the purpose of the reef.
In the US, where there is a national reef plan using cleaned up rigs and tanks, artificial reefs have

mainly been used to attract fish for recreational fishing or sport-diving. But there are many other
ways in which they can be used to manage the marine habitat. For as well as protecting existing
habitat, providing purpose-built accommodation for commercial species (such as lobsters and
octupi) and acting as sea defences, they can be an effective way of improving fish harvests.
Japan, for example, has created vast areas of artificial habitat - rather than isolated reefs - to
increase its fish stocks. In fact, the cultural and historical importance of seafood in Japan is
reflected by the fact that it is a world leader in reef technology; what's more, those who construct
and deploy reefs have sole rights to the harvest.
In Europe, artificial reefs have been mainly employed to protect habitat. Particularly so in the
Mediterranean where reefs have been sunk as physical obstacles to stop illegal trawling, which is
destroying sea grass beds and the marine life that depends on them. If you want to protect areas
of the seabed, you need something that will stop trawlers dead in their tracks,' says Dr Antony
Jensen of the Southampton Oceanography Centre.
Italy boasts considerable artificial reef activity. It deployed its first scientifically planned reef
using concrete cubes assembled in pyramid forms in 1974 to enhance fisheries and stop trawling.
And Spain has built nearly 50 reefs in its waters, mainly to discourage trawling and enhance the
productivity of fisheries. Meanwhile, Britain established its first quarried rock artificial reef in
1984 off the Scottish coast, to assess its potential for attracting commercial species.
But while the scientific study of these structures is a little over a quarter of a century old,
artificial reefs made out of readily available materials such as bamboo and coconuts have been
used by fishermen for centuries. And the benefits have been enormous. By placing reefs close to
home, fishermen can save time and fuel. But unless they are carefully managed, these areas can
become over- fished. In the Philippines, for example, where artificial reef programmes have been
instigated in response to declining fish populations, catches are often allowed to exceed the
maximum potential new production of the artificial reef because there is no proper management
control.