Global marketing management

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GLOBAL MARKETING
MANAGEMENT
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5TH EDITION

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GLOBAL MARKETING
MANAGEMENT
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5TH EDITION
Masaaki Kotabe
Temple University

Kristiaan Helsen
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

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DEDICATION
To my sons and SDK
—M.K.
To my mother and A.V.
—K.H.

Vice President & Executive Publisher
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Associate Media Editor
Cover Photo Credit

George Hoffman
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Harry Nolan
James O’Shea
Elm Street Publishing Services
Anna Melhorn
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ª Daniel lvascu/iStockphoto

This book was set in 10/12pt Times Ten Roman by Thomson Digital and printed and bound by CourierKendallville. The cover was printed by Courier-Kendallville.
Copyright ª 2010, 2008, 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
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Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative.

ISBN-13 978-0-470-38111-3
Printed in the United States of America
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Masaaki ‘‘Mike’’ Kotabe holds the Washburn Chair Professorship in International
Business and Marketing, and is Director of Research at the Institute of Global
Management Studies at the Fox School of Business at Temple University. Prior to
joining Temple University in 1998, he was Ambassador Edward Clark Centennial
Endowed Fellow and Professor of Marketing and International Business at the
University of Texas at Austin. Dr. Kotabe also served as Vice President of the
Academy of International Business in the 1997–1998 term. He received his Ph.D. in
Marketing and International Business at Michigan State University. Dr. Kotabe
teaches international marketing, global sourcing strategy (R&D, manufacturing,
and marketing interfaces) and Asian business practices at the undergraduate and
MBA levels, and teaches theories of international business at the Ph.D. level. He has

lectured widely at various business schools around the world, including Austria, Brazil,
China, Colombia, Finland, Germany, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Norway,
Sweden, and Turkey. For his research, he has worked closely with leading companies
such as AT&T, Kohler, NEC, Nissan, Philips, Sony, and Seven & I Holdings (parent of
7-Eleven stores), and served as advisor to the United Nations’ and World Trade
Organization’s Executive Forum on National Export Strategies.
Dr. Kotabe has written many scholarly publications. His numerous research papers
have appeared in such journals as Journal of Marketing, Journal of International
Business Studies, Strategic Management Journal, and Academy of Management Journal.
His books include Global Sourcing Strategy: R&D, Manufacturing, Marketing Interfaces (1992), Japanese Distribution System (1993), Anticompetitive Practices in Japan
(1996), MERCOSUR and Beyond (1997), Marketing Management (2001), Market
Revolution in Latin America: Beyond Mexico (2001), Emerging Issues in International
Business Research (2002), and Global Supply Chain Management (2006).
He currently serves as Editor of the Journal of International Management, and also
serves and/or has served on the editorial boards of Journal of Marketing, Journal of
International Business Studies, Journal of International Marketing, Journal of World
Business, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Advances in International
Management, Journal of Business Research, and Thunderbird International Business
Review, among others. He also serves as Advisor to the Institute of Industrial Policy
Studies (IPS) National Competitiveness Report. Dr. Kotabe has been elected a Fellow
of the Academy of International Business for his significant contribution to international business research and education.
Kristiaan Helsen has been an associate professor of marketing at the Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology (HKUST) since 1995. Prior to joining HKUST,
he was on the faculty of the University of Chicago for five years. He has lectured at
Nijenrode University (Netherlands), the International University of Japan, Purdue
University, the Catholic University of Lisbon, and China Europe International Business School (CEIBS) in Shanghai, China. Dr. Helsen received his Ph.D. in Marketing at
the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania.
His research areas include promotional strategy, competitive strategy, and hazardrate modeling. His articles have appeared in journals such as Marketing Science, Journal
of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, and European Journal of Operations
Research, among others. Dr. Helsen is on the editorial board of the International

Journal of Research in Marketing.

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vi  About the authors

Professors Kotabe and Helsen recently published the SAGE Handbook of International Marketing (2009), an authoritative collection of chapters written by expert
researchers from around the world that provides an in-depth analysis of international
marketing issues that must be understood and addressed in today’s global and
interdependent markets. The Handbook brings together the fundamental questions
and themes that have surfaced, and promises to be an essential addition to the study of
international marketing.


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PREFACE

THREE FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES ADDRESSED
IN THE FIFTH EDITION

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We have continued to receive many letters and e-mail messages as well as comments on
Amazon.com from instructors and business executives around the world who used the
previous editions of Global Marketing Management. Their comments have been
unanimously favorable. Thanks to the increased desire in many parts of the world
for access to our book in their own languages, our book has been translated into
Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, and Spanish. However, we just cannot be sitting on our
laurels. As the world around us has been constantly changing, the contents and context
of our book also must change to reflect the climate of the time. Today, the worst global
financial crisis since the Great Depression of 1929 has changed the global marketing
environment completely. A continued global economic growth has proved to be a false
assumption. Now there are even political tides against freer trading environments.
Although we currently live in a very unfortunate global economic environment, we are
fortunate enough to capture various changes in the marketplace and describe them in
this fifth edition of our book.
In our mind, the role of a textbook is not only to describe today’s realities but also
to extrapolate logically from them how the future will unfold. After all, that is how
marketing executives have to act and make correct decisions based on the facts they
have gathered. Today’s realities are a product of past realities, and the future will be an
uncharted course of events lying ahead of us. We constantly strive to help you better
understand state-of-the-art marketing practices on a global basis with relevant historical background, current marketing environments, and logical explanations based on a
massive amount of knowledge generated by marketing executives as well as by
academic researchers from around the world.
Therefore, the fifth edition of our book builds on three major changes that have
taken place in the last decade or so. First, the landscape of the global economy has
changed drastically, particularly as a result of the global financial crisis and ensuing
global recession. The emergence of Brazil, Russia, India, and China, among others, as
economic superpowers has occurred during the same period. For example, China’s role
as the world’s factory is well established; India’s increased role in information

technology development is obvious; and Brazil and Russia are still rich in mineral
resources that are becoming scarce around the world.
Second, the explosive growth of information technology tools, including the
internet and electronic commerce (e-commerce), has had a significant effect on the
way we do business internationally. This still continues to be an evolving phenomenon
that we need to take a careful look at. On one hand, everyone seems to agree that
business transactions will be faster and more global early on. And it is very true. As a
result, marketing management techniques, such as customer relationship management
and global account management, have become increasingly feasible. However, on the
other hand, the more deeply we have examined this issue, the more convinced we have
become that certain things will not change, or might even become more local as a result
of globalization that the internet and e-commerce bestow on us.
Third, it is an underlying human tendency to desire to be different when there are
economic and political forces of convergence (often referred to as globalization). When

vii


viii  Preface

the globalization argument (and movement) became fashionable in the 1980s and
1990s, many of us believed that globalization would make global marketing easier. As
we explain later in the text, marketing beyond national borders, indeed, has become
easier, but it does not necessarily mean that customers want the same products in
countries around the world. For example, many more peoples around the world try to
emphasize cultural and ethnic differences and accept those differences than ever
before. Just think about many new countries being born around the world as well
as regional unifications taking place at the same time. Another example is that while ecommerce promotion on the internet goes global, product delivery may need to be
fairly local in order to address local competition and exchange-rate fluctuations as well
as the complexities of international physical distribution (export declarations, tariffs,

and non-tariff barriers). From a supply-side point of view, globalization has brought us
more products from all corners of the world. However, from a demand-side (marketing-side) point of view, customers have a much broader set of goods and services to
choose from. In other words, marketers now face all the more divergent customers with
divergent preferences—far from a homogeneous group of customers.
Indeed, these changes we have observed in the last decade or so are more than
extraordinary. In this fifth edition, we have expanded on these issues in all the chapters
wherever relevant. We have added many new examples that have occurred in this
period. However, we do not sacrifice logical depth in favor of brand-new examples. This
revision required a lot of work, as did previous editions in the past. But it was well worth
the effort because we are confident that enlightened readers like you will be very
satisfied with the results.
We strongly believe that cases provide students not only with lively discussions of
what goes on with many companies but also an in-depth understanding of many
marketing-related concepts and tools as used by those companies. In this revision, we
added many new cases and retained and updated several cases from earlier editions
that our textbook users and their students voted as favorites.. We have more than 40
cases in this edition. The cases represent many products and services and many regions
and countries as well as many nationalities. Six cases are included in the textbook itself,
and the rest are placed on the textbook website for easy download www.wiley.com/
college/kotabe.
Many users of the previous editions continue to commend our book as probably the
most academically rigorous and conceptually sound, and yet full of lively examples with
which students can easily identify in order to drive across important points. We
combine the academic rigor and relevance (fun of reading) of materials to meet
both undergraduate and MBA educational requirements. We keep this tradition in our
fifth edition.
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OUR PEDAGOGICAL ORIENTATION
Marketing in the global arena is indeed a very dynamic discipline. Today, there are

many international or global marketing management books vying for their respective
niches in the market. It is a mature market. As you will learn in our book, in a mature
market, firms tend to focus closely—or maybe, too closely—on immediate product
features for sources of differentiation and may inadvertently ignore the fundamental
changes that may be re-shaping the industry. Often those fundamental changes come
from outside the industry. The same logic applies to the textbook market. Whether
existing textbooks are titled international marketing or global marketing, they
continue to be bound by the traditional bilateral (inter-national) view of competition.
While any new textbook has to embrace the traditional coverage of existing textbooks, we intend to emphasize the multilateral (global) nature of marketing
throughout our book.
Some textbooks have replaced the word, ‘‘international,’’ with ‘‘global.’’ Such a
change amounts to a repackaging of an existing product we often see in a mature


Our Pedagogical Orientation  ix

product market, and it does not necessarily make a textbook globally oriented. We
need a paradigm shift to accomplish the task of adding truly global dimensions and
complex realities to a textbook. You might ask, ‘‘What fundamental changes are
needed for a paradigm shift?’’ and then, ‘‘Why do we need fundamental changes to
begin with?’’
Our answer is straightforward. Our ultimate objective is to help you prepare for
this new century and become an effective manager overseeing global marketing
activities in an increasingly competitive environment. You may or may not choose
marketing for your career. If you pursue a marketing career, what you will learn in our
book will not only have direct relevance but also help you understand how you, as a
marketing manager, can affect other business functions for effective corporate performance on a global basis. If you choose other functional areas of business for your
career, then our book will help you understand how you could work effectively with
marketing people for the same corporate goal. Our book is organized as shown in the
flowchart.

We believe that our pedagogical orientation not only embraces the existing stock of
useful marketing knowledge and methods but also sets itself apart from the competition
in a number of fundamental ways, as follows:
As we indicated at the outset, the term ‘‘global’’ epitomizes the competitive pressure
and market opportunities from around the world and the firm’s need to optimize its
market performance on a global basis. Whether a company operates domestically or
across national boundaries, it can no longer avoid the competitive pressure and market
opportunities. For optimal market performance, the firm should also be ready and
willing to take advantage of resources on a global basis, and at the same time respond to
different needs and wants of consumers. In a way, global marketing is a constant
struggle with economies of scale and scope needs of the firm and its responsiveness and
sensitivity to different market conditions. While some people call it a ‘‘glocal’’
orientation, we stay with the term, ‘‘global,’’ to emphasize marketing flexibility on
a global basis.
Let us take a look at a hypothetical U.S. company exporting finished products to
Europe and Japan. Traditionally, this export phenomenon has been treated as a
bilateral business transaction between a U.S. company and foreign customers. However, in reality, to the executives of the U.S. company, this export transaction may be
nothing more than the last phase of the company’s activities they manage. Indeed, this
company procures certain components from long-term suppliers in Japan and Mexico,
other components in a business-to-business (B2B) transaction on the internet with a
supplier in Korea and from its domestic sources in the United States, and then
assembles a finished product in its Singapore plant for export to Europe and Japan
as well as back to the United States. Indeed, a Japanese supplier of critical components
is a joint venture, majority-owned by this American company, while a Mexican supplier
has a licensing agreement with the U.S. company that provides most of technical knowhow. A domestic supplier in the United States is in fact a subsidiary of a German
company. In other words, this particular export transaction by the U.S. company
involves a joint venture, a licensing agreement, a B2B transaction, subsidiary operation,
local assembly, and R&D, all managed directly or indirectly by the U.S. company—and
add the realities of market complexities arising from diverse customer preferences in
European, Japanese, and North American markets. Now think about how these

arrangements could affect the company’s decisions over product policy, pricing,
promotion, and distribution channels.
Many existing textbooks have focused on each of these value-adding activities as if
they could be investigated independently. Obviously, in reality they are not independent of each other and cannot be. We emphasize this multilateral realism by examining
these value-adding activities as holistically as possible.
At the same time, we are fully aware of the increased importance of the roles that
emerging markets and competitive firms from those markets play in fundamentally

Global
Orientation


x  Preface

Global Marketing Management
5th Edition
Globalization
1. Globalization Imperative

Global Marketing Environment
2. Global Economic Environment

3. Financial Environment

4. Global Cultural Environment
and Buying Behavior

5. Political / Legal Environment

Development of Competitive Strategy

6. Global Marketing Research

7. Global Segmentation and
Positioning

8. Global Marketing Strategies

9. Global Market Entry Strategies

Global Marketing Strategy Development

10. Global Product Policy Decisions 1
11. Global Product Policy Decisions 2

12. Global Pricing

13. Communicating with the World
Consumer
14. Sales and Cross-Cultural
Management

15. Global Logistics and Distribution
16. Export/Import Management

Managing Global Operations
17. Planning, Organization and Control of
Global Marketing Operations

18. Marketing in Emerging Markets

19. Global Marketing and the Internet


Our Pedagogical Orientation  xi

reshaping the nature of global competition. In this fifth edition, we have added Chapter
18 to highlight various marketing issues related to the emerging markets.
To complement our global orientation, we offer an interdisciplinary perspective in all
relevant chapters. We are of the strong belief that you cannot become a seasoned
marketing executive without understanding how other functional areas interface with
marketing. The reverse is also true for non-marketing managers. Some of the exemplary areas in which such a broad understanding of the interface issues is needed are
product innovation, designing for manufacturability, product/components standardization, and product positioning. In particular, Japanese competition has made us
aware of the importance of these issues, and leading-edge business schools have
increasingly adopted such an integrated approach to business education. Our book
strongly reflects this state-of-the-art orientation.

Interdisciplinary
Perspective

Market orientation is a fundamental philosophy of marketing. It is an organizational
culture that puts customers’ interests first in order to develop a long-term profitable
enterprise. In essence, market orientation symbolizes the market-driven firm that is
willing to constantly update its strategies using signals from the marketplace. Thus,
marketing managers take market cues from the expressed needs and wants of
customers. Consequently, the dominant orientation is that of a firm reacting to forces
in the marketplace in order to differentiate itself from its competitors. This reactive
‘‘outside-in’’ perspective is reflected in the typical marketing manager’s reliance on
marketing intelligence, forecasting, and market research.
While not denying this traditional market orientation, we also believe that marketing managers should adopt an ‘‘inside-out’’ perspective and capabilities to shape or

drive markets. This aspect of the link between strategic planning and marketing
implementation has not been sufficiently treated in existing textbooks. For example,
recent trends in technology licensing indicate that it is increasingly used as a conscious,
proactive component of a firm’s global product strategy. We believe that it is important
for marketers to influence those actions of the firm that are some distance away from
the customer in the value chain, because such actions have considerable influence on
the size of the market and customer choice in intermediate and end product markets.

Proactive
Orientation

A book cannot be written devoid of its authors’ background, expertise, and experience.
Our book represents an amalgam of our truly diverse background, expertise, and
experiences across North and South America, Asia, and Western and Eastern Europe.
Given our upbringing and work experience in Asia, Western Europe, and Latin
America, as well as our educational background in the United States, we have been
sensitive not only to cultural differences and diversities but also to similarities.
Realistically speaking, there are more similarities than differences across many
countries. In many cases, most of us tend to focus too much on cultural differences
rather than similarities; or else, completely ignore differences or similarities. If you look
only at cultural differences, you will be led to believe that country markets are uniquely
different, thus requiring marketing strategy adaptations. If, on the other hand, you do
not care about, or care to know about, cultural differences, you may be extending a
culture-blind, ethnocentric view of the world. Either way, you may not benefit from the
economies of scale and scope accruing from exploiting cultural similarities—and
differences.
Over the years, two fundamental counteracting forces have shaped the nature of
marketing in the international arena. The same counteracting forces have been
revisited by many authors in such terms as ‘‘standardization vs. adaptation’’
(1960s), ‘‘globalization vs. localization’’ (1970s), ‘‘global integration vs. local responsiveness’’ (1980s), ‘‘scale vs. sensitivity’’ (1990s), and more recently—let us add our

own—‘‘online scale vs. offline market sensitivity.’’ Terms have changed, but the
quintessence of the strategic dilemma that multinational companies (MNCs) face
today has not changed and will probably remain unchanged for years to come.

Cultural
Sensitivity


xii  Preface

However, the terminology no longer expresses an either/or issue. Forward-looking,
proactive firms have the ability and willingness to accomplish both tasks simultaneously. As we explain later in the text, Honda, for example, developed its Accord car
to satisfy the universal customer needs for reliability, drivability, and comfort, but
marketed it as a family sedan in Japan, as a commuter car in the United States, and as an
inexpensive sports car in Germany, thereby addressing cultural differences in the way
people of different nationalities perceive and drive what is essentially the same car.
With our emphasis on global and proactive orientations, however, we will share
with you how to hone your expertise, be culturally sensitive, and be able to see how to
benefit from cultural similarities and differences.

Research We strongly believe that theory is useful to the extent that it helps in practice. And
Orientation there are many useful theories for international marketing practices. Some of the

practical theories are a logical extension of generic marketing theories you may have
encountered in a marketing course. Others are, however, very much unique to the
international environment.
Many people believe—rather erroneously—that international or global marketing is just a logical extension of domestic marketing, and that if you have taken a
generic marketing course, you would not need to learn anything international. The
international arena is just like a Pandora’s box. Once you move into the international
arena, there are many more facts, concepts, and frameworks you need to learn than

you ever thought necessary in order to become a seasoned marketing manager
working globally. To assist you in acquiring this new knowledge, various theories
provide you with the conceptual tools that enable you to abstract, analyze, understand, and predict phenomena, and formulate effective decisions. Theories also
provide you with an effective means to convey your logic to your peers and bosses
with a strong, convincing power.
We also apply those theories in our own extensive international work advising
corporate executives, helping them design effective global strategies, and teaching our
students at various business schools around the world. Our role as educators is to
convey sometimes-complex theories in everyday language. Our effort is reflected well
in our textbook. This leads to our next orientation.

Practical Not only is this book designed to be user-friendly, but it also emphasizes practice. We
Orientation believe in experiential learning and practical applications. Rote learning of facts,

concepts, and theories is not sufficient. A good marketing manager should be able to
put these to practice. We use many examples and anecdotes, as well as our own
observations and experiences, to vividly portray practical applications. This book also
contains real-life, lively cases so you can further apply your newly acquired knowledge
in practice, and experience for yourself what it takes to be an effective international
marketing manager.
Therefore, this book has been written for both upper-level undergraduate and
MBA students who wish to learn practical applications of marketing and related logic,
and subsequently work internationally. Although we overview foundation materials in
this book, we expect that students have completed a basic marketing course.
To further enhance your learning experience, Professor Syed Anwar of West Texas
A&M University kindly shares his excellent international marketing one-stop search
website, Marketing & International Links1 with you.

Internet
Implications

As we stated earlier, we extensively address the implications of the internet and ecommerce in global marketing activities. E-commerce is very promising, but various
environmental differences—particularly cultural and legal as well as consumer-needs
differences—are bound to prevent it from becoming an instantaneous freewheeling
tool for global marketing. What we need to learn is how to manage online scale and
1

/>

Our Pedagogical Orientation  xiii

scope economies and offline sensitivities to different market requirements. We try our
best to help you become internet-savvy. The internet is addressed in all the chapters
where relevant. In particular, Chapter 19 provides an in-depth analysis of global
marketing issues in the age of the internet. We admit that there are many more
unknowns than knowns about the impact of the internet on global marketing activities.
That is why we point out areas in which the internet is likely to affect the way we do
business and have you think seriously about the imminent managerial issues that you
will be dealing with upon graduation. Chapter 19 serves not as an epilogue to the fifth
edition but as a prologue to your exciting career ahead of you.
While this book is designed to be user-friendly, it also emphasizes practice. We
believe in Instructor Support Materials. To accomplish our stated goals and orientations, we have made a major effort to provide the instructor and the student with
practical theories and their explanations using examples, anecdotes, and cases to
maximize the student’s learning experience. Some of the specific teaching features are:


Global Perspectives—Included in every chapter, Global Perspectives provide concrete examples from the global marketing environment into the classroom. They are
designed to highlight some of the hottest global topics that students should be aware
of and may actually act on in their careers. The instructor can use these inserts to
exemplify theory or use them as mini-cases for class discussion.



Long Cases—Long Cases are designed to challenge students with real and current
business problems and issues. They require in-depth analysis and discussion of
various topics covered in the chapters, and help students to experience how the
knowledge they have gained can be applied in real-life situations. There are more
than 40 cases covering various aspects of marketing situations as well as products,
regions, and nationalities of firms. Six of them are included at the end of the text and
the rest are placed on the textbook website for easy download.



Short Cases—Short Cases are included at the end of each chapter and designed to
address various specific issues explained in the chapters. These cases are useful in
demonstrating to students the relevance of newly learned subject matters and are
useful for open class discussions.



Maps—The maps provided show the economic geography of the world. Students
should be knowledgeable about where various economic resources are available and
how they shape the nature of trade and investment and thus the nature of global
competition. Global marketing cannot be appreciated without an understanding
economic geography.



Review Questions—Students may use the review questions to test themselves on and
summarize the facts, concepts, theories, and other chapter materials in their own

words. We strongly believe that by doing so, students will gain active working
knowledge, rather than passive knowledge acquired by rote learning.
Discussion Questions—These questions facilitate discussions that can help students
apply the specific knowledge they learned in each chapter to actual business situations. They are designed to serve as mini-cases. Most of the issues presented in these
questions are acute problems multinational marketing managers are facing, and have
been adapted from recent issues of leading business newspapers and magazines.
The Instructor’s Manual—The Instructor’s Manual is designed to provide major
assistance to the instructor while allowing flexibility in course scheduling and
teaching emphasis. The materials in the manual include the following:
a. Teaching Plans—Alternative teaching plans and syllabi are included to accommodate the instructor’s preferred course structure and teaching schedules. Alternative teaching schedules are developed for the course to be taught in a semester
format, on a quarter bases, or as an executive seminar.
b. Discussion Guidelines—For each chapter, specific teaching objectives and guidelines are developed to help stimulate classroom discussion.






xiv  Preface

c. Test Bank—A test bank consists of short essay questions and multiple-choice
questions. This test bank is also computerized and available to adopters on IBM
compatible computer diskettes.
d. PowerPoint Slides—These are available on the web to assist the instructor in
preparing presentation materials.
e. Home Page on the Web—Make sure to visit our website />college/kotabe/ for useful instructional information.
f. Global Marketing Management System Online, 3.0 (GMMS03)—developed by
Dr. Basil J. Janavaras, professor of International Business at Minnesota State
University, is a Web-based global marketing management research and planning
program. As a bonus, each student who purchases the fifth edition of Global

Marketing Management will receive a complimentary registration code that will
provide access to the software. This practical, realistic program guides students
through the systematic and integrative process of gathering, evaluating, and using
certain types of information to help them to determine which markets to enter with
a particular product or service and to create a marketing plan for the country with
the optimal market environment for penetration. It is both interactive and
experiential. More specifically, the program enables students to do the following:
 Perform a situation analysis of a company in a global context.
 Research global markets.
 Identify high potential country markets for selected products or services.
 Conduct in-depth market and competitive analysis.
 Determine the best entry mode strategies.
 Develop international marketing plans and strategies.
A Student Guide, Glossary, and targeted Web-based resources are provided in
sample student projects as models to guide first-time users through the GMMSO process.
An Instructor’s Manual is also available to those who use the GMMSO. It includes the
following:
 Frequently asked questions/answers/suggestions.
 Schedules for quarters and semester modules.
 Table that correlates the software content with the content in the text.
 Outlines for the presentation and the final paper.
 PowerPoint presentation of the entire GMMSO for instructional purposes.
Additional benefits for Instructors:
 Monitor both individual & group-progress and review completed projects online.
 Integrate knowledge from this and other courses.
 Bridge the gap between theory and the real world of business.
 Obtain technical support.
If you are interested in using the GMMSO class project, register online at www.
gmmso3.com or contact your local Wiley representative for details at: www.wiley.com/
college/rep

Finally, we are delighted to share our teaching experience with you through this
book. Our teaching experience is an amalgam of our own learning and knowledge
gained through continued discussion with our colleagues, our students, and our
executive friends. We would also like to learn from you, instructor and students,
who use our book. Not only do we wish for you to learn from our book but we also
believe that there are many more things that we can also learn from you. We welcome
your sincere comments and questions. Our contact addresses are as follows:
Masaaki Kotabe
Ph. (215) 204-7704
e-mail:
Kristiaan Helsen
Ph. (852) 2358-7720
e-mail:


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book would have never materialized without the guidance, assistance, and encouragement of many of our mentors, colleagues, students, and executives with and from
whom we have worked and learned over the years. We are truly indebted to each one of
them. We also thank the many reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions
that helped us improve our argument and clarity, and raise the quality of our book.
The first co-author would like to extend thanks to his colleagues around the world. At
Temple University, Dean Moshe Porat at the Fox School of Business, for emphasizing
international business education and research as the school’s primary focus of excellence,
and providing plentiful opportunities for this co-author to meet with and discuss with

leading practitioners/executives of international business those emerging issues that are
shaping and re-shaping the way business is conducted around the world. A good deal of
credit also goes to Dan Zhang for having educated me with so many fascinating business
examples and cases from around the world throughout the revision process.
Various colleagues outside Temple University have helped the first co-author in
the writing process. Tim Wilkinson (Montana State University) offered an interesting
insight into the workings of the European Union and its marketing peculiarities. Amal
Karunaratna (University of Adelaide, Australia) assisted in providing interesting
examples from ‘‘Down Under.’’ Taro Yaguchi (Omori & Yaguchi Law Firm, Philadelphia) offered an update on ever-changing laws and treaties that affect firms
marketing internationally. Sae-Woon Park (Changwon National University, Korea),
who has many years of export management and export financing practices, assisted in
documenting the most up-to-date and state-of-the-art export practices in use today.
The second co-author would like to extend his thanks to MBA students at the
University of Chicago, Nijenrode University, Hong Kong University of Science and
Technology, and MIM students at Thammasat University (Bangkok). He also acknowledges the valuable comments on Chapter 13 from Chris Beaumont and John Mackay,
both with McCann-Erickson, Japan. Professor Niraj Dawar (University of Western
Ontario, Canada) offered helpful insights on marketing in emerging markets. A word
of gratitude for their feedback and encouragement is given to two colleagues who spent
their sabbatical at HKUST: Jerry Albaum (University of Oregon) and Al Shocker
(University of Minnesota); and special thanks to Romualdo Leones for some of the
photo materials used in the new edition.
The textbook becomes ever more useful when accompanied by good resources for
instructors and students. Preparing good resources is no small task. Chip Miller of
Drake University deserves a special credit not only for preparing the excellent
Resource Guide and Test Bank to go with the book but also for providing useful
examples and insights throughout the revision process.
A very special word of appreciation goes to the staff of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
particularly, Franny Kelly and Maria Guarascio, and Cynthia Mondgock of iD8
Publishing Services, for their continued enthusiasm and support throughout the course
of this project.

Finally and most importantly, we are deeply grateful to you, the professors,
students, and professionals, for using this book. We stand by our book, and sincerely
hope that our book adds to your knowledge and expertise. We would also like to
continuously improve our product in the future.
As we indicated in the Preface, we would like to hear from you, our valued
customers. Thank you!

xv


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BRIEF CONTENTS

1 r GLOBALIZATION IMPERATIVE
2 r ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT

32

3 r FINANCIAL ENVIRONMENT

66

1

4 r GLOBAL CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT AND BUYING BEHAVIOR
5 r POLITICAL AND LEGAL ENVIRONMENT
6 r GLOBAL MARKETING RESEARCH

103

141

192

7 r GLOBAL SEGMENTATION AND POSITIONING
8 r GLOBAL MARKETING STRATEGIES

221

249

9 r GLOBAL MARKET ENTRY STRATEGIES

290

10 r GLOBAL PRODUCT POLICY DECISIONS I: DEVELOPING NEW PRODUCTS FOR GLOBAL MARKETS
11 r GLOBAL PRODUCT POLICY DECISIONS II: MARKETING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
12 r GLOBAL PRICING

360

395

13 r COMMUNICATING WITH THE WORLD CONSUMER
14 r SALES AND CROSS-CULTURAL MANAGEMENT
15 r GLOBAL LOGISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION
16 r EXPORT AND IMPORT MANAGEMENT

426

465

498
541

17 r PLANNING, ORGANIZATION, AND CONTROL OF GLOBAL MARKETING OPERATIONS
18 r MARKETING STRATEGIES FOR EMERGING MARKETS
19 r GLOBAL MARKETING AND THE INTERNET
Cases

330

575

597

626

659

Subject Index

691

Author Index

709

Company Index

717

xvii


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CONTENTS

1 ^ GLOBALIZATION IMPERATIVE 1

Why Global Marketing is Imperative 2
Globalization of Markets: Convergence and
Divergence 8
International Trade versus International Business 11
Who Manages International Trade? 12
Evolution of Global Marketing 13
What is Marketing? 13
Domestic Marketing 14
Export Marketing 16
International Marketing 17
Multinational Marketing 17
Global Marketing 18
The Impact of Economic Geography and Climate on
Global Marketing 19
Short Cases 23
Appendix: Theories of International Trade and the
Multinational Enterprise 25

2 ^ ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT 32
Intertwined World Economy 34
Foreign Direct Investment 36
Portfolio Investment 38
Country Competitiveness 39
Changing Country Competitiveness 39
Human Resources and Technology 40
Emerging Economies 42
Evolution of Cooperative Global Trade
Agreements 45
General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade 45
World Trade Organization 46

Information Technology and the Changing Nature of
Competition 51
Value of Intellectual Property in Information Age 52
Proliferation of E-Commerce and Regulations 53
Regional Economic Arrangements 54
Free Trade Area 55
Customs Union 57
Common Market 57
Monetary Union 58
Political Union 58
Multinational Corporations 58
Short Cases 63

xviii

3 ^ FINANCIAL ENVIRONMENT 66
Historical Role of the U.S. Dollar 67
Development of Today’s International Monetary
System 68
The Bretton Woods Conference 68
The International Monetary Fund 69
The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development 71
Fixed versus Floating Exchange Rates 71
Currency Blocs 72
Foreign Exchange and Foreign Exchange Rates 74
Purchasing Power Parity 74
Forecasting Exchange Rate Fluctuation 75
Coping with Exchange Rate Fluctuations 75
Spot versus Forward Foreign Exchange 78

Exchange Rate Pass-Through 79
Balance of Payments 81
The Internal and External Adjustments 84
Economic and Financial Turmoil Around the
World 85
Asian Financial Crisis and Its Aftermath 85
The South American Financial Crisis and Its
Aftermath 86
The U.S. Subprime Mortgage Loan Crisis and the
Subsequent Global Financial Crisis 87
Financial Crises in Perspective 88
Responses to the Regional Financial Crises 88
Marketing in the Euro Area 92
Historical Background 92
Ramifications of the Euro for Marketers 95
Short Cases 100

4 ^ GLOBAL CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
BEHAVIOR 103
Definition of Culture 105
Elements of Culture 106
Material Life 106
Language 108
Social Interactions 111
Aesthetics 112
Religion 114
Education 115
Value Systems 117

AND

BUYING


Contents  xix
Cross-Cultural Comparisons 118
High- versus Low-Context Cultures 118
Hofstede’s Classification Scheme 119
Project GLOBE 121
World Value Survey (WVS) 122
Adapting to Cultures 123
Culture and the Marketing Mix 125
Product Policy 126
Pricing 127
Distribution 128
Promotion 128
Organizational Cultures 130
Global Account Management (GAM) 132
Global Accounts’ Requirements 133
Managing Global Account Relationships 133
Global Customer Relationship Management
(CRM) 134
Motivations 135
Gains from CRM 135
Challenges 136
Guidelines for Successful CRM Implementation 136
Short Cases 139

5 ^ POLITICAL AND LEGAL ENVIRONMENT 141
Political Environment—Individual Governments 142

Home Country versus Host Country 142
Structure of Government 144
Government Policies and Regulations 146
Political Environment—Social Pressures and Political
Risk 155
Social Pressures and Special Interests 155
Managing the Political Environment 158
Terrorism and the World Economy International
Agreements 162
International Agreements 163
Group of Seven (G7), Group of Eight (G8), and
Group of Eight plus Five (G8+5) 164
Wassenaar Arrangement 166
International Law and Local Legal
Environment 167
International Law 167
Local Legal Systems and Laws 167
Jurisdiction 171
Issues Transcending National Boundaries 171
ISO 9000 and 14000 171
Intellectual Property Protection 172
International Treaties for Intellectual Property
Protection 176
Antitrust Laws of the United States 180
Antitrust Laws of the European Union 182
U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977 182
Short Cases 188

6 ^ GLOBAL MARKETING RESEARCH 192
Research Problem Formulation 195

Secondary Global Marketing Research 197
Secondary Data Sources 197
Problems with Secondary Data Research 199
Primary Global Marketing Research 200
Focus Groups 200
Survey Methods for Cross-Cultural Marketing
Research 202
Observational Research 206
Leveraging the Internet for Global Market Research
Studies 206
Market Size Assessment 209
Method of Analogy 209
Trade Audit 210
Chain Ratio Method 211
Cross-Sectional Regression Analysis 212
New Market Information Technologies 213
Managing Global Marketing Research 215
Selecting a Research Agency 215
Coordination of Multicountry Research 216

7 ^ GLOBAL SEGMENTATION AND POSITIONING 221
Reasons for International Market Segmentation 222
Country Screening 222
Global Marketing Research 223
Entry Decisions 223
Positioning Strategy 223
Resource Allocation 224
Marketing Mix Policy 224
International Market Segmentation Approaches 225
Segmentation Scenarios 227

Bases for International Market Segmentation 229
Demographics 230
Socioeconomic Variables 231
Behavior-Based Segmentation 234
Lifestyle 235
International Positioning Strategies 236
Uniform versus Localized Positioning
Strategies 236
Universal Positioning Appeals 239
Global, Foreign, and Local Consumer Culture
Positioning 240
Short Cases 244
Appendix: Segmentation Tools 247

8 ^ GLOBAL MARKETING STRATEGIES 249
Information Technology and Global
Competition 250
Real-Time Management 250
Online Communication 251
Electronic Commerce (E-Commerce) 251


xx  Contents
E-Company 253
Faster Product Diffusion 253
Global Citizenship 253
Global Strategy 254
Global Industry 254
Competitive Industry Structure 257
Competitive Advantage 259

Hypercompetition 264
Interdependency 264
Global Marketing Strategy 265
Benefits of Global Marketing 266
Limits to Global Marketing 268
R&D, Operations, and Marketing Interfaces 270
R&D/Operations Interface 272
Operations/Marketing Interface 273
Marketing/R&D Interface 275
Regionalization of Global Marketing Strategy 276
Cross-Subsidization of Markets 278
Identification of Weak Market
Segments 278
Use of the ‘‘Lead Market’’ Concept 279
Marketing Strategies for Emerging Markets 280
Competitive Analysis 283
Short Cases 286

9 ^ GLOBAL MARKET ENTRY STRATEGIES 290
Target Market Selection 291
Choosing the Mode of Entry 294
Decision Criteria for Mode of Entry 294
Mode-of-Entry Choice—Two Opposing Paradigms:
A Transaction Costs versus Resource-Based
View 297
Exporting 299
Licensing 301
Benefits 301
Caveats 302
Franchising 303

Benefits 304
Caveats 304
Contract Manufacturing (Outsourcing) 305
Benefits 305
Caveats 305
Expanding Through Joint Ventures 306
Benefits 307
Caveats 307
Drivers Behind Successful International
Joint Ventures 308
Wholly Owned Subsidiaries 312
Benefits 312
Caveats 312
Acquisitions and Mergers 313
Greenfield Operations 315

Strategic Alliances 315
Types of Strategic Alliances 315
The Logic behind Strategic Alliances 316
Cross-Border Alliances That Succeed 316
Timing of Entry 317
Exit Strategies 319
Reasons for Exit 319
Risks of Exit 321
Guidelines 322
Short Cases 326
Appendix: Alternative Country Screening
Procedure 329

10 ^ GLOBAL PRODUCT POLICY DECISIONS I:

DEVELOPING NEW PRODUCTS FOR GLOBAL
MARKETS 330
Global Product Strategies 332
Strategic Option 1: Product and Communication
Extension—Dual Extension 332
Strategic Option 2: Product Extension—
Communications Adaptation 333
Strategic Option 3: Product Adaptation—
Communications Extension 333
Strategic Option 4: Product and Communications
Adaptation—Dual Adaptation 333
Strategic Option 5: Product Invention 333
Standardization versus Customization 334
Drivers Toward Standardization 334
Two Alternatives—Modular and Core Product
Approach 338
Back-of-the-envelope Calculations—Incremental
Break-even Analysis (IBEA) 339
Multinational Diffusion 342
Developing New Products for Global Markets 344
Identifying New Product Ideas 344
Screening 346
Concept Testing 347
Test Marketing 347
Timing of Entry: Waterfall versus Sprinkler
Strategies 348
Truly Global Product Development 351
Short Cases 355
Appendix: Using Conjoint Analysis for concept
testing in Global New Product

Development 357

11 ^ GLOBAL PRODUCT POLICY DECISIONS II:
MARKETING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 360
Global Branding Strategies 362
Global Branding 362
Local Branding 366
Global or Local Branding? 367
Brand-Name Changeover Strategies 371


Contents  xxi
Management of Multinational Product Lines 374
Product Piracy 378
Strategic Options against Product Piracy 380
Country-of-Origin (COO) Effects 382
Country-of-Origin (COO) Influences on
Consumers 383
Strategies to Cope with COO Stereotypes 385
Global Marketing of Services 386
Challenges in Marketing Services
Internationally 386
Opportunities in the Global Service Industries 387
Global Service Marketing Strategies 388
Short Cases 391

12 ^ GLOBAL PRICING 395
Drivers of Foreign Market Pricing 396
Company Goals 396
Company Costs 397

Customer Demand 398
Competition 398
Distribution Channels 400
Government Policies 401
Managing Price Escalation 402
Pricing in Inflationary Environments 403
Global Pricing and Currency Fluctuations 405
Currency Gain/Loss Pass Through 406
Currency Quotation 409
Transfer Pricing 409
Determinants of Transfer Prices 409
Setting Transfer Prices 410
Minimizing the Risk of Transfer Pricing Tax
Audits 411
Global Pricing and Anti-dumping Regulation 412
Price Coordination 413
Global-Pricing Contracts (GPCs) 415
Aligning Pan-Regional Prices 415
Implementing Price Coordination 417
Countertrade 418
Forms of Countertrade 418
Motives behind Countertrade 420
Shortcomings of Countertrade 421
Short Cases 424

13 ^ COMMUNICATING WITH THE WORLD
CONSUMER 426
Global Advertising and Culture 427
Language Barriers 427
Other Cultural Barriers 429

Communication and Cultural Values 430
Setting the Global Advertising Budget 430
Budgeting Rules 431
Resource Allocation 433

Creative Strategy 434
The ‘‘Standardization’’ versus ‘‘Adaptation’’
Debate 434
Merits of Standardization 435
Barriers to Standardization 437
Approaches to Creating Advertising Copy 438
Global Media Decisions 440
Media Infrastructure 440
Media Limitations 441
Recent Trends in the Global Media
Landscape 442
Advertising Regulations 444
Choosing an Advertising Agency 447
Other Means of Communication 449
Sales Promotions 449
Direct Marketing 451
Global Sponsorships 451
Mobile (Brand-in-the-Hand) Marketing 443
Trade Shows 443
Product Placement 454
Viral Marketing 455
Global Public Relations (PR) and Publicity 456
Globally Integrated Marketing Communications
(GIMC) 457
Short Cases 461

14 ^ SALESAND CROSS-CULTURAL MANAGEMENT 465
Market Entry Options and Salesforce Strategy 467
Role of Foreign Governments 470
Cultural Considerations 471
Personal Selling 471
Cultural Generalization 472
Corporate (Organizational) Culture 473
Relationship Marketing 473
Myers–Briggs Type Indicator 474
Impact of Culture on Sales Management and Personal
Selling Process 475
Salesforce Objectives 476
Salesforce Strategy 477
Recruitment and Selection 478
Training 479
Supervision 480
Evaluation 482
Cross-Cultural Negotiations 482
Stages of Negotiation Process 482
Cross-Cultural Negotiation Strategies 483
Expatriates 486
Advantages of Expatriates 487
The Return of the Expatriate—Repatriation 492
Generalizations about When Using Expatriates Is
Positive/Negative 493
Short Cases 495


xxii  Contents

15 ^ GLOBAL LOGISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION 498

Key Criteria in Global Organizational Design 577
Environmental Factors 577
Firm-Specific Factors 578
Organizational Design Options 578
International Division Structure 579
Global Product Division Structure 579
Geographic Structure 580
Matrix Structure 583
The Global Network Solution 585
Organizing for Global Brand Management 587
Global Branding Committee 587
Brand Champion 587
Global Brand Manager 587
Informal, Ad Hoc Branding Meetings 587
Life Cycle of Organization Structures 588
Control of Global Marketing Efforts 590
Formal (‘‘Bureaucratic’’) Control Systems 590
Informal Control Methods 591
‘‘Soft’’ versus ‘‘Hard’’ Levers 592
Short Cases 595

Definition of Global Logistics 500
Managing Physical Distribution 502
Modes of Transportation 503
Warehousing and Inventory Management 505
Third-Party Logistic (3PL) Management 509
Logistical Revolution with the Internet 510

Managing Sourcing Strategy 511
Procurement: Types of Sourcing Strategy 512
Outsourcing of Service Activities 518
Free Trade Zones 520
International Distribution Channel 523
Channel Configurations 523
Channel Management 524
International Retailing 525
Private-Label Branding (Store Brands) 527
‘‘Push’’ versus ‘‘Pull’’ 528
On-Time Retail Information Management 529
Retailing Differences across the World 530
Short Cases 536
Appendix: Maquiladora Operation 539

18 ^ MARKETING STRATEGIES FOR EMERGING
MARKETS 597

16 ^ EXPORT AND IMPORT MANAGEMENT 541
Organizing for Exports 543
Research for Exports 543
Export Market Segments 544
Indirect Exporting 545
Direct Exporting 547
Mechanics of Exporting 548
Legality of Exports 549
Export Transactions 550
Terms of Shipment and Sale 550
Payment Terms 551
Currency Hedging 553

Role of the Government in Promoting Exports 553
Export–Import Bank 556
Tariff Concessions 557
Export Regulations 557
Managing Imports—The Other Side of the Coin 559
Mechanics of Importing 561
Import Documents and Delivery 561
Import Duties 562
Gray Markets 563
Short Cases 572

17 ^ PLANNING, ORGANIZATION, AND CONTROL
GLOBAL MARKETING OPERATIONS 575
Global Strategic Marketing Planning 576
Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Strategic
Planning 576
Pitfalls 576

OF

Emerging Markets 598
Definition 598
Characteristics of Emerging Markets 599
Competing with the New Champions 603
The New Champions 603
Computing Against the Newcomers 607
Targeting/Positioning Strategies in Emerging
Markets—BOP or No BOP 608
Entry Strategies for Emerging Markets 611
Timing of Entry 611

Entry Mode 612
Product Policy 612
Product Design 612
Branding 613
Packaging 614
Pricing Strategy 615
The Distribution Challenge 616
Creating Distribution Systems 617
Managing Distributor Relationships 618
Communication Strategies for Emerging Markets 619
Push versus Pull Activities 619
Mass Media versus Non-Traditional Marketing
Approaches 619
Short Cases 623

19 ^ GLOBAL MARKETING AND THE INTERNET 626
Barriers to Global Internet Marketing 627
Language Barriers 627


Contents  xxiii
Cultural Barriers 628
Infrastructure 629
Knowledge Barrier 631
Access Charges 632
Legal Environment and Government
Regulations 632
Competitive Advantage and Cyberspace 633
Global Internet Consumers 634
Globally Integrated versus Locally Responsive

Internet Marketing Strategies 637
The Internet and Global Product Policy 641
Global Branding and the Internet 641
Web-based Global New Product
Development 642
Web-based Marketing of Services 643
Global Pricing and the Web 644
Global Distribution Strategies and the
Internet 645
Role of Existing Channels 645
E-Tailing Landscape 647

The Role of the Internet for Global Communication
Strategies 648
Online Advertising 648
Non-Traditional (NT) Web-based
Communication 650
Online Monitoring 652
Short Cases 655

CASES 659
Carrefour: Entry into India 660
Wal-Mart’s Rising Sun? A Case on Wal-Mart’s
Entry into Japan 665
Arla Foods and the Mohammed Cartoon
Controversy 671
Club Med: Going Upscale 674
Honda in Europe 679

SUBJECT INDEX 691

AUTHOR INDEX 711
COMPANY INDEX 719

The following additional cases appear on the textbook’s website:
Volkswagen AG Navigates China
The Coca-Cola Company in Japan
Wal-Mart Operations in Brazil
Sony PS3 on the Run
Nintendo: Expanding the Gaming
Population through Innovation
Subway Restaurant Entry in Japan
Virgin America Lands in the United States
Kirin in Search of Growth Strategy
Louis Vuitton in Japan: The Magic Touch
Starbucks Coffee: Expansion in Asia
Gap Inc.
Motorola: China Experience
iPod in Japan: Can Apple Sustain Japan’s
iPod Craze?
NTT DoCoMo: Can i-Mode Go Global?
The Future of Nokia
Maybelline’s Entry into India
Yahoo! Japan
AOL Goes Far East
Danone: Marketing the Glacier in the U.S.

BMW Marketing Innovation
Herman Miller, Inc. vs. ASAL GmbH
Nova Incorporated
Ceras Dese´rticas and Mitsuba Trading Company

The Headaches of GlaxoWelcome
Benetton
Two Dogs Bites into the World Market: Focus on
Japan
ABC Chemical Company Goes Global
DaimlerChrysler for East Asia
Shiseido, Ltd.: Facing Global Competition
SMS Pacs
Daimler-Benz Ag: The A-Class and the
“Moose-Test”
Pepsi One
Unisys
Ford Motor Company and Die Development
Citibank in Japan
Kao Corporation: Direction for the 21st Century
Planet Hollywood: The Plate is Empty
Hoechst Marion Roussel: Rabipur Rabies Vaccine