THE IMPACT OF GENDER INEQUALITY ON DEVELOPMENT IN VIETNAM

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

MINISTRY OF PLANNING

AND TRAINING

AND INVESTMENT


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CENTRAL INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMIC MAMANGEMENT

LUONG THI NGOC OANH

THE IMPACT OF GENDER INEQUALITY ON
DEVELOPMENT IN VIETNAM

Major: Development Economics
Code: 62 31 01 05

SUMMARY OF DOCTORAL THESIS OF ECONOMICS

Hanoi - 2016


Completed at: Central Institute for Economic Management

Scientific advisors: Dr. Nguyen Thi Tue Anh
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Chu Tien Quang
Examiner 1: Dotor Dao Quang Vinh

Examiner 2: Associate Professor, Doctor Bui Tat Thang
Examiner 3: Associate Professor, Doctor Le Xuan Ba

This thesis shall be defended before Institute-level Thesis
Examination Council of Central Institute for Economic Management at
….. on …………………….. 2016

Can be looked up at libraries of:


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- Central Institute for Economic Management, Hanoi
- National Library, Hanoi


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INTRODUCTION
1. The relevance of the research topic
Gender equality is one of the eight Millennium
Development Goal, and also one of a country's societal
development and has inspired interests of academic circle. Dollar
and Gatti (1999), ), Klasen (2002), Klasen and Lamanna (2009),
Abu-Ghaida and Klasen (2004) have justified negative impacts of
gender inequality on development. However, a number of other
research works found controversial conclusions, such as the one by
Seguino (2000) and that by Schober and Winer-Ebmer (2011).
Besides, Bandiera and Natraj (2013) confirm that findings in
research works done with case study of one or a number of

countries can hardly hold true for others, so research should be
done for each country when development policies for that country
are about to made.

The Communist Party, the Prime Minister and the
National Committee for the Advancement of Women in
Vietnam have put emphasis on the goal of gender equality
and put forward relevant policies, strategies and regulations.
However, Vietnamese women are still discriminated against
in such aspects as employment, health, social recognition...
Thus, research to work out solutions relating to gender
inequality in order to boost development in Vietnam is very
important.
2. Purpose, significance of the thesis


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2.1 Purpose
Due to the fact that progress toward the aim of gender
equality is not remarkable although there have been interventions
to reduce gender inequality, the thesis is done with the main
purpose of assessing the factual situation, its impacts in order to
make recommendations to promote development in Vietnam. The
topic "The impact of gender inequality on development in
Vietnam" has been chosen as the thesis theme.
As gender inequality is signifying in a number of aspects
and the meaning of development is quite broad, the thesis confined
its research in two aspects: education and employment for gender
inequality (GI)) and economic growth (EG) and human

development (HD) for development. The thesis can become
reference for development policy-makers in Vietnam.
2.2 Significance
The thesis will make both theoretical contribution and
empirical evidence regarding the impact of gender inequality on
economic growth and human development with a specific case of
Vietnam.
2.2.1 Theoretical contribution
The thesis will make contribution with regard to
methodology of assessing the factual situation, analyzing the
impact and influential factors of gender inequality in order to be
theoretical reference to future research.
2.2.2 Empirical contribution
Based on the analysis and assessment of Vietnam, the
thesis also make policy recommendations relating to gender


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inequality in order to boost development and to be of reference to
development policy makers.
CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH
PLAN
1.1 Literature review relating to impact of gender inequality on
development
1.1.1 Theoretical research works on the impact of GE on
development
1.1.1.1 The impact of GI on economic growth
Barro and Lee, Dollar and Gatti, Klasen and Lamanna,
Braustein have done research based on the Neoclassical EG model

- Solow model- to identify the impact of GI on factors directly or
indirectly contributing to EG.
(1) The impact of GI in education on economic growth
Klasen and Lamanna (2009), Ferrant (2011), Seguino
(2000) have confirmed that GI will hinder EG by reducing human
capital, marginal utility of education, discouraging investment,
limiting the opportunity to take advantage of "golden population
stage", limiting the chance to utilize relatively cheaper female labor
in order to improve competitiveness in the world economy and
hence hampering EG.
(2) The impact of GI in employment on economic growth
Klasen and Lamanna (2009), David and Teignier-Baque
(2012), Seguino (2000), WB (2001) have come to a conclusion that
gender inequality in employment is inefficient and make distortion
in the economy in a similar manner to gender inequality in
education due to higher fertility rate, little chance to utilize


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relatively cheaper female labor for improving competitiveness,
discouraging investment in long-term human development,
possibility of corruption and thus making the economy work less
efficiently.
1.1.1.2 The impact of GI on human development
Theories in this theme usually originated from
microeconomic theories on labor division between husband and
wife; on the right to allocate family income and on gender
differences in spending and investment behaviors.
(1) The impact of GI in education on human development

Klasen (2002) has proved that education for mothers have
positive impacts on education for children through direct supports
or creation of favorable study environment; when siblings or
spouses in one family have equivalent education levels, they can
make mutual supports for one another. Hill and King (1995) have
also confirmed that mothers' education have greater impact on
children's education than fathers'; there are four channels through
which female education can positively affect family health care.
These conclusions mean that GI in education negatively affects
family health care. Moreover, Klasen (1999) and Mikkola (2005)
believed that once GI in education is less severe and women have
greater knowledge and thus, can be employed, female's opportunity
costs of bearing and raising children become higher, the fertility
rate will be lower, the resources devoted for each child will be
greater, children's health care and education condition will be
improved or their budget portion for education and health care will
increase. This means GI in employment will have negative impact
on HD.


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(2) The impact of GI in employment on human development
Lundberg and Pollak (1996) conclude that who earn family
income will have decision-making power and that husband and
wife have different ways of allocating income between different
uses. Ferrant (2011) and Thomas and Strauss (1997) believe that GI
in employment adversely affect HD as when women have no
decision -making power regarding family spending, the efficiency
of family expenditure will become lower as male usually spend less

for education for children and health care.
1.1.2 Empirical research on impact of GI on development
1.1.2.1 Empirical research for group of countries
(1) Impact of GI on economic growth
As it is difficult to disaggregate the impact of GI in each
education and employment in empirical research and empirical
research works usually evaluate GI in a number of aspects,
following is the review of empirical research in both dimensions.
The widely used methodology applied in finding out about
causational relationship between GI and EG is to take correlation
coefficients or regression with cross section, time series or panel
data. Dependent variables are usually GDP or GNP, growth rate per
capita income or total factor productivity; independent variables
include those in Neoclassical model such as: capital or investment,
labor force or human capital, openness or trade volume and
variables representing GI.
Barro and Lee (1994), Dollar and Gatti (1999), Klasen
(2002), Klasen and Lamana (2009), Schober and Winter- Ebmer
(2011) have analyzed groups of countries and concluded that GI in
employment or income have negative impacts on EG. However,


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Seguino (2000) hold that GI in pay with lower salary for female
employees can help labor-intensive export industries improve their
competitiveness by taking advantage of lower labor cost and hence
back up economic growth.
Martin and Garvi (2009) has done a research into the case
of Spain and confirms that EG, gender development and HD are

positively correlated for groups of provinces with very high or very
low development level. Pervaiz and et al (2011) has analyzed EG in
Pakistan and comes to a conclusion that GI has negative impacts on
EG in the long-term. Tansel, A. et al (2012) have investigated EG
of Turkey by applying Cobb-Douglas with the disaggregation of
male and female education variables and confirms that GI has
significantly and negatively impacted on labor productivity.
(2) The impact of GI on HD
Methodologically, empirical research is based on
regression or correlation based on cross-section or panel data with
provinces and countries serving as unit of analysis.
A research about a group of nations by Hill and King
(1995), findings by Mikkola (2005) about Finland, by Maiga
(2011) about Burkina Faso all confirm negative impact of GI in
education on HD in both short- and long-term.
Mikkola (2005) points out that when there is a transfer of
decision-making power from a husband to a wife the percentage of
family budget spent for children increases. Similarly, a research
work by Morrison et al (2007) also affirms a conclusion that female
household head devote more family resources for kids. This means
GI has negative impact on HD.
1.1.2.2 Research on Vietnam


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WB (2008) affirms a conclusion that the acknowledgement
of both husband's and wife's on land use right certificate can
increase investment opportunities and improve the livelihood for
old age women. A research work by Duvvury, N., Carney, P. and

Dr. Nguyen Huu Minh (2012) gives an estimate that the total
opportunity cost of domestic violence can be approximately 1.41%
of Vietnam's GDP in 2010, which is equivalent to 2,536,000 bn.
Moreover, there is research project leaded by Dr. Nguyen
Thi Nguyet (CIEM) which has pointed put factors affecting GI in
income in Vietnam and has made a number of relevant
recommendations. Research works by Lee, S. (2008); Rodger &
Menon (2010); WB (2011), Nguyen Viet Cuong (2012) have
investigated factual status of GI in Vietnam but have not evaluated
the impact of GI or causes of GI. Relating to gender stereotype and
causes of GI there is pieces of work by Wendy N. Duong (2001),
UNFPA (2013). Besides, a doctoral thesis by Nguyen Quynh Hoa
has investigated the factual situation and factors associated with
gender equality in access to productive land in Vietnam.
1.1.3 Contributions and unsolved issues in reviewed literature
1.1.3.1 Contributions
Theoretically, previous research works have pointed out
aspects having signals of GI, measures of GI and suggested some
models for assessing the impact of GI on development.
Empirically, previous research works have shown aspects
having signals of GI, causes of GI, models of EG and development
with incorporating gender aspect; pointed out technical mistakes of
quantitative analysis.
1.1.3.2 Unsolved issues


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Previous research works are mainly done for groups of
countries and the research into impact of GI on development in

Vietnam is still kept open.
1.2 Tentative research plan
1.2.1 Research objective
The overall objective is to investigate the impact of GI in
education and employment on EG and HD in order to work out
some solutions relating to GI and its impacts to promote Vietnam's
development.
1.2.2 Research object and scope
1.2.2.1 Research object
Research object of the thesis is the impact of GI on
development in Vietnam.
1.2.2.2 Research scope
(1) content scope
Relating to GI, the thesis covers GI in education and
employment. Relating to development, the thesis limit to two major
pillars of development: EG and HD.
(2) Geographical scope
The time scope of the thesis is Vietnam
(3) Time scope
Based on the availability of data up to June, 2015, the
thesis has time scope 2000-2012 period.
1.2.3 Thesis contribution: research questions and hypotheses
1.2.1.1 Research questions
Based on the issues unsolved by previous research, the
thesis focus on the analysis of the impact of GI in education and


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employment on two main aspects of development: EG and HD,

finding answers to the following questions
(1) What is the factual situation of GI in education and
employment in Vietnam?
(2) What are the impacts of GI in education and
employment on EG and HD in Vietnam?
(3) Which factors affecting GI in education and
employment? What policies concerning GI should be put forward
and applied in order to promote development in Vietnam?
1.2.1.2 Research hypotheses
Based on literature review and the research scope (in 1.1.2
- Chapter 1), the second research question concerns the following
hypotheses:
H1: GI in education has negative impact on EG
H2: GI in employment has negative impact on EG
H3: GI in education has negative impact on education for the next
generation
H4: GI in education has negative impact on family health care
H5: GI in employment has negative impact on education for the
next generation
H6: GI in employment has negative impact on family health care
1.2.4 Research approach and research methodology
1.2.4.1 Research approach
Based on literature review (Chapter 1), the thesis adapt
theoretical framework and methodology to evaluate the impact of
GI (Chapter 2). Then, the thesis analyze the factual situation,
assess the impact and the factors affecting GI in education and
employment through regression, correlation, Blinder - Oaxaca


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decomposition and qualitative reasoning (Chapter 3). Basing on the
findings, the recommendation with regard to development
promotion in Vietnam in the future will be made. (Chapter 4).
(1) Macro approach
Macro approach is utilized to assess the impact of GI on
EG and HD with provinces as observation and analysis unit
(2) Micro approach
Micro approach with individual or household as unit of
observation and analysis will be used for assessing the impact of GI
on EG and HD using data from VHLSS 2010-12.
1.2.4.2 Ideological methodology
The thesis employs such reasoning methodologies as:
dialectic reasoning, induction and intuition, synthesizing and
analysis, generalization.
1.2.4.3 Data analysis method
The thesis largely utilize quantitative methods such as
regression, descriptive analysis, correlation using cross-section or
panel data, Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition and qualitative analysis.
1.2.4.4 Data source
Data to be used are mainly secondary data extracted from
the series of household living standard surveys (VHLSS - GSO),
labor force surveys, (LFS- MOLISA), Provincial socio-economic
data (Provincial Departments of Statistics), data released by WB,
UNDP…


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CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND

METHODS TO ANALYSE THE IMPACT OF GENDER
INEQUALITY ON DEVELOPMENT
2.1 Fundamental concepts
2.1.1 Gender and gender inequality
2.1.1.1 Gender
Gender refers to the role and expectations relating to men
and women and assigned by society.
2.1.1.2 Gender inequality
a. Concept
Gender inequality refers to any gap or difference in rights,
opportunity and benefits belonging to men and women or any
discriminations against men and women.
b. Measurements
Composition measurements include GDI and GEM, with
value ranging from 0 to 1, the closer the value to 1, the lower the
degree of gender inequality.
2.1.2 Development
Development is a broad concept, in which EG, structural
change and human development are main components.
2.1.2.1 Economic growth (EG)
Economic growth is an increase in the gross domestic
products, gross national products or per capita income. Economic
growth measurement widely used is growth rate of GDP.
2.1.2.2 Human development (HD)
According to UNDP, "human development is a procees of
expanding human being's choices, in which the most importatnt


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choices are assuring a long, healthy life with adequate education...".
HDI is used to measure a nation's progress in human development.
2.2 Theories and methodology to assess the impact of gender
inequality in education and employment on economic
growth
2.2.1 Theories relating to the impact of gender inequality in
education and employment on EG
2.2.1.1 Theories relating to the impact of GI in education on EG
The thesis employs theories and models developed by
Klasen and Seguino.
GI in education existing now is mostly bias against
women: less women are having opportunity to go to school or
having less number of schooling. This hamper EG in four
following ways.
First, limiting the average connate talents of educated kids
(regardless boys or girls) and thus limiting the economy's average
human capital.
Second, limiting the marginal economic benefit of education
(according to diminishing marginal economic benefits). Third,
restricting the opportunity to intensively utilize female labor with
relatively lower pay in export-oriented labor-intensive industries.
Fourth, limiting the chance to take advantage of positive externality
of gender equality such as: low fertility rate, restricting the chance
of mutual supports in learning among family members, lower
dependence ratio, increased savings and investment, higher
capital/labor ratio, and improved human capital.


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2.2.1.2 Theories relating to the impact of GI in employment on EG
The thesis bases on the theoretical framework employed by
Seguino (2000), Klasen (2002, 2004, Klasen and Lamanna (2009).
GI in employment hamper EG in four manners. First, reducing the
average capability of labor force, leading to lower-than- possible
labor productivity, decreasing ability to innovate and manage
efficiently. Second, increasing fertility rate by reducing opportunity
costs of child bearing and raising, thus leading to higher rate of
dependence, lower savings and investment, lower capital/labor.
Third, limiting the opportunity for intensive use of relatively
cheaper female labor, hence reducing the competitiveness of
export-oriented industries. Fourth, restricting women's negotiation
and decision-making power in family, thus, reducing percentage of
family budget spent on education and health care, or cutting down
on investment for long-term human capital development.
2.2.2 Methodology for assessing GI in education on EG
2.2.2.1 Macro analysis
(1) Model
Based on Neoclassical EG and theoretical framework
developed by Seguino (2000), Klasen and Lamanna (2009),
Schober and Winter-Webmer (2011), Pervaiz et al (2011):
GDP = f (K, L, H, Openness, GIi)
Dependent variable: GDP; Independent variables: investment,
labor, openness, variable representing GI is added.
(2) Estimation method
The thesis utilizes Ordinary Least Square (OLS).
(3) Unit of analysis
Unit of analysis is province and GDI is a proxy for GI

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2.2.2.2 Micro analysis
(1) Fundamental assumptions
When comparing male's and female's ability to earn
incomes by comparing the average member income in male- and
female-headed households, the thesis assumes that household head
is the family income-earner and decision-maker in the family.
(2) Data source and estimation method
Statistics and tests of estimators of average incomes in two
type of families are based on VHLSS 2010 and 2012.
2.3 Theories and methodology to assess impact of gender
inequality in education and employment on human
development
2.3.1 Theories relating to impact of GI in education and
employment on human development
Literature review shows that GI in education and
employment can negatively impact on HD through five
mechanisms. First, limiting the opportunity that family members
can support one another in learning. Second, restricting
achievement in health care due to lower mother's education as
compared to father's. Third, restricting father's direct support to
children due to family labor division in the way that assure
mother's specialization in family care.
Fourth, hampering achievement of family health care and education
for children due to lower women's negotiation and decision-making
power.
Fifth, increasing fertility rate due to lower opportunity cost of child
bearing and raising, thus increase dependence rate, decreasing
investment in education and health care for each family member.

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2.3.2 Methodology for assessing impact of GI in education and
employment on human development
2.3.2.1 Macro analysis
Macro analysis is done with province being the unit of
analysis and the correlation between gender-related development
index (GDI) and human development index (HDI) with crosssection data in 2012.
2.3.2.2 Micro analysis
(1) Theoretical model
Based on the models for assessing the impact of GI
developed by Hill and King (1995), Dollar and Gatti (1999),
Klasen (1999, 2002), WB (2001), Klasen and Lamanna (2009) and
Maiga (2011).
(2) Empirical model
Model for assessing the impact of GI in education:
Yi = α0 + λ1EDU_Fi +λ2EDU_Mi + αHHi + βCMi + ei

(1)

Model for assessing the impact of GI in employment:
Yi = α0 + + λ1Emp_Fi +λ2Emp_Mi + αHHi + βCMi + ei

(2)

in which: Y is the dependence variable showing one aspect in
human development, ei is the residual, being assumed to be normally
distributed; EDU_F, EDU_M, Emp_F and Emp_M are main explanatory

variables denoting female and male education and employment; vector
HH shows family characteristics; vector CM shows characteristics of the
commune where respective families reside.

(3) Variables
Dependence variables represent: education for children,
family health care. Variable denoting GI is incorporated in the
model indirectly through data disaggregated by sex. Dummy


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variable denoting household head's sex (Head_gender) and other
controlled variables are also used.
2.4 Factors affecting GI or the extent of impact of GI
2.4.1 Qualitative analysis
(1) For GI in all aspects: institution environment; development
level, culture and religion;
(2) For GI in education: parents' education, girls' and women's
opportunity costs of going to school, learning environment;
(3) For GI in employment: labor division/roles by sex in
family, education level of employees, discrimination by statistical
errors.
2.4.2 Quantitative analysis
Blinder - Oaxaca decomposition are widely used for
analyzing labor market and also for factors relating to severity and
extent of impact of GI in education. The basic principles comprises
of two steps: step 1, estimating and testing whether there is really a
gap in pay or number of schooling or not; step 2, decomposing
factors contributing to the total gender gaps.

CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE FACTUAL SITUATION OF
GENDER INEQUALITY AND ITS IMPACT ON
DEVELOPMENT IN VIETNAM
3.1 Overview of gender inequality in Vietnam
3.1.1 Factual situation of GI in education
During 2004-2012, in all regions, female's literature rate is
usually lower than men's, especially men usually have more
opportunity to have professional knowledge. Among labor with
professional knowledge, in "vocational training" and "university
training", the number of male students outweigh female peers,


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except for "vocational high school" and "college", where female
students are more than male peers. In conclusion, with regard to
primary (essential education) and tertiary education, women
experience unfavorable bias. bias. Unbalanced ratio of male and
female learners in "vocational training" and "college" show
professional segmentation by sex.
3.1.2 Factual situation of GI in employment
Nationwide, the ratio of female laborers have not varied
much and stand at 48.5%. Female laborers usually work in the
industries with less requirements skills or professional knowledge
such as agriculture, or less sophisticated jobs as sale clerks, home
maid...On the contrary, male laborers are more likely to take jobs in
industries with higher requirements for professional knowledge,
holding managements positions, state management posts.
On average, female laborers' monthly salaries are about 75% (for
employed groups) or about 83% male laborers' (for all groups).

Among group with low professional knowledge, pay gap is larger.
With regard to economic sector, the largest and increasing pay gap
is existing in the FDI enterprises, the private and state-own sectors
are having progress, the smaller business and collective units
showing pay gaps that need improvements.
3.2 Overview of development level in Vietnam
3.2.1 Economic growth
The Government has put forward solutions for getting rid of
difficulties in doing business, supporting markets; stabilizing macro
economic environment and determination for economic
restructuring. However, the achievements are still inconsiderable so
EG is always an essential objective.


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3.2.2 Human development
Vietnam's HDI is now decreasing, though at power pace.
According to UNDP, Vietnam's HDI is medium and ranks 121st
among ranked 187 nations. Almost nations in Asia have better
ranks than Vietnam with regard to HDI. Although the achievement
in EG is considerable, the average per capita income still lies in
lower middle income, making HDI low in comparison with many
other countries. Thus, the low HDI in Vietnam can be attributed
mainly to low income.
3.3 Impact of GI in education and employment on EG in
Vietnam
3.3.1 Macro analysis
Regression result is as follows:
lnGDP = 1,58 + 0,299lnInv + 0,591lnEmp + 0,062lnTrd + 0,059 GDI

The coefficients of the independent variables are
significant and confirm that gender development (meaning lower
gender inequality) has positive effects on EG; when GDI increases
by 1 percent, GDP increases by 0.059%. This means GI hampers
EG.
3.3.2 Micro analysis
Micro analysis is done through the comparison of
capability of making incomes by female- and male-headed
households.
Table 3.15 Average income per capita by household head sex
Unit: thousand
dong
Marital

2010
Female

Male

2012
All

Female

Male

All

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Married

2.414

1.571

1.684

2.889

2.134

2.229

Source: Author's calculation using VHLSS 2010-2012

In the same marital status (married), female household
heads have higher comparability to earn income compared to male
heads.
So, hypotheses H1 and H2 mentioned in Section 1.2.3 are
accepted.
3.4 Impact of GI in education and employment on HD in
Vietnam
3.4.1 Macro analysis
Macro analysis of the impact of GI on HD is done with
province being unit of analysis through correlation of GDI and HDI
với using cross-province data. Extremely high correlation
coefficient (being 0.9993 in 2012) leads to a conclusion that when
gender inequality is low (meaning when GDI is high), the

achievement in HD is high.
3.4.2 Micro analysis
3.4.2.1 Impact of GI in education on HD
Table 3.17 shows the results of regression of the impact of
father's and mother's education on children's education and health
care in family with married spouses. This shows GI in education
negatively affect both children's education and family health care.
Table 3.17 Results of regression of the impact of father's and
mother's education on children's education and family health
care
Model
Variables
EDU_M

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

EDU_Proper

EDU_6_18

EDU_expend

NVacin

HEALTH_Treat

0,011***

0,005***

0,002***

-0,000***

0,011***


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EDU_F

0,010***

0,025***

0,007***

0,003***

-0,018***

Constant

0,678***

0,591***

0,050***

0,156***

3,061***

*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Source: Author's calculation using VHLSS 2010-2012

3.4.2.2 Impact of GI in employment on HD
Impact of GI in employment on HD is examined in two
ways: (i) quantifying the separate impact of father's employment
status and mother's (Table 3.18); (ii) indirectly analyzing through a
channel of the impact of GI in employment - channel "women's
decision making power in family" (Table 3.19).
Table 3.18 Separate impact of father's and mother's
employment status on children's education and family health
care
Model

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

EDU_Proper

EDU_6_18

EDU_expend

NVacin

HEALTH _Treat

Emp_M

-0,108***

-0,028***

0,063***

0,035***

0,179***

Emp_F

0,054***

0,093***

0,022***

-0,036***

0,062***

Constant

0,957***

0,758***

0,043***

0,183***

2,791***

Variables

Standard errors in parentheses, *** p<0,01; ** p<0,05; * p<0,1

Source: Author's calculation using VHLSS 2010-2012

Table 3.18 leads to a conclusion that GI in employment has
negative impact on children's education but shows positive impact
on family health care because if mothers do not take incomegenerating work, they have more time for family health care.

Table 3.19 Differences in investment in education for children
and family health care by household head sex
Model
Variables

(3)

(4)

(5)

EDU_expend

NVacin

HEALTH_Treat


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Head_gender

-0,035***

-0,004***

-0,071***

Constant

0,088***

0,159***

3,330***

Standard errors in parentheses, *** p<0,01; ** p<0,05; * p<0,1

Source: Author's calculation using VHLSS 2010-2012

Table 3.19 show that on average, households with female
heads have more frequent vaccination for babies (higher coefficient
of NVacin), higher spending on education for children but lower
achievement in health care (more frequent clinic examination).
However, statistical data show that female-headed households are
almost single parent family and so they have to earn income for
their family and have less time for family health care.
In conclusion, hypotheses H1, H2, H3 mentioned in Section
1.2.3 are accepted and hypothesis H4 is rejected.
3.5 Factors affecting severity and extent of impact of GI in
Vietnam
3.5.1 Qualitative analysis results
First, the goal of gender equality is stipulated in the
constitution, the Law on gender equality also mentions gender
mainstreaming and ways to ensure gender equality. However, in
the Law on education, methods to mitigate gender inequality is not
stated. In the Labor Code, there are Articles stating supports for
women and not treatment in the cases where there is gender
discrimination with regard to economic benefits. Important national
programs in education and employment have not explicitly
mentioned ways to ensure gender equality, or are even genderblind.

Second, the existence of Buddist and Confucius ideologies
in Vietnam are enforcing gender stereotype: assigning more power