BÀI GIẢNG KHÍ TƯỢNG LÝ THUYẾT CHƯƠNG 21

Chapter Twenty One

CHAPTER TWENTY ONE
Sea Ice

INTRODUCTION
Sea ice is partly a meteorological and partly an oceanographic phenomenon.
There are two kinds of floating ice encountered at sea: sea ice, formed from
sea water and icebergs, which break off the seaward end of glaciers and from
shelf ice.
Sea ice is formed in all waters of the frigid zone in both hemispheres and in
parts of the temperate zone in winter, particularly in the Antarctic. In
springtime it breaks up and spreads into more temperate waters, notably in the
Antarctic and Western North Atlantic. Icebergs are, in general, born in the
frigid zone in the North Atlantic area and in both the frigid and temperate zone
in the Antarctic. In the Antarctic and Western North Atlantic they drift well
into the temperate zone during springtime.
PHYSICS OF FIELD ICE
The physics and development of sea ice are complicated. The freezing point of
salt water is lower than that of fresh water and is governed by its salinity-the
higher the salinity the lower the freezing point. Thus, in the open ocean, water
with a salinity of 35o/oo)) (parts per thousand) starts freezing at about -2°C
(28.5°F), while in the Baltic where salinity of 5o/oo is common. the water starts
to freeze at 0.3°e (32.5°F). Fresh water starts to freeze at 0oC (32°F).
The density of sea water increases with salinity. It also increases with
cooling until a maximum density for the existing salinity is reached. The
higher the salinity the lower the temperature of maximum density.
FORMATION OF SEA ICE
The cooling of surface water increases its density and it sinks, to be replaced
by warmer, less dense water from below. The process continues until the
whole column of water, from top to bottom, has attained its maximum density

and all convectional descent ceases. Until this stage is reached ice cannot
form. At sea it forms more readily where the water column is stratified into
layers of different density. In this situation convectional sinking is confined to
the topmost layer. The maximum density of fresh water occurs at about 4°C
(39°F). On the other hand. sea water with a salinity of 24.7 per cent has its
maximum density at its freezing point of about -1.5°C (29.5°F) and with higher
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salinity the temperature of maximum density decreases further. Therefore the
formation of sea ice can be a lengthy process, especially in deep water with
high salinity.
In some areas. despite very low temperatures. the winter is not long enough
for the process to be completed and sea ice does not form. Sea ice first forms
in shallow water where the delay due to convectional sinking is least.
DEVELOPMENT OF SEA ICE
The development of sea ice begins with the formation of needle- shaped
crystals called Frazil Ice. These crystals tend to no at with their long axis
vertical and they give the sea an oily appearance. The frazil ice crystals then
thicken and congeal to form a greasy or soupy layer on the sea surface known
as Grease Ice. Alternatively, falling snow crystals can produce slush. In the
next stage. Shuga Ice develops consisting of spongy lumps a few centimetres
across. This is followed by Pancake Ice. consisting of flat pieces. roughly
circular in shape. often with a rim round the edge due to rubbing against
adjacent pieces. All the above are classified generally as New Ice. The
Pancakes gradually join to form a more or less continuous ice sheet. called
Young Ice: this will also be broken up by wave action.
Young Ice eventually thickens and becomes field ice or pack ice. which is a

generic term for all fully developed sea ice floating on the ocean and not
attached to the shore: it varies in thickness from a few inches to several feet.
Individual pieces of pack ice more than 20 metres across are called floes and
the pack is termed "open", "very open". "close" or "very close" depending on
the distance between the floes. Very close pack leaves little or no water
visible, Pack ice originating in Arctic or Antarctic waters may be several feet
thick and very uneven due to "hummocking" (piling up) by the waves,
Detailed ice terminology is given in the Mariner's Handbook and it is
important to know something about these terms so as to interpret ice bulletins.
ICEBERGS
Arctic bergs are derived from the seaward end of glaciers: as the glacier
extends out over the water the force of buoyancy breaks off pieces of ice and
icebergs are "calved", These bergs are generally irregular in shape and may
contain rock and soil debris,
Antarctic bergs are sometimes calved from glaciers. but the majority have
broken away from the enormous ice shelf which fringes the continent. It is
thought that the pieces of ice shelf break off due to seismic activity These
bergs are flat topped with steep sides and are known as tabular bergs because
of their shape. These bergs are often several miles in extent and are a lustrous
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"Plaster of Paris" white due to trapped air.
Icebergs have only about one eighth of their volume above the water and
are thus a menace to shipping. The term growler is used for small bergs, less
than one metre in height above the water-line. Larger bergs with one to five
metres above the water-line are known as bergy bits, with the term icebergs
used for larger pieces of ice.

DISTRIBUTION OF SEA ICE AND ITS SEASONS
Fig 21.1 shows mean and extreme limits of sea ice in navigable waters of the
northern and southern hemisphere at different times of the year. A brief
description is given in the following paragraphs. Details are in the relevant
Admiralty Pilots. The season and intensity of all forms of sea ice varies
considerably from year to year, being influenced by wind and weather in the
relevant winter and spring and by ocean current vagaries.
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE GRAND BANKS OF NEWFOUNDLAND

Pack ice may be encountered any time between February and May and
icebergs between April and August. The bergs which affect this area are
calved from glaciers on the Greenland coast during the previous summer.
Those from the East coast are taken by the East Greenland Current down the
coast, round Cape Farewell and up the West coast by the West Greenland
current where they spend the winter trapped in the pack ice. The following
spring they are swept. together with the bergs calved from West Greenland
glaciers to the Grand Banks area by the Baffin Land and Labrador Current.
The ice in this region is particularly menacing to shipping because of the high
incidence of fog there in spring and summer. When they get south of the
Grand Banks they melt fairly rapidly in the warmer water.
GULF AND RIVERST LAWRENCE
Generally navigable from end of April till end of November. There is often
plenty of field ice during the early stages and icebreaker help is needed
sometimes. The only entry is through Cabot Strait until about mid-June when
Belle Isle Strait also is open.
HUDSON BAY
Usually open to navigation, with icebreaker help at times, from mid-June till
mid-October. There may be quite a lot of ice during the beginning and end of
the season .
EASTERN SEABOARD OF NORTH AMERICA

In winter, ice may be present in the harbours as far south as Chesapeake Bay.
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DENMARK STRAIT
Pack ice may sometimes extend from Greenland to the Icelandic coast in
winter and early spring.
WHITE SEA
Usually navigable from July to September: the North coast of Norway is
usually ice-free, thanks to the effect of the North Atlantic Current.
BALTIC SEA
There is much ice normally in the northern and eastern portion from November
to May: elsewhere only the coast itself and the ports are seriously affected. in
midwinter and early spring.
BLACK SEA
Liable to have some field ice in mid-winter: in most years only the northern
coasts are affected.
NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN
In the area normally frequented by shipping, only the waters of the Japan Sea
and northern part of the Yellow Sea are affected. and only by field ice. in
winter months.
SOUTHERN OCEAN
The coasts of Antarctica are generally surrounded by a mixture of pack ice and
icebergs throughout the year, impenetrable in winter and only navigable in
midsummer by specially strengthened vessels. The probable mean limit of pack
ice extends to about 55°S in places in mid-winter, but in mid-summer it recedes
well south of 65°S except off Grahamland in the Weddell Sea area. The
extreme limit extends north of 50°S in places throughout the year but never

approaches Cape Horn or Cape of Good Hope.
The extreme limit of Antarctic icebergs reaches 35°S (between 30° and
40°W). while the mean limit is at a maximum of about 50°S in about 500W At
all seasons bergs have been sighted between Cape Horn and Bahia Blanca. In
the South Pacific bergs may be seen in about 50°S (between 120° and 180°\'\)
and in the western Indian Ocean their mean limit in February and "'larch is
about 43°S.

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WARNINGS OF ICE
Provided the ship is not in a specific cold sea surface current, sea surface
temperatures might indicate the vicinity of pack ice. Thus a sea temperature of
1°C (34oF) might warn of an ice edge within about ISO miles: if the sea
temperature were -0.5°C (31°F) the ice edge could be within 50 miles.
Warning may be given by Ice Blink caused by ret1ection from the ice giving a
glare in the sin' near the horizon. mainly white if sky is cloudy, and yellow if
sky is mostly blue; it is sometimes visible at night. In fog, white patches
indicate ice at short distance. A noticeable reduction of sea and swell can warn
of pack ice to windward. There may sometimes be a fog bank along the edge
of pack ice. Small isolated chunks of floating ice may indicate field ice nearby.
There is no similar indication of bergs. In all cases the only safe rule is to keep

a very good visual lookout during the ice season. Bergs show up bright white
on a clear dark night but there is always risk of growlers or bergy bits which
will probably not be seen till very close, especially in high winds. Radar is not
always reliable with an ice target -particularly with bergy bits and growlers
when there is any sea clutter. On a foggy night if there is risk of meeting ice.
the safest action is to stop the ship till the fog lifts or till daybreak. During the
ice season in the western North Atlantic the International Ice Patrol, operated
by the US Coastguard, keeps watch on the bergs and field ice and warns
shipping accordingly by radio broadcasts; aircraft are a major aid in this
service. Radio warnings are also issued in Canadian, Baltic, Icelandic and
Russian waters when necessary.
REPORTING OF SEA ICE BY SHIPPING
The International Convention of Safety of Life at Sea prescribes that the
master of every ship that sights dangerous ice must report it to other ships and
to shore authorities as soon as possible.
ICING ON DECK
The formation of ice on a vessel's superstructure causes a number of hazards.
These hazards include a reduction in the vessel's freeboard and an increased
likelihood of capsize if the vessel is heeled by the action of wind and waves.
Antennae and life saving appliances are also adversely affected by icing.
Fresh water ice accretion is due either to the freezing of liquid rain or drizzle
drops which come into contact with the vessel or snowflakes freezing onto the
vessel. The weight of the ice added by these processes is relatively small and
so the effects of fresh water ice accretion are not usually serious.
As the temperature is reduced below the freezing point of sea water there is
an increasingly high risk of wind blown spray freezing onto the vessel. For
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this process to produce a significant hazard the sea temperature must be lower
than 9° C and the wind speed must be at least Force 5.
Diagrams which can assist in estimating the rate at which ice accretion is
likely to occur are printed in the Mariner’s Handbook.
QUESTIONS
1. (a) Describe briefly the development and general appearance of each of the
following: Frazil ice: Grease ice: Pancake ice; Field ice (pack ice). Floes.
(b) It is necessary to have some knowledge of ice terminology, so as to
correctly interpret ice bulletins. Where do you find detailed ice terminology?
2. Compare the icebergs of the northern and southern hemispheres with
particular reference to formation, calving, shape and size.
3. Describe the probable movement of an iceberg from the time of calving
until final disintegration when formed on (a) the east coast of Greenland and
(b) the west coast of Greenland.
4.Which of the principal trade routes are affected by ice?
5. Where can you find details regarding sea ice conditions, seasons, etc., for
any particular locality?
6. (a) Define roughly the extreme limits of icebergs for each of the following:
N. Atlantic, S. Atlantic, N. Pacific. S. Pacific and S. Indian Oceans.
(b) Define roughly the mean limits of pack ice for each of the oceans
mentioned in (a) above.
7. What action should be taken by the master of a ship on sighting dangerous
ice?
8. What special precautions would you take when navigating in areas where
you are likely to encounter ice?
9. Describe the various signs and phenomena which may give warning of the
presence of (a) Pack ice. (b) Icebergs.
10. State what you know about the use of radar for detecting ice on ocean
routes .

11. (a) What are '"Bergy bits" and "Growlers'" (b) When are they most
dangerous?

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