JPOD GRAMMAR Học ngữ pháp tiếng nhật

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Contents

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1.あまり (1) - amari (1): too much, very, a lot
Amari always precedes the verb.
A. INTRODUCTION:
Amari, which literally translates as “too much”, is an adverb that is usually found in negative sentences.
When used in this fashion, it expresses less-than-perfect negation. So while “suki de wa nai” (好きではない)
implies simply that “I don’t like it”, “amari suki de wa nai” (あまり好きではない) implies that “I like it a
little, but not a lot” or “I don’t like it very much.” Like its English counterpart, amari may be used merely as a
softening device.
B. EXAMPLES:
あまり調子がよくありません。
Amari chōshi ga yoku arimasen.
I don’t feel very well.
この絵はあまり好きではありません。
Kono e wa amari suki de wa arimasen.
I don’t like that picture very much.
C. NOTES:
This expression is usually written in hiragana only.
In informal conversation, “amari” is often replaced by “anmari” (あんまり).
Although “amari” is normally found in negative sentences, it is also sometimes used in affirmative sentences,
but carries a negative connotation. In such cases, it is sometimes followed by the particle “ni”.

彼の考えはあまりに非現実的だ。
Kare no kangae wa amari ni higenjitsuteki da.
His thoughts are too unrealistic.

2.ある - aru: to be, to exist (of inanimate things); to have
Thing + は + place + に + ある
Person/Place + (に)は + thing + が + ある
A. INTRODUCTION:
Aru is a special aru-class verb meaning “to exist” or “to have”. Aru is only used to indicate the existence of
inanimate objects. That is, it is not used to indicate the existence of living things other than plants. See いる
(1). However, Aru can indicate the *possession* of animate living objects, however, this implies a close
relationship between the “owner” and the “owned”, and the owner should be higher in rank or position. The
optional particle “ni” is often used in this sense.
The negative form of aru is the i-adjective “nai” (ない (無い)).
B. EXAMPLES:
私の iPod は車にある。
Watashi no aipoddo wa kuruma ni aru.

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My iPod is in the car.
私は責任感がある。
Watashi wa sekininkan ga aru.
I have a sense of responsibility.
私には夢が二つある。
Watashi ni wa yume ga futatsu aru.
I have two dreams.
C. NOTES:

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Because the two meanings of aru (to exist and to have) are closely related, there is some confusion over
proper kanji usage. In the strictest sense, 在る should be used for “to exist” and 有る should be used for “to
have”. Thus, 在る would be used in example #1 above, but 有る should be used for examples #2 and #3.
Luckily for the Japanese learner, aru is almost always written in hiragana.
The honorific polite form of aru is gozaru (ござる).
The verbs above should not be confused with 或 る , an attributive meaning “some” or “one” that is also
pronounced "aru". Confusion sometimes arises because this expression is also normally written in hiragana.
ある学者が人権についてすばらしい演説を言った 。
Aru gakusha ga jinken ni tsuite subarashii enzetsu wo itta.
A scholar made a wonderful speech about human rights.
ある（或る）iPod は電池寿命の問題がある（有る）。
Aru aipoddo wa denchi jumyou mondai ga aru.
Some iPods have battery life problems.

3.いい - ii: good
A. INTRODUCTION:
The Japanese adjective for "good" is "yoi", written alternatively as 好い, 善い, and 良い. In informal spoken
and written Japanese, however, "yoi" is often replaced by "ii", usually written in hiragana only, without a
change in meaning.
The adjective "ii" is often looked upon as having an irregular conjugation, because it becomes "yokatta" in the
past tense. But since, in fact, "ii" is merely a bastardized form of "yoi" that has no conjugation pattern of its
own, it really isn't irregular.
For example, to construct the past form of "ii", you merely drop the final "i" from "yoi", and add "katta", as
with any other i-adjective. Likewise, the -tara conditional form of "ii" is "yokattara".
B. EXAMPLES:
1. いいですよ。
Ii desu yo.
It's alright.
2. ちょっといいですか。

Chotto ii desu ka.
Do you have a minute?
3. 幸運にも天気がよかった。
Kōun ni mo tenki ga yokatta.
Fortunately, the weather was good.
4. よかったら一緒にいらっしゃい。
Yokattara issho ni irasshai.
Come along with us if you like.
C. NOTES:
The honorific polite form of "ii" and "yoi" is "yoroshii".

4.いっぱい - ippai: full, many, a lot
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ippai + V
いっぱい食べる・ippai taberu - to eat a lot
いっぱいある・ippai aru - there are a lot of something
A. INTRODUCTION:
Ippai - full, many, a lot - is used as an adverb modifying the amount or volume of something.
B. EXAMPLES:


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作品がいっぱいあります。
Sakuhin ga ippai arimasu.
There are many works.
人がいっぱいいます。
Hito ga ippai imasu.
There are many people.
C. NOTES:

The phrase "Genki ippai," is an abbreviated version of "Genki ga ippai arimasu!"

5.いる (1) - iru (1): to exist (for animate, usually living, things)
Thing + は + place + に + いる
Person/Place + (に)は + thing + が + いる
A. INTRODUCTION:
"Iru" is a class-2 verb used to indicate the existence of animate (usually living) objects. This verb, however, is
also used to indicate the existence of some animate non-living things, such as ghosts, buses, robots, etc.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. この部屋に人は何人いますか。
Kono heya ni hito wa nan-nin imasu ka?
How many people are in this room?
2. あそこに犬と猫がいます。
Asoko ni inu to neko ga imasu.
There are a dog and cat over there.
C. NOTES:
This expression is usually written in hiragana only.

6.いる (2) - iru (2): -ing
V.te-form + iru (いる)
A. INTRODUCTION:
"Iru" is a verb meaning "to be". In Japanese, the progressive/continuous aspect is expressed by using "iru" as
an auxiliary verb, following the -te form of another verb.
The Japanese "-te iru" form is actually similar to both the English present progressive ("to be ~~ing"), past
perfect ("to have ~~") and present perfect progressive ("to have been ~~ing") forms. Its translation depends on
context.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 今新聞を読んでいます。
Ima shinbun o yonde imasu.
I'm reading the newspaper now.

2. ピーターは何をしていますか。
Pītā wa nani o shite imasu ka.
What's Peter doing?

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3. ３年前からずっと毎日歯を磨いています。
San-nen mae kara zutto mainichi ha o migaite imasu.
I have brushed my teeth every day for the past three years.
C. NOTES:
Both the plain non-past form of verbs, and the "-te iru" form of verbs can be used to refer to repetitive actions.
For example, both of the following sentences are correct.
1) 毎日歯を磨きます。


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2) 毎日歯を磨いています。
However, the nuance between the two, and the situations in which they can be used are different. In the case
of the "-te iru" verb form, we know that the habit/trend exists now, but it is not clear if it will continue into the
future. When using the non-past verb form, we know that the habit/trend exists now, but it is not clear if it
existed in the past. The following sentences, therefore, indicate examples in which the two verb forms are not
interchangeable.
これからは毎日歯を磨きます。(OK!)
これからは毎日歯を磨いています。(NO!)
３年前からずっと毎日歯を磨きます。(NO!)
３年前からずっと毎日歯を磨いています。(OK!)
This expression is usually written in hiragana only.

7.か (1) - ka (1): question particle
Sentence + ka(か）.

A. INTRODUCTION:
Ka is a sentence-ending particle used to change a declarative statement into a yes-no question, or used in
combination with interrogative words such as nani, dare, etc. to ask an open-ended question.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 明日時間がありますか。
Ashita jikan ga arimasu ka.
Do you have any [free] time tomorrow?
2. あなたの名前は何ですか。
Anata no namae wa nan desu ka.
What's your name?
3. この水飲んでもいいですか。
Kono mizu nonde mo ii desu ka.
May I drink this water?

8.か (2) - ka (2): or
Noun + ka + Noun + ka
Verb. plain + ka
Adj-i + ka
Adj-na.stem + ka
A. INTRODUCTION:
"Ka" is a particle used to indicate alternatives, and therefore equivalent to the English conjunction "or".
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 今ブラジルが暑いか寒いか教えてください。
Ima Burajiru ga atsui ka samui ka oshiete kudasai.
Please tell me whether Brazil is hot or cold right now.
2. コーヒーか紅茶、どちらがいいですか。

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Kōhī ka kōcha, dochira ga ii desu ka.

Do you prefer coffee or tea?
C. NOTES:
The use of "ka" as an interrogative sentence-ending particle is an extension of its use as an alternativemarking particle.

9.から (1) - kara(1): from, since


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Noun + kara (から)
A. INTRODUCTION:
"Kara" is a particle used to indicate the starting position, or the source of an object or action. This starting
position may be either a point in space (in which case it is translated as "from"), or a point in time (in which
case it is translated as "since" or "after").
When used in this sense, "kara" always follows a noun.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 学校から家までどれくらいかかりますか。
Gakkō kara ie made dorekurai kakarimasu ka?
How long does it take you to get home from school?
2. 生まれた時からここに住んでいます。
Umareta toki kara koko ni sunde imasu.
I've been living here since I was born.

10. から（ 3） - kara(3): so
Verb + kara
I-adjective + kara
Na-adjective + da + kara
Noun + da + kara
A. INTRODUCTION:
"Kara" is a subordinate conjunction that indicates a reason or cause. When using "kara" in this manner, the
reason always *precedes* kara.

"Kara" follows nouns and i-adjectives directly. Na-adjectives and nouns require use of the copula "da",
creating the common compound "dakara".
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 来年日本へ行くから日本語を勉強しています。
Rainen nihon e iku kara nihongo o benkyō shite imasu.
I'm studying Japanese because I'm going to Japan next year.
2. 今日は天気がいいから家を出ます。
Kyō wa tenki ga ii kara ie o demasu.
Today, because the weather is nice, I’m going out.

11. から（２） - kara(2): after having done s.t.; since
te-form of Verb + kara +　[main clause]
A. INTRODUCTION:
When the particle "kara" is suffixed to the te-form of a verb, it expresses temporal sequence, with the action
of the verb attached to "kara" occurring first.

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B. EXAMPLES:
海外から留学生が来たから、学校が終わってから迎えに行った。
Kaigai kara ryūgakusei ga kita kara, gakkō ga owatte kara mukae ni itta.
Because an exchange student from abroad came, I went to meet him after school.
この料理を食べてからご判断をお願いします。
Kono ryōri o tabete kara go-handan o onegai shimasu.
After eating this dish, please give us your opinion.
ご飯を食べてから仕事に戻った。
Gohan o tabete kara shigoto ni modotta.
After eating, I returned to work.

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C. NOTES:
The Vte kara construction is related to the kara(1) particle, but should not be confused with the kara(3)
conjunction.
kara(2)
テレビを見てから頭が痛くなった。
Terebi o mite kara atama ga itaku natta.
After watching television, I got a headache.
kara(3)
テレビを見たから頭が痛くなった。
Terebi o mita kara atama ga itaku natta.
Because I watched television, I got a headache.
The kara(3) conjunction shows a cause/effect relationship between S1 and S2, while kara(2) does not.

12. が (1) - ga (1): subject-marking particle
A. INTRODUCTION:
Ga is a particle used to mark the grammatical subject of a sentence when it is first introduced to a
conversation. Japanese particles are postpositions, and therefore ga always follows the subject.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 私は猫が好きです。
Watashi wa neko ga suki desu.
I like cats.
2. 日本料理は何が好きですか。
Nihon ryōri wa nani ga suki desu ka.
What Japanese foods do you like?
3. 今夜星がきれいですね。
Kon\'ya hoshi ga kirei desu ne.
The stars sure are beautiful tonight, aren't they?
C. NOTES:
The difference between \"ga\" and \"wa\" is one of the most troublesome for people studying the Japanese

language.
Generally speaking, \"ga\" is replaced by \"wa\" when:
a) the grammatical subject has already been introduced during the discussion;
b) the subject is something that the listener is assumed to be familiar with;
c) making generalizations;
d) making comparisons.
\"Ga\" cannot be replaced by \"wa\" when it follows question words such as \"nani\", \"dare\", etc. When
answering these questions, the particle \"ga\" should also be used to mark the answer.
A: 日本人の歌手は誰が好きですか。(Nihonjin no kashu wa dare ga suki desu ka.)
B: 北島三郎が好きです。(Kitajima Saburou ga suki desu.)
A: What Japanese singers do you like?

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B: I like Saburou Kitajima.
\"Ga\" may be replaced by the particle \"no\" when used inside a relative clause.
あなたが書いた論文を提出しなさい。(Anata ga kaita ronbun wo teishutsu shinasai.) ー＞
あなたの書いた論文を提出しなさい。(Anata no kaita ronbun wo teishutsu shinasai.)
Please hand in the thesis that you wrote.

13. が (2) - ga (2): but, however


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Sentence-1 + ga(が) + Sentence-2
Sentence-1 + ga(が)。
A. INTRODUCTION:
Ga is a conjunction used to join two independent sentences, which often have contrastive meaning. It is
therefore quite similar in meaning to the English word "but".
Like "but", it is sometimes used merely to preface the second sentence with a reason or an excuse. (See

example sentence #3.) When context makes the second sentence obvious, it may be dropped, and ga is used to
end the sentence. This form is frequently used for polite requests, as in example sentence #4.
B. EXAMPLES:
1 彼は来ましたが、彼のともだちは来ませんでした。
Kare wa kimashita ga kare no tomodachi wa kimasendeshita.
He came, but his friend didn't.
2 旅をしたいのだが、お金がありません。
Tabi o shitai no da ga okane ga arimasen.
I want to travel, but I don't have the money.
3. すみませんが、この席は空いていますか。
Sumimasen ga, kono seki wa aite imasu ka.
I'm sorry to bother you, but is this seat taken?
4. 水が欲しいんですが。
Mizu ga hoshii n desu ga.
I'd like some water, so... [would you mind getting it for me?]

14. くらい - kurai: approximately, about
Number + Counter + kurai (くらい)
Demonstrative Pronoun/Adjective + kurai (くらい）
Interrogative Pronoun + kurai (くらい)
A. INTRODUCTION:
"Kurai" (also pronounced "gurai") is an adverbial particle used to roughly indicate amount or extent. It is
usually translated as "about" or "approximately".
"Kurai" always directly follows the amount/extent that it modifies.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 百人くらい集まりました。
Hyakunin kurai atsumarimashita.
About a hundred people gathered together.
2. この靴はだいたい２万円くらいしました。
Kono kutsu wa daitai ni-man-en kurai shimashita.

These shoes cost about 20,000 yen.
3. あとどのくらいで仕上げなければならないの？
Ato donokurai de shiagenakereba naranai no?

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How much time do we have to finish this?

15. けれども - keredomo: although, though, but
Amari always precedes the verb.
clause + keredomo
V.plain/plain past + keredomo
i-adj + keredomo


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na-adj + copula. plain/plain past + keredomo
noun + copula. plain/plain past + keredomo
A. INTRODUCTION:
"keredomo" is an informal disjunctive conjunctions marking the subordinate clause. It is commonly used in
informal spoken Japanese.
There also exist some abbreviated versions of keredomo, each one having a different level of politeness.
Most Polite <------> Least Polite
keredomo - keredo - kedomo – kedo
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 疲れているけれども、もう少し頑張ります。
Tsukareteiru keredomo, mousukoshi ganbarimasu.
Although I'm tired, I'll go on a bit longer.
2. 甘いものが食べたいけどふとるのでやめます。
Amaimono ga tabetai kedo futoru node yamemasu.

Although I want to eat sweets, I won't because I'll gain weight.

16. こ そ あ ど 言 葉 - こ そ あ ど こ と ば - kosoado kotoba: ko-, so-, a- & dodemonstrative pronouns
Kore・これ Kochira・こちら this/here is When the object is close to the speaker
Sore・それ Sochira・そちら that/there When the object is close to the person spoken to
Are・あれ Achira・あちら Over there(that/location)When the object is far from the both
Dore・どれ Dochira・どちら Which
A. INTRODUCTION:
Demonstrative & interrogative pronouns – “this” and “that” in Japanese
B. EXAMPLES:
1 そちらはどちら様ですか。
Sochira wa dochira-sama desuka?
Who is that person?
2 あちらの方はヨナスの友達です。
Achira no kata wa Yonasu no tomodachi desu.
That person is Yonasu's friend.
3 お荷物はこちらでおあずかりします。
Onimotu wa kochira de oazukari shimasu.
We can keep your baggage here.

17. する - suru: to do
Imperfective form - し、せ、さ
Connective form - し
Predicative form - する
Attributive form - する

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Hypothetical form - すれ
Imperative form - しろ、せよ

A. INTRODUCTION:
"Suru" is the Japanese verb for "to do". However, it is much more flexible than its English counterpart, and
can be used in a wide array of situations.


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1) "Suru", when preceded by the direct-object-marking particle "wo" means "to perform an action". In a large
number of cases, "suru" can also affix to the noun directly, converting it into a special suru-class verb.
2) "Suru" can also be used to indicate one's job.
3) In the form ([~ni] ~wo suru), "suru" can be used to indicate the wearing of fashion accessories.
4) "Suru" can be used to indicate someone/something's visible manner, attitude or appearance.
5) "Suru" can attach to the masu-stems of other verbs, reconverting them from nouns back into verbs.
6) In the forms (~wo ~ni suru), "suru" may be used to indicate assigning/relegating someone to a particular
position. It may also be used to indicate that a parent has raised a child to be suitable for a particular job.
7) In the (~wo ~ni suru) form, "suru" may also be used to indicate the use of something for a specified
purpose--usually one other than that for which it was intended.
8) In the (~wo ~ni suru) form, "suru" may also be used to indicate that one is changing something from the
object marked by the "wo" particle, into the object marked by the "ni" particle.
9) "Suru" may also be used to indicate the way that one treats, thinks/feels about or views something.
10) "Suru" may follow adjectives in their adverbial form, in which case, it indicates a forced change upon the
direct object to enter the state indicated by the adjective.
In addition to its meaning as "to do", "suru" also means "to decide", as used in the "koto ni suru" and "koto to
suru" forms. Nouns may also directly take the place of the "koto" nominalizers in the "koto ni suru" phrase,
indicating the direct selection of that noun. "To suru" differs from "ni suru" in that the "to suru" form indicates
judgment/evaluation, rather than selection.
Suru is an irregular verb, each of its conjugations requiring individual memorization.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. ピーター、今夜電話しますね。
Pītā, konya denwa shimasu ne.
Peter, I’ll call you tonight.

2. 私は日本語を勉強します。
Watashi wa Nihongo o benkyō shimasu.
I study Japanese.
3. 夏子は英語を勉強しますか。
Natsuko wa eigo o benkyō shimasu ka?
Natsuko, do you study English?
C. NOTES:
This expression is usually written in hiragana only.

18. だ - da: be (copula)
Present: Da
Present negative: ja nai
Past: datta
Past negative: ja nakatta
A. INTRODUCTION:
Da is a copula that is fairly formal when used in written Japanese, but informal when used in spoken Japanese.

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B. EXAMPLES:
1. あの車はみどりじゃなかった。青だった。
Ano kuruma wa midori ja nakatta. Ao datta.
That car wasn't green. It was blue.
2. お相撲さんだ！
O-sumō-san da!


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A sumo wrestler!
3. これはペンじゃない。シャープペンだ。

Kore wa pen ja nai. Shāpu pen da.
This isn't a pen. It's a mechanical pencil.
C. NOTES:
See である.

19. だけ - dake: only, just
Noun + dake (だけ)
Verb/i-Adj. inf + dake (だけ)
na-Adj. stem + na dake(だけ)
A. INTRODUCTION:
“Dake” is a particle that is often equated with the English words “only” or “just”. However, “dake” differs
from these words in one important respect: it expresses a maximum, not a minimum, limit. Whereas the
English phrase “drink only what you can”, implies that the listener will probably not be drinking much, the
Japanese phrase “できるだけ飲んで” (dekiru dake nonde) translates as “drink as much possible” or “drink as
much as you can”. See notes below.
“Dake” is commonly found in such compounds as “koredake” (“this much”/”all this”), soredake/aredake
(“that much“/”all that”), and “doredake” (“how much”). See example #3.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 鳥肉と卵だけ使います。
Toriniku to tamago dake tsukaimasu.
[This recipe] uses only chicken and eggs.
2. 言いたいことはそれだけです。
Iitai koto wa sore dake desu.
That’s all I care to say.
3. あれだけのコインを収集するのにどれだけの年月がかかりましたか。
Aredake no koin o shūshū suru no ni doredake no nengetsu ga kakarimashita ka.
How long did it take you to collect those coins?
4. あぁ、この用紙に書き込むだけです。
Aa, kono yōshi ni kakikonde dake desu.
Oh, just fill out this form.

5. 私は言われた通りにしただけです。
Watashi wa iwareta tōri ni shita dake desu.
I only did as I was told.
6. 彼は 僕よりせいぜい２、３歳若いだけです。
Kare wa boku yori seizei ni, san sai wakai dake desu.
He's not more than two or three years younger than me.
7. 彼は、熱心なだけです。
Kare wa nesshin na dake desu.

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He is just earnest.
C. NOTES:
This expression is usually written in hiragana only.
As mentioned above, “dekiru dake” is a common way to say “as ... as possible”. It acts as an adverb.
できるだけ速く走った。
Dekiru dake hayaku hashitta.


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I ran as fast as possible.
This also applies to other potential verbs.
読めるだけ読んだ。
Yomeru dake yonda.
I read as much as I could read.

20. だろう - darō: probably
だろう - だろう - darō: Probably
* Verb/i-Adj.inf + だろう
行く　だろう

行った　だろう
早い　だろう
早かった　だろう
* na-Adj.stem + (だった)だろう
静か　だろう
静かだった　だろう
* Noun + (だった)だろう
学生　だろう
学生だった　だろう
A. INTRODUCTION:
Darō is the volitional form of the Japanese copula de aru, used to express that the speaker's statement is
merely conjecture. It is also used as a softening device.
darō, the volitional form of the Japanese copula de aru roughly equating to probably. Darō and its polite form
deshō are used to express that the speaker's statement is conjecture based on some information or knowledge
held by the speaker. The degree of certainty when using darō is usually quite high.
B. EXAMPLES:
1 きっと勝つのは彼女だろう。
Kitto katsu no wa kanojo darō.
Surely the one who wins will be the girl.
2 明日は晴れるだろうか。
Asu wa hareru darō ka.
It'll probably clear up tomorrow.
3 そんなに走って疲れただろう。
Sonna ni hashitte tsukareta darō.
Running like that, s.o. is surely tired.
4 高速道路の近くはうるさいだろう。
Kōsoku dōro no chikaku wa urusai darō.
It's probably noisy near the highway.
5 彼女はきっと綺麗だろう。
Kanojo wa kitto kirei darō.

doodoofan

She is surely beautiful.
6 彼は 10 年も日本に住んでいるので、日本語は上手だろう。
Kare wa jūnen mo Nihon ni sunde iru node, nihongo wa jōzu darō.
He's been living in Japan for as long as 10 years, so he is probably good at speaking Japanese.
C. NOTES:


P a g e | 13
The formal version of darō is deshō, and other than the degree of formality, these two terms can be used
interchangeably. The terms are often found together with probability adverbs such as tabun and kitto. When
using these types of adverbs with darō, the speaker sounds more certain than when not using such words.
The question particle ka is also often found used with darō. In these cases, the statement is conveyed in a
more indirect and softer fashion.
Lastly, when saying darō or deshō with rising intonation, the speaker is seeking the listener's agreement.

21. ている - te iru: be doing something, be in a state created before
Case i)
Dictionary form

Te-form Te-form + iru

泳ぐ

泳いで 泳いでいる

oyogu

oyoide oyoide ru

食べる

食べて 食べている

taberu

tabete

tabete iru

する

して

している

suru

shite

shite iru

English

is swimming
is eating
is doing

Case ii)
Dictionary form

Te-form Te-form + iru

ぬれる

ぬれて ぬれている

nureru

nurete

壊れる

壊れて 壊れている

English

(got wet and) still wet now

nurete iru

kowareru kowarete

(got broken and) it is broken now

kowarete iru

A. INTRODUCTION:

iru expresses the idea that (i) an action is progressing at the present time and that (ii) someone or something is
keeping that action in the same state.
To form this construction, simply attach the auxiliary verb iru to the te-form of any Japanese verb.
This iru has the same characteristics as a class 2 verb and is conjugated as such. Tabete iru is the plain form,
and becomes tabete imasu in the polite form.
When -te ita (～ていた ), the past tense of -te iru, is used, it expresses an action that was (i) progressing at
certain time in the past or (ii) someone or something was keeping the action in the same state for a period of
time in the past, and now that action is no longer in that state.
B. EXAMPLES:
(Case i)
上のお嬢さんは携帯で友達と話しています。
うえのおじょうさんはけいたいでともだちとはなしています。
Ue no ojōsan wa kētai de tomodachi to hanashite imasu.
(Your) older daughter is talking with a friend on the cellphone.
私は日曜日に日本語を勉強します。
わたしはにちようびににほんごをべんきょうします。
Watashi wa nichiyōbi ni Nihongo o benkyō shimasu.

doodoofan

I'll study Japanese on Sunday.
私は今、JapanesePod101.com で日本語を勉強しています。
わたしはいま、JapanesePod101.com でにほんごをべんきょうしています。
Watashi wa ima, JapanesePod101.com de Nihongo o benkyō shite imasu.
I'm studying Japanese now at JapanesePod101.com.
私が起きたとき、お母さんは、朝ごはんの用意をしていました。
Watashi ga okita toki, o-kā-san wa, asa go-han no yōi o shite imashita.


P a g e | 14

When I got up, my mother was making breakfast.
(Case ii)
ドアの鍵が閉まっています。
Doa no kagi ga shimatte imasu.
The door is locked.
(= Somebody locked the door, and it is still locked.)
さっき、君の車を見たとき、エンジンがかかっていたよ。
Sakki, kimi no kuruma o mita toki, enjin ga kakatte ita yo.
When I saw your car a while ago, it was running.
(= It maintained the state of powered.)

22. てください - te kudasai: please do something
* [te-from of a verb] ＋ kudasai.
Please do...
A. INTRODUCTION:
The formation of "te-form of verbs + kudasai" allows us to make polite requests. It is used to ask someone to
do something for you. It literally means "Please give me your doing of..."
B. EXAMPLES:
これを食べてください。
Kore o tabete kudasai.
Please eat this.
駅に来てください。
Eki ni kite kudasai.
Please come to the station.
この本を読んでください。
Kono hon o yonde kudasai.
Please read this book.

23. てはいけません /てはだめだ - te wa ikemasen/te wa dame da: you can't do
* te-form of a verb + は いけません/いけない

* te-form of a verb + は だめだ
= you can't do something, you should not do something.
A. INTRODUCTION:

doodoofan

The phrase te wa ikemasen is used to indicate that a certain action is not　acceptable or permitted. This phrase
is usually translated as "must not." It is sometimes translated as "cannot 　do something," but one should be
aware that this phrase is referring to the acceptability of the action and not the possibility of the the action
being executed. It is often used by a person of higher social status 　(e.g. teacher, parent, authorative figure,
etc.) or by someone standing on moral high ground (e.g. lecturing someone about smoking, etc.). As the user
of this phrase is advising the listening party of an unacceptable action, the polite tense is often used with this
phrase. However, the politeness level depends on the situation, the urgency of it, and the relationship and
social status of the parties involved.
In a conversation, "-te wa(ては)" is sometimes shortened to cha(ちゃ). So, you can say "～ちゃいけません" in
a daily conversation to tell the listener not to do something.
Also, as a casual variation, there is "--te wa dame da( ～てはだめだ)" or "-cha dame da(～ちゃだめだ)." It
literally means that "it is not good to do something" and it's translated as "you must not do something" or "you
should not do something."
B. EXAMPLES:
1.教室では食べてはいけません。


P a g e | 15
　Kyōshitsu de wa tabetewaikemasen.
　In the classroom, you can't eat.
2.ろうかを走ってはいけません。
　Rōka o hashitte wa ikemasen.
　You shouldn't run in the hall.
3.映画館では話してはいけません。

　Eigakan dewa hanashitewa ikemasen.
　You shouldn't talk in the theater.
4.うそをついてはだめだ。
　Uso o tsuite wa dame da.
　You must not lie.
5.遅刻しちゃだめだ。
　Chikoku shicha dame da.
　You shouldn't be late.

24. てもいい - te mo ii: may; it is alright
(V / adj-i / adj-na , N + Copula).te mo ii
Verb:
食べて　も　いい
tabete mo ii
may eat; it is alright to eat
adj-i:
冷たくて　も　いい
tsumetakute mo ii
it is alright if s.t. is cold
adj-na:
静か　で　も　いい
shizuka de mo ii
it is alright if s.t. is quiet
Noun:
学生　で　も　いい
gakusei de mo ii
it is alright if s.o. is a student
A. INTRODUCTION:
The phrase te mo ii has two major usages. (1) to give permission or express that something is alright, and (2)
to ask for permission to do something.

B. EXAMPLES:
1 ラジオを聞いてもいいです。
Rajio o kīte mo ii desu.
You can listen to the radio. (permisson)

doodoofan

2 ここで本を読んでもいいですか。
Koko de hon o yonde mo ii desu ka?
May I read a book here?
3 それが欲しいので、高くてもいいです。
Sore ga hoshii node, takakute mo ii desu.
I want it, so it's alright if it is expensive.


P a g e | 16
4 急いでいるから、タクシーでもいいです。
Isoide iru kara takushī demo ii desu.
I'm in a hurry, so a taxi is alright.
C. NOTES:
When the te mo ii phrase is attached to a verb, it expresses a request for permission, or giving permission.
When te mo ii is used with the negative te-form, it means "one does not have to do s.t." or "it is all right if s.t.
is not s.t.". Example:
1 今日、学校に行かなくてもいいですか。
Kyō, gakkō ni ikanakute mo ii desu ka?
Is it all right if I don't go to school today?
2 もう A さんに頼んだので、B さんじゃなくてもいいです。
Mō A-san ni tanonda node, B-san janakute mo ii desu.
I already asked A-san, so it is all right if it is not B-san.
Furthermore, more polite expressions, such as yoroshii and kamaimasen, can be used in place of ii to make the

phrase more polite. Example:
1 窓を開けてもよろしいですか。
Mado o akete mo yoroshii desu ka?
Would it be all right to (May I) open the window?

25. て形（動詞） - てけい（どうし） - te-kei: te-form - and, -ing
Class 1 verbs:
u/tsu/ru-verbs:
買う　→　買って
kau → katte
待つ　→　待って
matsu → matte
帰る　→　帰って
kaeru →　kaette
ku-verbs:
着く　→　着いて
tsuku → tsuite
Exception:
行く　→　行って
iku → itte
gu-verbs:
泳ぐ　→　泳いで
oyogu → oyoide
su-verbs:
殺す　→　殺して
korosu → koroshite

doodoofan

nu/bu/mu-verbs:

shinu → shinde
呼ぶ　→　呼んで
yobu → yonde
踏む　→　踏んで
fumu → funde

死ぬ　→　死んで


P a g e | 17
Class 2 verbs:
v.stem + te
出る　→　出て
deru → dete
Irregular verbs:
来る　→　来て
kuru → kite
する　 →　して
suru → shite
i-adjectives
final i becomes kute and can function as "and" connecting adjectives together or a conjunction linking clauses
together.
A. INTRODUCTION:
The te-form of verbs and i-adjectives is used to link sentences when the last verb or i-adjective of the clause is
in the te-form. "De" is considered the te-form of na-adjectives and the copula.
B. EXAMPLES:
私はピザを買って食べた。
Watashi wa piza o katte tabeta.
I bought a pizza and ate it.
私は階段の上に立って待った。

Watashi wa kaidan no ue ni tatte matta.
I stood on top of the stairs and waited.
私は家に帰って寝る。
Watashi wa ie ni kaette neru.
I'll go home and sleep.
私は絵を描いて壁に貼った。
Watashi wa e o kaite kabe ni hatta.
I painted a picture and hung it on the wall.
私は海へ行って、泳いだ。
Watashi wa umi e itte, oyoida.
I went to the sea and swam.
私は海で泳いで日焼けしてしまった。
Watashi wa umi de oyoide hiyake shite shimatta.
I swam in the sea and got a sunburn.
私は財布を落として、お金は全部なくなった。
Watashi wa saifu o otoshite, okane wa zenbu nakunatta.
I dropped my wallet and lost all my money.
私は映画を見て、ご飯を食べました。
Watashi wa eiga o mite, gohan o tabemashita.
I watched a movie and ate dinner.

doodoofan

C. NOTES:
Depending on context, the meaning of the te-form changes, but as stated earlier, it usually means "and". In
cases where the te-form is used to link two predicates, the relationship between these are among the
following:
1) The two predicates occur in sequence.
2) The two predicates explain two aspects, or properties of someone or something.

P a g e | 18
3) The first predicate expresses a reason or cause for the second predicate.
4) The first predicate explains the means of how the second predicate is achived.
5) The two predicates contrasts each other.

26. で (2) - de (2): by, with, using
Noun + de(で)
A. INTRODUCTION:
De is a particle that indicates meaning “using” or "by means of". It always follows the noun that is being used.
De is an extremely flexible particle, and can be used to indicate not only the use of concrete things such as
money, but also abstract things, such as time.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 電車で来ました。
Densha de kimashita.
I came by train.
2. 英語でいいですか。
Eigo de ii desu ka.
It is okay if I speak in English?
3. はさみで切ってください。
Hasami de kitte kudasai.
Please cut it with scissors.
4. スカイプで話しました。
Sukaipu de hanashimashita.
We talked over Skype.
5. このワイシャツは三百円で買いました。安いですね。
Kono waishatsu wa sanbyaku-en de kaimashita. Yasui desu ne.
I bought this shirt for 300 yen. Cheap, yeah?
6. 彼らは８ヶ月で約３万５千キロ飛びます。
Karera wa hakkagetsu de yaku san-man go-sen kiro tobimasu.

They will fly about 35,000 km in eight months.

27. で (1) - de(1): at, in, on (place)
location + de (で)
A. INTRODUCTION:
De is a particle used to indicate the location of an action. The performer of the action (the subject) is followed
by either of the particles wa or ga, and the place is followed by de.
B. EXAMPLES:
1 子供は公園で遊びます。
Kodomo wa kōen de asobimasu.
Children play in the park.
2 私は家で本を読みます。

doodoofan

Watashi wa ie de hon o yomimasu.
I read books at home.
C. NOTES:
“De” is not used together with “iru” or “aru” to indicate the location of something’s existence. (See に(6)),
である.)


P a g e | 19
However, this does rule does not hold true when the subject is an incident or event spread over a period of
time, such as a concert, meeting, performance, lecture, party, etc.
今夜、このバーで二次会がある。
Kon’ya, kono baa de nijikai ga aru.
This evening, there will be a [wedding] after-party in this bar.

28. で (3) - de (3): and, because

A. INTRODUCTION:
De is a particle that indicates a weak causal relationship between two conditions or events. It directly follows
noun phrases and na-adjectives, but cannot be used after i-adjectives, which have their own -te form.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. その町は静かで便利です。
Sono machi wa shizuka de benri desu.
That town is quiet and convenient.
2. 試合は雨で延期しました。
Shiai wa ame de enki shimashita.
The game was postponed because of rain.
3. 昨日はなんで来なかったのですか。
Kinō wa nan de konakatta no desu ka.
Why didn’t you come yesterday?
C. NOTES:
Because there is a weak causal relationship indicated by “de”, when used to list adjectives, it does have some
effect on their order. In example sentence #1, the quietness of the town adds to its overall “convenience” or
“goodness”, and the adjectives are therefore listed in this order. If the order were reversed, the sentence would
almost certainly be understood, but might sound awkward; in no way does convenience add to the quietness
of a town.
The particle de can be used not only to indicate a reason, as demonstrated here, but also a means of
accomplishing something. (See で(2).) Therefore, the extremely common Japanese question word “nan de”,
as seen in Example #3, is ambiguous in many cases.
なんで来たの？
Nande kita no?
How did you come here?/Why did you come here?

29. で (4) - de (4): at, on
Time + de (で)
A. INTRODUCTION:
De is a particle indicating the time when something ends. The particle is followed by an action, and it implies

that an opposite state has existed up until this time that this action takes place.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. そのレストランは午後五時で閉めます。早いですね。
Sono resutoran wa gogo go-ji de shimarimasu. Hayai desu ne.

doodoofan

That restaurant closes at 5 PM. Early, yeah?
2. ヨドバシカメラは九時で閉店します。
Yodobashi Kamera wa ku-ji de heiten shimasu.
Yodobashi Camera closes at 9 PM.

30. です - desu: to be (copula)
Present: Desu


P a g e | 20
Present negative: De(wa) arimasen / Ja arimasen
Past: Deshita
Past negative: De(wa) arimasen deshita / Ja arimasen deshita
A. INTRODUCTION:
desu is the most well-known of the Japanese copula. It may be used after nouns, i-adjectives and verbs in their
plain form. In many cases, desu serves no grammatical purpose, but is used only to make the statement more
polite.
Desu is a contracted form of the polite Japanese copula de gozaimasu, and has its own peculiar forms of
inflection, noted below.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 彼は管理人です。
Kare wa kanrinin desu.
He is the manager.

2. 私は学生じゃありません。
Watashi wa gakusei ja arimasen.
I am not a student.
3. 子供の頃、チョコレートは好きでした。でも魚は好きじゃありませんでした。
Kodomo no koro, chokorēto wa suki deshita. Demo, sakana wa suki ja arimasen deshita.
When I was a kid I liked chocolate. But I didn't like fish.
C. NOTES:
In spoken Japanese, "desu" is the moderately polite form of the copula. In written Japanese, "desu" is rather
informal, owing to the fact that statements using "desu" appear similar to spoken Japanese.
See also である.

31. と (2) - to (2): and, with, as
Noun + to(と) + Noun
A. INTRODUCTION:
The particle to（と） can be used to (i) connect nouns and pronouns, (ii) mark the party that the subject will do
something with, and (iii) to make comparisons.
B. EXAMPLES:
紙とえんぴつを出してください。
Kami to enpitsu o dashite kudasai.
Please take out paper and a pencil.
肉と魚が好きです。
Niku to sakana ga suki desu.
I like meat and fish.
本と新聞を読みます。
Hon to shinbun o yomimasu.
I read books and the newspaper.

doodoofan

C. NOTES:

When you use と to list nouns and noun phrases, it implies that your list is exhaustive.
青色と紫が好きです。
Ao-iro to murasaki ga suki desu.
I like blue and purple (and no other colors).
To make an inexhaustive list, use や or とか.
青色や紫が好きです。


P a g e | 21
Ao-iro ya murasaki ga suki desu.
I like blue and purple (among other colors).

32. どう - dō: how
1 - state of something or someone:
山田先生はどうですか。・Yamada-sensei wa dō desu ka? - How is Professor Yamada?
2- to suggest something:
お茶はどうですか。・Ocha wa dō desu ka? - How about tea? / Would you like some tea? / How is the tea?
3- この字をどう読みますか。・Kono ji o dō yomimasu ka? - How do you read this character?
A. INTRODUCTION:
"Dō" is an interrogative adverb used to ask about the state of someone or something, to suggest something, or
to ask about the way in which something is done. Examples of usage below.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 体の調子はどう？
Karada no chōshi wa dō?
(lit.) How is your condition? How are you doing?
2. 彼の意見はどう思いますか。
Kare no iken wa dō omoimasu ka?
What do you think of his opinion?
C. NOTES:
When speaking informal Japanese, dō can be used by itself when speaking about a common topic with what

follows inferred. It can also be the last spoken word of an interrogative sentence.
It's keigo form is ikaga, and both dō and ikaga can be used as a suggestive.
The expression dō shite is used as why when asking about reasons or causes.

33. どうして - dōshite: why
"どうして + Question"
A. INTRODUCTION:
dōshite ( どうし て ) is the interrogative word meaning "why." When it comes before a question, the speaker
wants to know the reason for something.
B. EXAMPLES:
どうして日本に行きましたか。
Dōshite Nihon ni ikimashita ka.
Why did you go to Japan?
どうして下山さんは東京に住んでいますか。
Dōshite Shimoyama-san wa Tōkyō ni sunde imasu ka.
Why does Mr. Shimoyama live in Tokyo?
どうして日本語を勉強していますか。
Dōshite Nihon-go o benkyō shite imasu ka.
Why are you studying Japanese?

doodoofan

34. どこ - doko: where?
A. INTRODUCTION:
"Doko" is the interrogative where, and is only used when introducing questions.
B. EXAMPLES:
1. 彼はどこですか。
Kare wa doko desu ka?

P a g e | 22
Where is he?
2. 日本はどこですか。
Nihon wa doko desu ka?
Where is Japan?
3. あなたはどこに住んでいますか。
Anata wa doko ni sunde imasu ka?
Where are you living?
C. NOTES:
Dochira is a polite interrogative meaning which direction, and can be used in place of doko to increase the
politeness level.

35. な (1) - na (1): don't do
Append na to the plain nonpast affirmative form of a verb:
V.plain nonpast + na
Class I - 行く・iku - to go
行く + な = 行くな - don't go!
iku + na = iku na - don't go!
Class II - 見る・miru - to look　
見る + な = 見るな - don't look
miru + na = miru na - don't look
Class III - する - to do
する + な = するな - don't do
suru + na = suru na - don't do
A. INTRODUCTION:
The negative imperative is an extremely strong imperative, and thus tends to be used mostly by males in very
informal speech, or by a superior to a subordinate in a social organization where the hierarchy of power and
one’s position in it are clearly established.
B. EXAMPLES:
1 ここでタバコを吸うな！

Koko de tabako o sū na.
Don't smoke here!
2 授業中は話をするな！
Jugyōchū wa hanashi o suru na.
Don't talk during the class.
3 お酒をのんだら運転するな！
Osake o nondara unten suru na.
Don't drive after you drink!
C. NOTES:
The addition of the yo particle actually softens this imperative.

doodoofan

36. なくて - nakute: is not - and -, do not do
Verb. inf. negative (without nai) + nakute
i-Adj. stem + ku nakute
na-Adj. stem/Noun + de wa nakute/ja nakute
A. INTRODUCTION:


P a g e | 23
"nakute" is the te-form of the negative "nai." It is often combined with the potential form of a verb. It is used
in a structure like "verb. inf. negative + nakute + main clause". In that case, the "nakute" phrase indicates a
cause or reason for what is expressed in the main clause.
B. EXAMPLES:
1 最初は英語が話せなくて困りました。
Saisho wa eigo ga hanasenakute komarimashita.
At first, I had trouble because I couldn't speak English.
2 そんなにいやなら、もう学校に行かなくていいです。
Sonna ni iyanara mō gakkō ni ikanakute iidesu.

You don't have to go to school if you hate it so much.
3 うまく歌えなくてはずかしい思いをした。
Umaku utaenakute hazukashii omoi o shita.
I couldn't sing well and was embarrassed.

37. な 形 容 詞 の 活 用 - な -け い よ う し の か つ よ う - na-keiyoushi no katsuyou:
na-adjectives conjugation
Plain Nonpast:
彼は静かだ。(Kare wa shizuka da. He is quiet.)
Plain Nonpast Negative
彼は静かではない。(Kare wa shizuka de wa nai. He is not quiet.)
彼は静かじゃない。(Kare wa shizuka ja nai.)
*じゃ/ja　is a contraction of では/de wa and is more colloquial than では/de wa
Plain Past:
彼は静かだった。（Kare wa shizuka datta. He was quiet.）
Plain Past Negative:
彼は静かではなかった。(Kare wa shizuka de wa nakatta. He was not quiet.)
Polite Nonpast:
彼は静かです。(Kare wa shizuka desu. He is quiet.)
Polite Nonpast Negative:
彼は静かではないです。(Kare wa shizuka de wa nai desu. He is not quiet.)
彼は静かじゃないです。(Kare wa shizuka ja nai desu.)
彼は静かではありません。(Kare wa shizuka de wa arimasen.)
彼は静かじゃありません。(Kare wa shizuka ja arimasen.)
Polite Past:
彼は静かでした。(Kare wa shizuka deshita. He was quiet.)
Polite Past Negative:
彼は静かではなかったです。(Kare wa shizuka de wa nakatta desu. He was not quiet.)
彼は静かじゃなかったです。(Kare wa shizuka ja nakatta desu.)
彼は静かではありませんでした。(Kare wa shizuka dewa arimasen deshita.)

doodoofan

彼は静かじゃありませんでした。(Kare wa shizuka ja arimasen deshita.)
Prenominal form
静かな夜(shizuka na yoru; quiet night)
A. INTRODUCTION:
Na-adjectives derive their name from the fact that a "na" is inserted between the adjective and noun the
adjective is modifying. This results in the pattern "adjective + na + noun".


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Na-adjectives are negated by suffixing them with "de [wa] nai".
B. EXAMPLES:
マリナの部屋はあまりきれいではありません。
Marina no heya wa amari kirei de wa arimasen.
Marina's room is not so clean.
サトシは、算数が得意じゃない。
Satoshi wa, sansū ga tokui ja nai.
Satoshi is not good at math.
父は、若いころ、とても頑固だった。
Chichi wa, wakai koro, totemo ganko datta.
My father was very stubborn when he was young.
私は、学生のときは、勉強熱心ではなかったです。
Watashi wa, gakusei no toki wa, benkyō nesshin de wa nakatta desu.
I was not hardworking when I was a student.
どうぞ素敵な夜をお過ごしください。
Dōzo suteki na yoru o o-sugoshi kudasai.
Have a great night.
新宿はとてもにぎやかな街です。

Shinjuku wa totemo nigiyaka na machi desu.
Shinjuku is a rockin' town.

38. に - ni: in; at; on; to
A. INTRODUCTION:
"Ni" is a particle primarily used to indicate the spatial or temporal position or range of an action or existence.
More specifically, "ni" is used in the following cases:
1) to indicate the time that a certain action occurs; "at"
2) to indicate the location that something exists at while performing an action; "in"
3) to indicate the aim, target or purpose; "to", "for"
4) to indicate destination of a movement or the recipient of a giving verb; "to"
5) to indicate cause; "due to"
6) to indicate the basis of a comparison (including that of fractions and percentages); "of", "as", "to"
7) to indicate the agent of a (passive) verb; "by"
8) to indicate that something meets a given set of criteria; "as"
9) to indicate the resultant state of some change; "into"
10) to indicate the manner in which something exists, or an action is conducted; "-ly"
11) in the form "~ni wa~ga", where ~ represents the same inflectable word in its predicative form, "ni"
indicates conditional consent. The action/state that is consented to falls before the "ni" particle, and is repeated
again between the "wa" and "ga" particles. The statement containing the condition follows the "ga" particle.
12) in the form "Verb.masu-stem ni Verb", "ni" indicates that the degree of that verb is extremely high, and
serves to emphasize the strength of that verb.

doodoofan

B. EXAMPLES:
1. 三時に会いましょう。
San-ji ni aimashou.
Let's meet at 3 o'clock.
2. 私は、今、東京に住んでいます。

Watashi wa, ima, Tōkyō ni sunde imasu.


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I'm living in Tokyo now.
3. 神戸へ食べに行こう。
Kōbe e tabe ni ikou.
Let's go to Kobe to get something to eat.
4. 良い大学に入りたい。
Ii daigaku ni hairitai.
I want to get into a good university.
5. 彼女の誕生日の祝いに小包を送った。
Kanojo no tanjōbi no iwai ni kozutsumi wo okutta.
I sent her a package for her birthday.
6. あなたの筆跡は私のに似ている。
Anata no hisseki wa watashi no ni nite iru.
Your handwriting is similar to mine.
7. 先生にほめられた。
Sensei ni homerareta.
I was praised by the teacher.
8. 誕生日プレゼントに手袋をもらった。
Tanjōbi purezento ni tebukuro o moratta.
I received gloves as a birthday present.
9. 彼女は婚約したら幸せになるでしょう。
Kanojo wa kon'yaku shitara shiawase ni naru deshou.
She'll be happy when she gets engaged.
10. ブランコが上下に動いている。
Buranko ga jōge ni ugoite iru.
The swing is moving up and down.
11. 行くには行くが、しばらく待ってくれ。

Iku ni wa iku ga, shibaraku matte kure.
I *am* going, but please, just give me a minute.
12. 私は待ちに待ったが、ついにジョンがやってきた。
Watashi wa machi ni matta ga, tsui ni Jon ga yatte kita.
I waited and waited, and at last John arrived.

39. にする - ni suru: decide on, make it
* Noun + ni suru (にする)
A. INTRODUCTION:
Suru（する）means to do, to make, to play, to wear depending on the context. When suru （する）is preceded by
the particle ni（に）, it means "decided on ---" or "make it ---."
B. EXAMPLES:
1 A: 今日は何にしますか。

doodoofan

Kyō wa nani ni shimasu ka?
What have you decided on? (= What will you have?)
B: 私は焼き肉にします。
Watashi wa yakiniku ni shimasu.
I've decided on grilled meat. (= I'll have grilled meat.)
2 A: 今回はどこにしますか。