MUSIC IN THE BUDDHIST CEREMONY OF GIVING ALMS TO THE DEAD OF THE VIET PEOPLE COMPARISON OF CASES OF HUE AND HO CHI MINH CITY

VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

PHAM HONG LINH

MUSIC IN THE BUDDHIST CEREMONY OF
GIVING ALMS TO THE DEAD OF THE VIET PEOPLE COMPARISON OF CASES OF HUE
AND HO CHI MINH CITY

MAJOR

: FOLK CULTURE

MAJOR CODE

: 62 22 01 30

SUMMARY OF DOCTORAL THESIS
IN CULTURAL STUDIES

HANOI - 2016


The work is completed in:
Department of Cultural Studies
Graduate Academy of Social Sciences

Scientific Supervisor
Associate Prof. Dr. Nguyen Thuy Loan

Reviewer 1: Associate Prof. Dr. Bui Huyen Nga

Reviewer 2: Associate Prof. Dr. Pham Trong Toan
Reviewer 3: Associate Prof. Dr. Nguyen Quang Hung

The thesis will be uphold under the criticism of Graduate
Academy’s Thesis Censor Council at Graduate Academy of Social
Sciences, No. 477 Nguyen Trai, Thanh Xuan District, Ha Noi at ..... date
.....month..... year 2016.

The thesis is available at:
- Library of Graduate Academy of Social Sciences
- Vietnam National Library


INTRODUCTION
1. Reason of choosing the thesis topic
Buddhism is a kind of religious culture that has extensive influence in
the spiritual life of some ethnic groups in Vietnam. Buddhist music is an
indispensable component in the rituals of Buddhism. That is one of the
objects of cultural studies in general and of Buddhist culture in particular.
In my process of researching into Hue Buddhist music, I noticed that
there had been a mutual relation between Buddhism in Hue and that in Ho
Chi Minh City (HCMC) through exchange monks and practice documents
to give alms to the death in two regions. That relationship suggested me
some questions related to Buddhism in general and Buddhist music in
particular in two regions that were far from each other.
They urged me to learn about the similarities and differences in
Buddhist music between these two regions. This was one of aspects
performing regional culture- an area that had been attracting the attention of
some researchers.
We just focused on researching the music played in the Buddhish

ceremony of giving alms to the dead (TDCT) in Hue and HCMC for some
reasons: Firstly, in the ritual system of Mahayana Buddhism, TDCT was
one of ceremonies that had the largest scale, frequent usage and extensive
influence on cultural and spiritual life of the Viet community throughout the
country. Secondly, in comparison to other types of ceremonial music of
Mahayana Buddhism, the music in TDCT ceremony could make the most
use of Buddhist musical elements and was considered as a typical musical
phenomenon of Vietnamese Buddhism. Thirdly, Hue and HCMC were the
cultural centers of both the Central and the South, where demonstrated the
most cultural characteristics of each region.
Therefore, “Music in the Buddhist Ceremony of Giving Alms to the
Death of the Viet people - Comparison of cases of Hue and Ho Chi Minh
city” was chosen to the thesis topic.
2. Purposes and tasks of the thesis
2.1. Reseach purposes
- In-depth research on concrete expressions of the similarities,
differences and characteristics of the music played in the TDCT ceremony
of the Viet people in Hue and HCMC.
- Research contribution to clarify some aspects related to domestic
cultural regions through a specific phenomenon, that was the music played
in TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in the two cities.
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- Research and conclusion on some theoretical issues of culture and
religious culture that were related to the similarities, differences and
characteristics of the music played in TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in
Hue and HCMC.
2.2. Research tasks
Comprehensive surveys and in-depth interviews were conducted on

people who had profound knowledge about TDCT ceremony of the Viet
people and its cultural aspects, especially its music, in Hue and HCMC.
Collected data from the field, including audio materials, photographs,
interviews and written documents related to the research subject, was handled
and analyzed. The characteristics of the natural environment, society and
history, as well as interior factors in each region were analyzed, compared
and considered their impacts on the music played in TDCT ceremony of the
Viet people in two places.
3. Objects and scopes of the study
3.1. Research objects
Reseach object of the thesis is the music played in the TDCT
ceremony of the Viet people and its cultural aspects.
3.2. Research scopes
- In space: The thesis focuses on the study of the Vietnamese TDCT
ceremony held in Hue and HCMC. On both places, we conducted survey on
TDCT ceremony at various locations and performed by the different groups of
monks and artists. The survey conducted in different locations and groups
would give the thesis author an overview of the actual musical performance in
a TDCT ceremony and thereby the author would collect a source of more
diverse, completed and accurate information.
- In time: We based on the fieldwork resources collected from actual
musical performances of the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and
HCMC from 1990 to 2014.
4. Research methods
- Method of field research and data collection from the field: We paid
special attention to this method because it was the main method to collect
data for the thesis. In the field, we carried out some tasks such as: attending,
observing, taking notes, making interviews and retrospective interviews,
filming, recording, doing photography.
- Method of doing researches and data processing: the methods such

as analysis, synthesis, statistics, comparison, systematization and
summarizing would be used in primary and secondary data processing in
order to draw out some scientific assessments and assumptions to be used
as the rationale in the thesis chapters.
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- Method of interdisciplinary research: We use the method of
interdisciplinary research between cultural studies and musicology to approach
and solve the problems of musicology and cultural studies related to research
objects, particularly those identified in chapter 2 and chapter 3 of the thesis.
5. Thesis contributions
5.1. In theory
This is the first overall and in-depth research on the music played in
the Buddhist Ceremony of Giving Alms to the Death (Trai đàn chẩn tế
ceremony) in Hue and Ho Chi Minh City under the cutural and musical
perspectives; Present the concrete expressions of the similarity and
difference of the music played in the Buddhist Ceremony of Giving Alms to
the Death of the Viet people in Hue and Ho Chi Minh City, thus indicate
the diversity of Buddhist music of the Viet people in Vietnam; Clearify the
prominent features of music in the Buddhist Ceremony of Giving Alms to
the Death of the Viet people in Hue and Ho Chi Minh City; Indicate the
cultural elements that effect the similarity and difference of music in the
Buddhist Ceremony of Giving Alms to the Death of the Viet people in the
two regions; Contribute some aspects relating to the theory of regional
culture and supplements the arguments for the diversity of regional cultural
identity and the elements creating the difference of the cultural regions
through a concrete cultural phenomenon, namely the music played in the
Buddhist Ceremony of Giving Alms to the Death of the Viet people in Hue
and Ho Chi Minh City; Contribute more arguments for the theory of the

interactive relations among court, folk and Buddhist cultures that are
demonstrated not only in music but also in the other fields of culture.
5.2. In practice
Bringing about more profound understanding on a music culture which
is still unpopular; Contributing to the sciences of musicology, cultural studies
and religious studies the new documents and new research outputs on this
topic; This thesis will be a source of reference to the research and teaching in
musicology, cultural studies and religious studies.
6. Thesis layout
In addition to Introduction, Conclusion, Reference Resouces and
Appendices, the thesis content is divided into three chapters:
Chapter 1: Overview of the aspects related to research objects of the thesis
Chapter 2: Similarities, differences and characteristics of the music
played in the ceremony of giving alms to the dead of the Viet people in Hue
and Ho Chi Minh City.
Chapter 3: Some theoretical issues learnt from the music played in the
ceremony of giving alms to the dead of the Viet people in Hue and Ho Chi
Minh City.
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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE ASPECTS RELATED TO RESEARCH
OBJECTS OF THE THESIS
1.1. The Buddhist ceremony of giving alms to the dead in Vietnam
1.1.1. Overview of the Buddhist ceremony of giving alms to the dead
1.1.1.1. The name
TDCT is the name of one of the biggest ceremonies of giving alms in
Mahayana Buddhism. That name is widely popular in the spiritual life of
the Viet people in Hue and HCMC. Depending on each region, this

ceremony has different names. TDCT is the common name used by the
monks and Buddhists in the South of Vietnam from Hue. In Northern
Vietnam, this ceremony is often called
, someti
.
1.1.1.2. Purpose and meaning
TDCT is a ceremony in which people make a large boat holding
vegetarian food and water for thousands of hungry demons and ghosts
which have neither support nor worship, both on land and underwater. The
humanistic meaning of the TDCT ceremony is to raise the kindness and to
remind that people should have love to not only their family and relatives
but also to the dead, the ghosts that have no place to rely on. In TDCT
ceremony, moral values of gratitude, piety toward parents, grandparents
and ancestors are also reminded.
1.1.1.3. Origin
The TDCT ceremony was originated from India associated with the
story of Amanda’s meeting with Diem Khau demon. In Vietnam, although
the original time of this ceremony is unknown, nowadays, in Mahayana
Buddhism temples in Hue and HCMC, monks still maintain the ritual of
“
(reciting mantras to convert human food
and beverage into demon ones) in the afternoon rituals. In China, this
ceremony is known by sev
is the most popular name to Vietnam. Based on the name and some
other aspects such as Buddhist tools, singing types, song names which are
used in the ceremony, it can be concluded that the TDCT ceremony of the
Viet people in Vietnam has an intimate relationship with that in China.
1.1.1.4. The process of appearance, expansion and development
Historically, the TDCT ceremony was originated from India,
transmitted to China and then imported into Vietnam. In Vietnam, as the

arrival of the Viet people in each region was different, the formation and
4


development of the TDCT ceremony in each region were different too. In
Northern part, the TDCT ceremony was popular in Thang Long Citadel
from the Tran Dynasty. In Middle part - Hue, along with the historical
process of moving to the South of the Viet people, the TDCT ceremony had
appeared in these areas. It was not until Gia Long dynasty (1802 - 1820),
the TDCT ceremony in Hue had become a complete ritual, taken place in
large scale and officially become a national ceremony organized by the
court in some national temples. In HCMC, according to many sources,
Buddhism and Buddhist rituals of the Viet appeared early in the Southern
part. Today, in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in HCMC, the
“
” of Hue is the most frequently used
material.
1.1.1.5. Process of implementation
In the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and H
(providing alms to the dead) and a system
of compulsory rituals perf
, “nghi

ceremony, “
,p
,“
”
ceremony, “
ceremony.
1.1.1.6. General features

a) In scale: Depending on the environments and circumstances, the
ceremony of giving alms to the dead is held in a
(small ceremony), “Trung khoa” (normal cere
(big ceremony). b) In time: The TDCT ceremony can be
organized at any time of the year depending on the circumstances of each
temple and the need of Buddhist families. c) In location: The TDCT
ceremony can be held at home, church, cemetery, temple yard or a large
airy and clean space. d) In ceremony participants: When implementing the
TDCT ceremony, participants are included: one to three senior monks to
witness the boat of vegetarian food and beverage, a monk giving mantras; a
monk committee including six to eight monks; Buddhists; a music
ceremonial team and a monk to arrange and hosting the ceremony. đ) In
venue decoration:
means the ve
of TDCT ceremony is designed in largest scale in comparison to
other application rituals of Mahayana Buddhism. “
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is the place to worshi
is the surrounding space of the Buddhist shrine so its scale is installed in
the model of Mandala Buddhist Tantric.
1.1.2. Overview of the music played in the Buddhist ceremony of
giving alms to the dead
Wherever the TDCT ceremony takes place in Vietnam, there are the same
basic musical features such as Buddhist tools, musical instruments, singing
types and song melodies, instrumental tunes. In Buddhist tools: In the musical
performance of the TDCT ceremony, Buddhist tools have musical
characteristics - musical instruments used by Buddhist monks. The compulsory
tools include: “

(
(flapper),
. In musical instruments: Depending on different areas,
the main instruments include binary, trumpet, drum and each region may have
different musical instruments. In singing types: In TDCT ceremony of the Viet
people in Hue and HCMC, there are 12 singing types: “bạch”, “đọc” (reading),
“hô” (shouting), “ngâm”, “niệm”, “nói” (speaking), “tán”, “thán”, “thỉnh”,
“tụng” (chanting), “vịnh xướng”. In instrumental melodies and tunes: In the
ceremony, in addition to singing types performed by the monks, there are also
other supports of instrumental melodies and tunes performed by artists. At each
location, the application methods of instrumental melodies and tunes in the
ceremony are very different.
1.2. Research process of the music played in the Buddisht
ceremony of giving alms to the dead of the Viet people in Hue and Ho
Chi Minh City
1.2.1. Phasing of the research period
1.2.1.1. Period of 1965 - 1981
In this period, there was no works about the music played in the TDCT
ceremony of the Viet people. There were only two articles on Buddhist music
in general of author Nguyen Huu Ba and author Thich Nhat Hanh . In
general, the references in this period did not have in-depth analysis of specific
aspects in Buddhist music of Vietnam.
1.2.1.2. Period of 1982 - 1999
In this period, the number of articles and works on Buddhist ceremonial
music, music history containing some elements related to the music played in
6


TDCT ceremony of the Viet people had increased in comparison to the
previous period. In particular, there were two first monographs written about

the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Gia Dinh - Saigon, which had
mentioned some musical aspects used in this ceremony.
The materials on Buddhism, music history and Buddhist music history
contained some elements related to the music played in the TDCT ceremony of
the Viet people. The monograph on the TDCT ceremony was “Trai đ
Gia Dinh – Saigon” published by Huynh Ngoc Trang and Nguyen Van Sanh,
mentioning about musical instruments, musical tools and singing types in the
TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in HCMC. However, the above mentioned
aspects just covered in description.
1.2.1.3. Period of 2000 - 2014
This period saw the appearance of several long-term projects,
including three works on theTDCT ceremony in Hue and the South, two
works on Buddhist music in Hue.
Overall, this period began to attract the attention of researchers not
only in the rituals and ceremonial music of the TDCT ceremony of the Viet
people but also in the Buddhist music in general. The authors researched the
objects in cultural practice environment with multiple relationships and
interactions among them. This was shown most clearly in two monographs
on Hue LNPG. For instance, in the monograph of Pham Hong Linh, the
authors had clarified many Hue Buddhist music problems from the
perspectives of musicology and cultural studies, such as Buddhist tools and
musical instruments, scales and instrumental music, song systems,
melodies, method of coordination among Buddhist tools, musical
instruments and singing types, the characteristics of Hue Buddhist
ceremonial music and the role of Hue Buddhist ceremonial music in Hue
traditional culture and music.
1.2.2. Mentioned issues
1.2.2.1. Aspects in the field of cultural studies
These aspects relate to Buddhist music in general, and closely relate to
the music played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in two places.

These include: Origin of Buddhist ceremonial music; Buddhish conception
of music; Meaning and usage of Buddish tools; Rituals in Buddhist
oratorio; Location, time and participants of the oratorio; Purposes and
characteristics of the oratorio; Relationship between the ceremony and the
7


music; Relationship between Buddhist ceremonial music and traditional
music; Role of Buddhist ceremonial music in the cultural and spiritual life.
1.2.2.2. Aspects in the field of musical studies
There are eight mentioned aspects. They are: singing types and song
systems, tunes; Scales - tunes; Buddhish tools, musical instruments;
Structure of the orchestra; Coordinating methods between Buddhish and
singing types; Coordinating methods between musical instruments and
vocal music; Coordinating methods between Buddhish tools, musical
instruments and vocal music; Applications of instrumental music in the
ceremonial performance. Among the above mentioned aspects, there are
some aspects directly related to the music played in the TDCT ceremony of
the Viet people in Hue and HCMC. They are: singing types, instrumental
music, tunes, Buddhist tools, musical instruments and applications in
instrumental music in the ceremonial performance.
Overall, the findings of previous authors have presented a
comprehensive understanding about the Buddhist music in Vietnam and
contained more or less information related to the music played in the TDCT
ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and HCMC. These are important
contributions in term of both references and academics.
1.2.3. Remaining issues
Besides the contributions, some works and articles still have some
remaining issues discussed below.
1.2.3.1. Incompleted researches

Some issues have not been adequately researched such as: singing
types, Buddhist tools and and musical instruments; songs, tunes; application
of instrumental music in the ceremony; method of cooperation between
instrumental music and vocal music in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet
people in Hue and HCMC.
1.2.3.2. Disunited issues
Some aspects have not been united among authors, such as: the
classification of singing types in the LNPG in Vietnam; the classification of
singing type of the LNPG in Hue; the classification of songs in the South.
1.2.3.3. Inaccurate points
Some statements are not accurat
(songs); definitions of
(song types); instrumental music played in
the ceremony; method of coordination between instrumental music and
vocal music; cases of using the orchestra and environments of using
instrumental music.
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The remaining issues mentioned in the three above groups are the
aspects to be studied and addressed in this thesis. In addition, the issues will
also be addressed in the chapters of the thesis, such as the music played in
the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and Ho Chi Minh City; the
similarities, differences and characteristics of the music played in the TDCT
celebration of the Viet people in two places; the cultural factors impacting
the similarities and differences between the music played in the TDCT
ceremony of the Viet in two places as indicated in the thesis purpose.
1.2.4. Rationale
To achieve the thesis purposes, in addition to inheriting the findings
from multiple sources of other authors, making use of the experience and

knowledge accumulated from fieldwork, we also consider the views of
culture and musicology as the rationale for the relevant sections of the
thesis as following:
1.2.4.1. For the theoretical issues of culture and regional culture
To address theoretical issues of culture and regional culture related to the
similarities, differences and characteristics of the music played in the TDCT
ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and HCMC, we conducted researches and
surveys under the scientific guidance of the scientific supervisor, specifically
following her statments in the works “L
” and “
”. Besides, we also refered to the work
” of Prof. Ngo Duc Thinh, “
” of Ly Tung Hieu and “
” of the National Research Center.
1.2.4.2. For the interactive relationship between cultural currents
The view of author Nguyen Thuy Loan in the article “
” (Religious belief and traditional music) was
also a direction for us to learn about the interactive relationship between
Buddhism music and court - traditional music. On that basis, we would
learn more about the interactive relationship among the court culture, folk
culture and Buddhist culture.
1.2.4.3. For aspects of musicology
Referring to aspects of musicology in this thesis, we use the following
terminologies and concepts: “
” (songs), “
” (tunes), “
”
(variants), “
” (traditional musical instruments), “
” (ethnic musical instruments), “

” (court music),
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“
” (scholarly music), “â
” (folk music),
“
” (ancient music), “
” (national music),
“
” (traditional music) provided by Assoc Pro. Dr.
Nguyen Thuy Loan in the curriculum “
” to
identify and classify the phenomena related to the music played in the
TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in the two research places.
Minor conclusion of Chapter 1
The TDCT ceremony in Vietnam was originated from India. Over
time, this ceremony was ingrained in the cultural and spiritual life of the
Viet population in every part. From 1990 to 2014, the TDCT ceremony of
the Viet people in Hue and HCMC took place regularly in growing scales to
meet the growing demand of the cultural and spiritual life of the majority of
Buddhists. Comparing to other music played in Mahayana Buddhism
ceremonies, the music played in the TDCT ceremony has the largest
number of singing types, songs, tunes, Buddhist music tools and it also
represents the combination of national music and Buddhist music.
Up to now, there has not been an in-depth work, article studied about
the music played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and
HCMC in aspect of both musicology and cultural studies. Many projects,
researches studied about the TDCT ceremony and Buddhist music in

general, including some parts indirectly or directly related to the music
played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and HCMC;
however, they only covered the description of singing types, Buddhist tools
and musical instruments. In addition to these contributions, the work of
previous authors still had some remaining issues.
CHAPTER 2
SIMILARITIES, DIFFERENCES AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE MUSIC PLAYED IN THE CEREMONY OF GIVING ALMS
TO THE DEAD OF THE VIET PEOPLE IN HUE AND HO CHI
MINH CITY
2.1. Similarities
2.1.1. Similarities in concept and purpose of using music
In practice, the ceremony in both Hue and HCMC must adhere to the
provisions of the LNPG in general and that is the reason why the concept
and purpose of the music played in the TDCT ceremony of two places
remains the same.
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2.1.2. Similarities in the majority of Buddhist tools, musical
instruments and their functions
2.1.2.1. Similarities in type and function of Buddhist tools
In the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in both localities, Buddhist
musical tools used by monks include: “đại hồng chung, chuông gia trì, chuông
báo chúng, đại cổ, trống kinh, tang, linh, mõ, bảng, khánh, phủ xích”. In
practice, these Buddhist tools are considered as musical instruments.
Depending on the content of each ritual step, each Buddhist tool can be used
alone or in combination with others following certain standards.
2.1.2.2. Major similarities in type and function of musical instruments
Overall, the majority of musical instruments used in the TDCT ceremony

of the Viet people in Hue and HCMC shares some similarities. They are: “kèn,
nhị, nhị hồ, trống kinh, trống chiến, trống bản, chập chõa, mõ thuộc các họ
nhạc khí dây, hơi, màng rung” and “họ thân vang”. During the ceremony in
both localities, the aforementioned musical instruments have the functions
of supporting ceremony rhythms, signaling transitions, providing
background music when the monks move, worshiping, bridging the
transition of singing types and providing backing music for vocal music in
forms of “đệm phức điệu tương phản” (contrasting backing music) and
“đệm tòng”.
2.1.3. Similarities in some aspects related to vocal music and
instrumental music
2.1.3.1. Similarities in vocal music
a) Similarities in numbers and names of the main singing type
b) Similarities in name and content of the songs:
2.1.3.2. Similarities in the minor instrumental music
Among the songs used in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in
two localities, there are 6 songs with the same name. They are: “Nam ai,
Ngũ đối hạ, Bình bán, Lưu thủy, Kim tiền, Xuân nữ”, in which “Lưu thủy,
Kim tiền” and “Xuân nữ” - with the same name and similar melodies.
2.1.4. Similarities in order and usage of the music in the ceremony
2.1.4.1. Similarities in song order
Each step in the ceremony is illustrated by the content of a specific song.
During the ceremony, the number of steps is relative to the number of songs
with corresponding contents. As both localities have the same rituals, the
order of songs used in the TDCT ceremony in two localities is exactly alike.
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2.1.4.2. Similarities in instrumental music
To play the music in the TDCT celebration of the Viet people in Hue

and HCMC, monks and artists often use “hơi Thiền”, “hơi Khách”, “hơi
Xuân” and “hơi Ai”. “Hơi Thiền” expresses the solemn, soothing, deep
characteristic. “Hơi Khách” expresses the solemn, pure, peaceful, joyful,
sometimes active, magnificent characteristic. “Hơi Xuân” expresses the
solemn, leisurely, soothing, slightly sadcharacteristic. “Hơi Ai” expresses
the sad, painful, lingering characteristic.
2.1.4.3. Similarities in usage of songs, vocal melodies and
instrumental music
During the ceremony, depending on the content and characteristic of each
ceremonial step, the monks will use suitable songs, vocal melodies matching
with instrumental music. “Hơi Thiền” is often associated with songs, vocal
melodies with the content of worshiping the Buddha, Bodhisattvas. “Hơi Ai” is
associated with songs, vocal melodies with the content of the dead world, the
gratitude to parents, and the worship to ghost spirits...
2.1.5. Similarities in rituals related to the oratorio
2.1.5.1. For the host of the oratorio
Before the ceremonial oratorio, the host and monks have to do some
mantras such as “Tịnh pháp giới chân ngôn”, “Tịnh tam nghiệp chân ngôn”...
During the ceremony, “trì tụng chú Đại bi” must be recited so that the
performance and power of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva can give the host and
monks a peaceful mind.
2.1.5.2. For the artists in the oratorio
Prior to the ceremony, musical artists must have vegetarian food, “no sex”
to keep a pure body and mind; musical instruments must be thoroughly prepared,
“no practice prior to the ceremony”. When implementing the ceremonial music, a
representative must worship for permission to perform the oratorio.
2.1.5.3. For types of Buddhist tools
To increase the solemn and sacred characteristics, all Buddhist tools used
in the ceremony of giving alms to the dead must be recited by the host: “thư, ấn
chú, quán tưởng, niệm chúa”. Among the Buddhist tools used by the monks,

“phủ xích” and “linh” are recited in the most complicated and mysterious way
by the host. In addition, “đàn tràng” and some other Buddhist tools such as “y”
and “mũ” of the host are also thoroughly recited by the monks.
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2.2. Differences
2.2.1. Differences in the minor instrumental music in the orchestra
structure
Apart from musical instruments of the same category as mentioned
in subsection 2.1.2., the orchestra playing in the TDCT ceremony in Hue
uses extra “sáo trúc” (flute), that in HCM has some other musical
instruments such as “đàn sến, thanh la, song lang, chập chõa nhỏ” and
“tum”. In general, the difference in musical instruments in the TDCT
ceremony of the Viet people between the two localities is insignificant.
Apart from a few mentioned differences in instruments in this subsection,
there are some differences in material, shape, size and name of some
musical instruments of the same category.
2.2.2. Differences in number, nuance and melody of some singing types
There are some differences in the classification of singing types
between Hue and HCMC. Specifically, In speaking type: While Hue monks
only use one speaking type called “nói pháp ngữ”, HCMC monks use five
different types such as “nói suông, nói tướng, nói bóp, nói thường” and “nói
giáo”. In reciting type: While Hue monks usually base on the rhythm period
of “tang” and “mõ” to divide the reciting type into three categories such as
“tán rơi, tán xắp” and “tán trạo”, HCMC monks base on many different
characteristics to classify the reciting type into eight categories such as “tán
thiền, tán ngoại gian, tán tẩu mã, tán xóc, tán dẫn, tán điệu, tán cách”.
2.2.3. Differences in the usage of singing types
2.2.3.1. Differences in application of singing types for corresponding

rituals in the ceremony of giving alms to the dead
The usage of singing types in the corresponding steps in TDCT
ceremony in Hue and HCMC is largely different. The singing type in the
same ritual in two places may have some differences, for example: in “tham
lễ Giác Hoàng” ritual, “thán thiền” and “nói pháp ngữ” are used in Hue
while “nói bóp” and “nói tướng” are used HCMC.
2.2.3.2. Differences in application of singing types for
”, “ ”
with the same name
All “bài kệ, chú”... used in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in
two localities have the same name, but most of them have differences in the
application of singing types. Therefore, many “bài kệ, chú”... will have
completely different melodies.
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2.2.4. Differences in names and melodies of the majority of
instrumental music
In the above-mentioned songs, between Hue and HCMC, except for the
cases of “Xuân nữ”, “Lưu thủy” and “Kim tiền” with the name and melodies
as described in subsection 2.1.3., the remaining songs all have completely
different melodies despite their same or different names.
2.2.5. Differences in cooperation of musical instruments, Buddhist tools
and singing types
The music played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in two
localities has differences not only in singing types but also in the method of
coordination with other musical instruments and Buddhist tools. The
differences are reflected in four aspects: the number of Buddhist tools in
collaboration with vocal music; the number of instrumental music in
collaboration with vocal music; the group of musical instruments to create

melodies when they are in combination with vocal music; the group of musical
instruments to create rhythm when they are in combination with vocal music.
2.2.6. Differences in usage of all instrumental music in support for
the rituals
Between Hue and HCMC, although people have the same ritual, the
application of instrumental music to support for the ceremonial steps (rituals) is
not the same. The difference is reflected not only in the number and types of all
songs but also in the methods of cooperation with the rituals.
2.2.6.1. In number of songs and types
While there are more than 28 songs in “Đại nhạc” and “Tiểu nhạc”
types in Hue, people only use about 13 songs in three types of folk
ceremonial music, “Hát bội” and “Đờn ca Tài tử” in HCMC.
2.2.6.2. In methods of performance
In long rituals, artists in Hue often combine multiple songs in
continuous performance in which songs are played interconnectedly. Unlike
Hue, artists in HCMC often use separate songs. If the ritual lasts for a long
time, the artists will repeat the song.
2.2.7. Differences in cooperation between instrumental music and
vocal music
2.2.7.1. Differences in usage of instrumental songs in combination
with vocal music
In instrumental music, there is a small amount of songs played as
backing music for vocal music, such as: “Ngũ đối hạ, Bình bán, Nam xuân,
Nam ai, Xuân nữ”. In addition, in Hue and HCMC, each place has some
own versions. Apart from some cases using the same song to play as
14


backing music for vocal music, people also use different instrumental songs
to play as backing music for the same songs in each place.

2.2.7.2. Differences in the methods of cooperation between
instrumental music and vocal music in the majority of songs with the
same name
In the TDCT ceremony, there are two popular methods of cooperation
between instrumental music and vocal music. They are: “đệm tòng” method
which plays as backing music for the melodies of vocal music and “đệm
theo kiểu phức điệu tương phản” which uses instrumental music mentioned
in previous subsection to play as backing music for vocal music. In this
case, there is a parallel coordination in the separate melodies between
singing music and instrumental music. Except songs using the same
methods of playing backing music in the two localities, the majority of
songs with the same name in two places use completely different methods
of playing backing music.
2.3. Typical features of the music played in the ceremony of giving
alms to the dead of the Viet people in Hue and Ho Chi Minh City
2.3.1. Typical features of the music played in the ceremony of
giving alms to the dead of the Viet people in Hue
2.3.1.1. Characteristic of court music
The influence of court music on the music played in the TDCT
ceremony is seen very clearly. Therefore, one of the outstanding features of
the music played in the TDCT ceremony in Hue is the court characteristic.
Hue court music is manifested in three aspects: songs, tunes; instrumental
music; musical instruments and orchestral structure. The clear influence of
royal music, especially instrumental music, with the aspects mentioned
above, has increased the majestic and solemn characteristics for the music
played in the TDCT ceremony in particular and in the TDCT ceremony of
the Viet people in Hue in general.
2.3.1.2. Characteristics of soothing and deep expression
a) Soothing singing voice and instrumental music: Although the
instrumental music in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue has

the majestic solemn characteristic, its vocal music remains soothing,
mellow, and deep. There are many factors that impact this characteristic of
the vocal music in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue. Firstly, it
is soothing and deep voice of Hue people. Besides the soothing natural
voice, the usage of soothing breath, long pronunciation breath, speaking
way of Hue monks during “tán, tụng” (recite mantras) ... also plays an
adjustable part in creating the soothing and deep characteristics of the music
played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue .
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b) Performance of Buddhist tools, musical instruments: Monks and artists
use simple rhythm, moderate and soothing volume when performing Buddhist
tools, musical instruments to support vocal music and rituals. This helps
contributing to the soothing and deep characteristic of the music played in the
TDCT ceremony in Hue. The same method is also applied for musical
instruments with greater volume such as “trống chiến”, “trống bản”.
c) Vocal range and vocal color of Buddhist tools, musical instruments: In
the TDCT ceremony in Hue, monks often use Buddhist tools, musical
instruments that have low or moderate vocal range with warm echo to support
vocal music and rituals. For musical instruments made of strings such as “đàn
nhị”, “nhị hồ”, Hue artists only use strings made from plastic material, instead
of metal material.
2.3.1.3. Characteristic of high conservation and uniformity
So far, the music played in the TDCT ceremony in Hue still remains
the majority of traditional elements such as number of songs, melodies,
Buddhist tools, musical instruments in both melodic structure and method
of coordination among these musical elements. It is preserved elements of
traditional LNPG that creates the high unity in the musical performance in
the TDCT ceremony in Hue today.

2.3.2. Typical features of the music played in the ceremony of
giving alms to the dead of the Viet people in Ho Chi Minh City
2.3.2.1. Characteristic of musical traits of the Viet people in the South
Overall, the music played in the ceremony of giving alms to the dead of
the Viet people in HCMC carries some typical folk music characteristics of the
Viet people. It is shown in some aspects such as songs, tunes, rhythm and
instrumental music of folk music, “Hát bội”, “Đờn ca Tài tử” and “Cải lương”.
Among these aspects, ceremonial folk music has the most profound impact.
2.3.2.2. Characteristic of robust and generous expression
In the expression of the music played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet
people in Hue, the monk voice is always soothing and deep, the monk voice in
HCMC expresses a strong and generous characteristic. In the TDCT ceremony,
the monks in “Tradition” group often use strong language and singing type to
perform songs, vocal melodies. Besides, the application of strong and vibrant
rhythms taken from metal musical instruments to support rituals have
contributed to the characteristics of robustness and generosity of the music
played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in HCMC.
2.3.2.3. Characteristic of innovative trends
While the music played in the TDCT ceremony in Hue demonstrates the
characteristics of high conservation and unity, that in HCMC has innovative
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trends and focuses on the diverse development of musical elements. Nowadays,
LNPG oratorios of the Viet people in HCMC have four groups in different
trend. They are: a) “Tradition” group; b) “Tradition with some changes”
group; c) “Innovation” group: d) “Freedom” group.
2.3.2.4. Diverse development of musical elements
a) Factor of instrumental music: The development of instrumental
factors are reflected in three aspects: creating new variants by “lối đờn”;

promoting the role of orchestra in “đệm phức điệu tương phản” (contrast
backing music); adding new songs.
b) Factor of vocal music: The development of vocal elements is
reflected in three aspects: modifying and creating more new innovative
expressions; inheriting songs, tunes from traditional types of local music.
Minor conclusion of chapter 2
Overall, besides some similarities related mainly to the provisions of
Buddhism on ceremonial music, the music played in the TDCT ceremony
of the Viet people in Hue and HCMC has clear differences in many aspects
and three pairs of typical opposition. These differences refer to the richness
and diversity of the Vietnamese Buddhist music in Vietnam. The richness,
diversity as well as differences in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in
Hue and HCMC - in positions as two cultural centers of the Central and the
South, the accumulation of the most cultural characteristics in each region,
also refer to the diversity of the regional cultural identity in our country.
CHAPTER 3
SOME THEORICAL ISSUES LEARNED FROM THE MUSIC
PLAYED IN THE CEREMONY OF GIVING ALMS TO THE DEAD
OF THE VIET PEOPLE IN HUE AND HO CHI MINH
3.1. Cultural factors affecting the similarities and differences in
the music played in the ceremony of giving alms to the dead of the Viet
people in Hue and Ho Chi Minh City
3.1.1. Role of the feudal state in the unity of the ceremony of giving
alms to the dead of the Viet people and some musical aspects in two
localities
3.1.1.1. Creating the unity of the ceremony of giving alms to the dead
In the past, the feudal state was very interested in the unification of
culture and customs of the country, especially the provisions on folk rituals.
Therefore, the TDCT ceremony was not an exception of this general rule.
The Nguyen kings in early stages as Gia Long, Minh Mang, Thieu Tri and

Tu Duc all highly respected Buddhism. Derived from the respect to
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Buddhism, these kings had repaired and built new temples. Moreover, some
temples was repaired to become national temples. Besides, some Buddhist
ceremonies were also held in national scale in these national temples.
Over time, the model of the TDCT ceremony not only took
placewithin national temples in Hue in the past but also became familiar
with folk culture, firstly in Hue, then in Central regions and to southern
provinces, including HCMC. This was the reason why there was a unity in
term of structure and process in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in
Hue and HCMC. In the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and
HCMC, the similarities were shown in text, vegetarian boat design, rituals and
practices of each small ritual in the overall general structure and process.
3.1.1.2. Creating the unity of some musical aspects in the ceremony
of giving alms to the dead
In addition to affecting the unity of the TDCT ceremony as described
above, the feudal state also had a certain role in creating the similarities in
terms of orchestra, instrumental music and some instrumental songs used in the
TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and HCMC.
3.1.2. Characteristics of natural environment, history and culture society in creating the differences in personality, tastes, and some
musical aspects of the ceremony of giving alms to the dead of the Viet
people in two places
3.1.2.1. Characteristics of natural environment, history and culture society in Hue
Hue City is the center of culture, economy, education and politics of
the Central part in general, and of Thua Thien Hue Province in particular.
Hue City has the harmonious combination of plains, hills, rivers and trees,
contributing to the creation of a charming natural picture. In that overall
charming natural picture of Hue, the highlight is Huong River. Huong River

flows through Hue City, creating unique characteristics of Hue culture and
especially the style, spirit and beauty of the people here.
In term of historical, cultural - social characteristic, Hue land situated
in the area of “Châu Ô” and “Châu Lý” of Champa Kingdom. At the
beginning of the fourteenth century (1306), under the reign of King Tran
Anh Tong, “châu Ô” and “châu Lý” were officially merged into Đại Việt.
When Hue officially became the capital of the Nguyen Lord in “Đàng
Trong” (an area of Vietnamese southwards expansion) (1626 - 1775), then
became the capital of the country for 143 years (1802-1945), Hue was
located in the areas that received strong influence of feudal ideology and
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court rules. This had affected all aspects of cultural life of the people in
Hue. Hue was under strict management of imperial rules and became the
“benchmark for the nation to follow”. As Hue underwent the influence of
feudal ideology, court culture and limitations of court institutions for a long
time, the characteristics of Hue people as well as Hue culture in general
were highly “conservative” in comparison to other regions in the country.
3.1.2.2. Characteristics of natural environment, history and culture society in Ho Chi Minh City
TP. HCM is the center of culture, economy, education and politics of
the South and is one of three cultural centers of the country. When the
residents from Thuan - Quang region started settling in the “new land”, they
made friends with many other ethnic groups: Chinese, Khmer, Cham ... In
this context, the Viet people in southern Vietnam had an ability of high
adaptability and had higher opportunity to exchange culture with ethnic
groups than people in Hue at the same time.
Especially, in the late nineteenth century, when the French colony
occupied Southern provinces, the political, cultural - social situation received
powerful transformations. While Hue was considered as the “autonomous”

land of Hue empire for the longest time, in the South in general, HCMC in
particular was the area to receive the earliest and deepest influence of
Western culture in comparison to other regions in the country. Therefore, the
change in culture - society in this area had been very strong. Therefore,
Western lifestyle culture had mostly influenced the Viet people in the South.
3.1.3. Role of interior factors in creating the local musical shades of
the ceremony of giving alms to the dead of the Viet people in two places
3.1.3.1. Voice intonation
Voice intonation is one of the factors that creates the distinctive features
among different dialect regions. All folk singing types of each region are
closely related to voice intonation in that region. Therefore, local voice
intonation plays an important role in creating the distinctive features for folk
singing type in each region. Vocal music in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet
people in Hue and HCMC is not an exception of this general rule. Local voice
intonation is the first important factor in creating local shades for the music
played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and HCMC.
3.1.3.2. Role of traditional musical resources in each locality
Hue and HCMC are two major cultural centers with rich treasure of
traditional music in each locality. Although there are types of “ru”, “hò”,
“vè”, “lý”, folk ceremonial music, chamber music and theater..., each has a
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distinctive sound that can be recognized immediately its original region.
Moreover, going into detail, each region has specific differences in songs,
instrumental music as well as performance style. The differences in
traditional music origins in Hue and HCMC have led to the differences in
the music played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and
HCMC, namely the differences in tones, songs, melodies, musical
instruments as presented in Section 2.2.

3.2. Interactive relationship between the court culture, folk culture
and Buddhist culture
3.2.1. Influence of court culture on Buddhist culture and folk culture
3.2.1.1. Influence of cour culture on Buddhist culture
In their parallel existence, court culture has influenced Buddhist
culture in a number of different areas. Firstly, let’s look from the music
perspective – the aspect having direct relation to the thesis.
a) In music : Court Music is part of the overall court culture and the
predominant type of music in the feudal system lasting thousands of years
in the country’s history. Court music has made a significant impact on other
musical genres, including LNPG. And as a matter of fact , it has left its
indelible imprint on LNPG. The effects of court music on LNPG are seen
through its song, instrumental music and orchestra.
Looking at other aspects of culture, it can be seen that court culture also
affects Buddhist culture in other aspects: b) decoration, sculpture; c) ceremony;
d) form of procession. Thus, court culture strongly influenced Buddhist culture
and left an imprint not only in music but also in many other aspects.
3.2.1.2. Influence of court culture on folk culture
Similar to Buddhist culture, folk culture is also strongly influenced by
court culture in many different aspects of culture: a) in the field of music
including: song, instrumental music, orchestra, chamber music. In addition,
a number of specific characteristics of court-scholarly music also have had
a significant impact on folk music, which is foremost in Hue. The influence
of court music on folk music did not only happen in Hue but also spread to
the Southern region - HCMC. Talking about the impact of court music on
Southern folk music, it can be affirmed that despite being far away from the
King, the South was also significantly influenced by court-scholarly music.
Besides the influence on music presented, court culture also affects
folk culture in many other aspects: b) musical theater; c) handwriting; d)
sacrifice ceremony; e) decoration, sculpture; f) house architecture; g)

gastronomy; h) ideology, lifestyle.
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3.2.2. Influence of folk culture on Buddhist culture and court culture
3.2.2.1. Influence of folk culture on Buddhist culture
There is an intertwined relationship between folk culture and Buddhist
culture. These two lines of culture tend to interact , influence each other in
many aspects . In the process of interaction , folk culture has influenced
Buddhist culture in many areas - both music as well as other areas of
Buddhism: a) In music (song, instrumental music, musical instruments); b
In Buddhist musical theater; c) In ritual ceremony; d) The entry of folk
beliefs into Buddhism.
3.2.2.2. Influence of folk culture on court culture
Folk culture is the origin of national culture. In their parallel
existence, folk culture has influenced court culture in the following areas: a)
music (orchestra) and court music popularization (song, instrumental music,
musical notation, performance form, singing form, orchestra); b) musical
theater; c) gastronomy.
It can be seen that the impact of folk culture on court culture is clearly
manifested in two areas of music and cuisine. The highlight of the impact of
folk music on court-originated music and musical theater is the popularization
of court music elements. However, due to the difference in historical, social,
cultural environment and the personality and tastes of Hue and HCMC people,
the popularization of court music in these two provinces has different shades.
For example, while in Hue the popularization was slow and weak, the process
in HCMC was fast and strong.
3.2.3. Influence of Buddhist culture on court culture and folk culture
3.2.3.1. Influence of Buddhist culture on court culture
Buddhist culture’s impact on court culture are shown in the following areas:

a) music (song, instrumental music); b) commandment ; c) rituals; d) ideology.
3.2.3.2. Influence of Buddhist culture on folk culture
Buddhist culture has influenced folk culture in the following areas: a)
music (song, instrumental music, musical instruments, Buddhist tools); b)
the entry of Buddhism into the common people; c) rituals; d) gastromony;
đ) ideology and lifestyle.
In general, Buddhist culture has had a profound influence on folk
culture in many aspects such as music, gastronomy, rituals, ideas, and
contributed to enrich, diversify and increase the folk culture nuances. On
the other hand, the ideas and teachings of Buddhism has penetrated deeply
into people’s awareness, thereby forming the moral values and a lifestyle of
compassion, good direction and healing hatred of the Buddhists.
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3.2.4. General comments
In the process of existence and development, court culture, folk culture
and Buddhist culture always tend to interact with each other. They do not
eliminate or violate each other, but complement each other in many
respects. This interaction creats cultural unity in the areas where they exist,
increases the diversity of forms and shades for each culture. However,
depending on the natural environment, society, history and unique
characters of each culture, the impact of one culture on the other will differ.
Minor conclusion of Chapter 3
1. Besides the general characters ruled by Buddhist regulations,
feudal state also played an important role in preserving the unity of the
ceremonies and some aspects of music in the TDCT ceremony in of the
Viet people Hue and HCMC.
2. The factors that made the difference and musical features in the
TDCT of the Viet people in two provinces are the differences in the natural

environment, history, culture, society, personality, tastes, intonation and
local traditional music in each different region. These are also the factors
affecting the difference among cultural regions.
3. In the process of existence and development, court culture, folk
culture and Buddhist culture always tend to interact, accept and
complement each other in many respects. This interaction creates cultural
unity in the areas where they exist, increases the diversity of forms and
shades for each culture and cultural regions; at the same time, depending on
the characteristics of each region, it also contributes to the difference and
diversity of cultural regions.
CONCLUSION
1. The TDCT ceremony of the Viet people originated from India. Over
time, this ceremony has been ingrained in the spiritual and cultural life of
the Vietnamese people across the country. According to the monks, since
1990, especially from 2000 to date, the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people
in Hue and HCMC has been happening regularly in increasing scale to meet
the growing needs of spiritual culture of a large Buddhists population.
Compared to other music in the Buddhist ceremonies, the music played in
the TDCT ceremony has the most complete collection of singing forms,
songs, tunes, Buddhist tools of LNPG. It is considered the typical musical
phenomenon of Vietnam LNPG. It can also be considered a symbol of the
combination of Buddhist music and national music.
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2. There are some similarities between the music in the TDCT
ceremony of the Viet people in Hue and that of HCMC. They are shown in
conception, customs and rituals in performing music, name and number of
songs, main singing forms, types of Buddhist tools, musical instruments and
a small proportion of instrumental music structure, order and the use of

music in performing the ceremony.
3. Between the music played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in
the two provinces, there are clear differences in a small number of the musical
instruments of the orchestra; the number and nuances in some singing forms;
name and tone of the majority of the instrumental music; the coordination
method of Buddhist tools, musical instruments and vocal music; the use of
instrumental music in performing the ceremony. It is these differences that reflect
the diversity and richness of the Vietnamese Buddhist music.
4. The music played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in Hue
and that of HCMC featured three pairs of opposite highlights in music
composition, nature and direction of development, including: a) the music
played in the TDCT ceremony in Hue bears strong stamp of court culture
while that in HCMC bears strong stamp of the Southern Vietnamese people;
b) while the music played in the TDCT ceremony in Hue shows gentleness
and deepness, that in HCMC shows liberality and strength; c) while the
music played in the TDCT ceremony in Hue shows preservation and unity,
that of HCMC shows innovation and development of musical elements (the
powerful development of instrumental music, the creation of multi variant
versions based on a same song, the frequent use of contrast complex-tuned
accompaniment technique). Especially, in the strong integration in order to
suit various preferences of the people and meet their spiritual needs, LNPG
of the Viet people in HCMC divided into many schools which divert from
the “traditional Buddhist music style of the Viet people in HCMC”. The
climax of this division is the “Liberty” school.
5. The differences in the music played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet
people in two cultural centers representing Central and South contribute to
show the diversity and richness of Vietnamese LNPG in particular and of the
cultural regions in our country in general. On the other hand, the similarities in
the music played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet people in two provinces
also reflect unity in the cultural diversity of Vietnam.

6. Studying the cultural factors affecting the similarities and
differences between the music played in the TDCT ceremony of the Viet
people in Hue and that in HCMC also helps confirm the close relationship
between the differences in the nuances of different cultural areas and
natural environment, history, culture - society as well as endogenous factors
23