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Methods of

MEASURING
ENVIRONMENTAL
PARAMETERS

YURIY POSUDIN



METHODS OF
MEASURING
ENVIRONMENTAL
PARAMETERS



METHODS OF
MEASURING
ENVIRONMENTAL
PARAMETERS

YURIY POSUDIN
National University of Life
and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine
Kiev, Ukraine


Copyright © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Posudin, Yu.I. (Yuriy Ivanovich)
Methods of measuring environmental parameters / Yuriy Posudin, National University of Life and
Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine.
pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-118-68693-5 (cloth)
1. Pollution–Measurement. 2. Environmental monitoring. I. Title.
TD193.P68 2014

628.5028′ 7–dc23
2014008365
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1


To Professor Stanley J. Kays,
a good friend, gentleman, and my supervisor



CONTENTS

PREFACE

xxv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xxix

ABOUT THE BOOK

xxxi

ABOUT THE AUTHOR
INTRODUCTION

xxxiii
1

Some Principal Definitions, 1

PART I CLIMATIC FACTORS
1 Pressure

5

1.1 Definition of Pressure, 5
1.2 Atmospheric Pressure, 6
1.3 Physiological Effects of Decreased Air Pressure on Human Organism, 9
1.4 Physiological Effects of Altitude on Animals, 9
1.5 Effects of Altitude on Plants, 9
1.6 Variation of Pressure with Depth, 10
1.7 Physiological Effects of Increased Pressure on Human Organism, 11
1.8 Physiological Effects of Pressure on Diving Animals, 12
References, 13

vii


viii

CONTENTS

2 Measurement of Pressure

14

2.1 Manometers, 14

2.2 Barometers, 17
2.3 Digital Barometric Pressure Sensor, 19
2.4 Vibrating Wire Sensor, 20
2.5 Capacitive Pressure Sensor, 20
2.6 Measurement of Pressure at Depth, 22
Questions and Problems, 23
Further Reading, 23
Electronic References, 23
Practical Exercise 1. Analysis of Observed Data: Theory of Errors

25

1 Approximation of Data, 25
1.1
Rules for Dealing with Significant Numbers, 25
1.2
The Precision of the Measurement During Multiplication
or Division, 26
1.3
The Precision of the Measurement During Addition or
Subtraction, 26
1.4
The Precision of the Measurement During Raising to a
Power or Extracting a Root, 26
2 Theory of Errors, 26
2.1
Types of Errors, 26
2.2
Errors in Direct Measurements, 27
2.3

Errors in Indirect Measurements, 29
References, 33
Electronic Reference, 33
3 Wind

34

3.1 Definition of Wind, 34
3.2 Forces That Create Wind, 34
3.3 Parameters of Wind, 35
3.4 Effect of Wind on Living Organisms, 37
Reference, 37
4 Measurement of Wind Parameters
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

Cup Anemometer, 38
Windmill Anemometer, 40
Hot-Wire Anemometer, 41
Sonic Anemometer, 42
Remote Wind Sensing, 43
4.5.1 Radiosonde, 44
4.5.2 Radar, 44
4.5.3 Sodar, 45
4.5.4 Lidar, 45

38

CONTENTS

ix

4.5.5 Doppler Effect, 46
4.5.6 Satellite and Rocket Remote Sensing, 47
4.6 Measurement of Wind Direction, 47
4.7 Cyclone Assessment, 49
Reference, 49
Practical Exercise 2. Modeling the Variation in Wind Speed

50

1 Modeling Variation in Wind Speed Near the Ground, 50
2 Modeling the Variation in Wind Speed Above a Plant Canopy, 52
Questions and Problems, 55
Reference, 56
Further Reading, 56
Electronic References, 56
5 Temperature
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7

57

Definition of Temperature, 57
Temperature Scales, 57
Atmospheric Temperature, 59
Soil Temperature, 59
Temperature of Water Reservoirs, 60
Heat Flux, 60
Effect of Temperature on Living Organisms, 61
5.7.1 Heat Production, 61
5.7.2 Heat Transfer, 63

6 Measurement of Temperature

67

6.1 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers, 67
6.2 Bimetallic Thermometer, 69
6.3 Resistance Thermometer, 70
6.4 Thermocouples, 71
6.5 Optical Pyrometry, 72
6.6 Infrared Thermometers, 73
6.7 Heat Flux Measurement, 74
6.8 Method of Scintillometry, 76
References, 77
Practical Exercise 3. Modeling Vertical Changes in Air Temperature
1 Measurement of Temperature Above Uniform Surface, 78
2 Measurement of Sensible Heat Flux, 82
Questions and Problems, 83
Reference, 83

Further Reading, 83
Electronic References, 84

78


x

CONTENTS

7

Humidity

85

7.1 Definition of Humidity, 85
7.2 Parameters of Humidity, 85
7.3 Effect of Humidity on Living Organisms, 86
7.3.1 Effect of Humidity on Human Organism, 86
7.3.2 Effect of Humidity on Microorganisms, 86
7.3.3 Effect of Humidity on Animals, 86
7.3.4 Effect of Humidity on Plants, 87
8 Measurement of Air Humidity
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6

8.7
8.8
8.9

88

Hygrometers, 88
Assmann Psychrometer, 88
Hair Hygrometer, 91
Capacitive Hygrometer, 92
Condensation Hygrometer, 93
Electrolytic Hygrometer, 95
Radiation Absorption Hygrometer (Gas Analyzer), 95
An Open-Path System for Measuring Humidity, 96
Remote Sensing Humidity, 97

Practical Exercise 4. Measuring Parameters of Humidity

99

1 Objectives, 99
2 Materials Supplied, 99
3 Principle of Operation, 99
4 Experimental Procedure, 100
Questions and Problems, 101
Reference, 101
Further Reading, 101
Electronic Reference, 102
9 Precipitation
9.1

9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11

Definitions, 103
Mechanisms of Precipitation, 103
Parameters of Precipitation, 104
Acid Rain, 104
Interception, 105
General Characteristics of Isotopes, 105
Stable Isotopes of Water, 105
Isotopic Fractionation, 106
Stable Isotopes in Precipitation Processes, 106
Application of Stable Isotopes, 107
Effect of Precipitation on Living Organisms, 107

103


CONTENTS

xi

9.12 Snow, 108
9.12.1 Parameters of Snow, 108
9.12.2 Effect of Snow on Living Organisms, 109
9.13 Fog, 109
9.13.1 Parameters of Fog, 110
9.13.2 Effect of Fog on Living Organisms, 110
References, 111
10

Measurement of Precipitation

112

10.1 Measurement of Precipitation Parameters, 112
10.1.1 Standard Rain Gauge, 112
10.1.2 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge, 113
10.1.3 Siphon Rain Gauge, 114
10.1.4 Weighing Bucket Gauge, 116
10.1.5 Optical Rain Gauge, 117
10.1.6 Laser Precipitation Monitor, 117
10.1.7 Acoustic Rain Gauge, 118
10.2 Measurement of Acid Rain Pollution, 119
10.2.1 pH-metry, 120
10.2.2 Conductivity, 120
10.2.3 Ion-Exchange Chromatography, 120
10.3 Isotopes in Precipitation, 121
10.3.1 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry, 121
10.3.2 Diode Laser: Principle of Operation, 122
10.3.3 Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy, 123
10.3.4 Modulated Techniques, 124

10.3.5 Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy, 124
10.4 Remote Sensing of Precipitation, 126
10.4.1 Types of Remote Sensing Techniques, 126
10.4.2 Radars, 126
10.4.3 Satellites, 127
10.4.4 Estimation and Analysis of Precipitation Parameters, 128
10.5 Snow Measurement, 129
10.5.1 Measurement of Snowfall, 129
10.5.2 Snow Gauge, 129
10.5.3 Ultrasonic Snow Depth Sensor, 129
10.5.4 Laser Snow Depth Sensor, 130
10.5.5 Remote Sensing of Snow Cover, 130
10.6 Fog-Water Measurement, 132
References, 132
Practical Exercise 5. Velocity of a Falling Raindrop
1 Balance of Forces, 134
2 The Size and Shape of Raindrops, 135

134


xii

CONTENTS

3 The Drag Coefficient, 135
4 The Reynolds Number, 135
Questions and Problems, 138
References, 138
Further Reading, 138

Electronic References, 139
11

Solar Radiation

141

11.1 SI Radiometry and Photometry Units, 141
11.2 The Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density, 142
11.3 Parameters of Sun, 142
11.4 Intensity of the Sun, 142
11.5 Periodicity of Solar Activity, 144
11.6 Spectral Composition of Solar Radiation, 144
11.7 Atmospheric Radiation, 144
11.8 Terrestrial Radiation, 145
11.9 Effect of Solar Ultraviolet Radiation on Living Organisms, 145
11.10 Effect of Solar Visible Radiation on Living Organisms, 146
References, 147
12

Measurement of Solar Radiation
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9

12.10

148

Classification of Radiometers, 148
Measurement of Direct Solar Radiation—Pyrheliometer, 149
Measurement of Global Radiation—Pyranometer, 149
Measurement of Diffuse Radiation—Pyranometer with a
Sun-Shading Ring, 150
Measurement of Long-Wave Radiation—Pyrgeometer, 150
Measurement of Albedo—Albedometer, 151
Measurement of Total Radiation—a 4-Component Net
Radiometer, 152
Photometer, 153
Photon Meter, 154
Conversion of Light Environment Units, 155

Practical Exercise 6. Parameters of Optical Radiation
1 Parameters of Electromagnetic Radiation, 156
2 The Inverse-Square Law, 157
3 The Cosine Law, 158
4 The Wien’s Displacement Law, 159
5 The Stefan–Boltzmann Law, 160
6 The Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density, 160
7 The Laboratory Exercise “The Inverse-Square Law”, 160
Questions and Problems, 162
Further Reading, 162
Electronic Reference, 163

156

CONTENTS

13

Eddy Covariance

xiii

164

13.1 Turbulence, 164
13.2 Boundary Layer, 164
13.3 Eddy Covariance, 165
13.4 Turbulent Velocity Fluctuations, 166
13.5 Vertical Momentum Flux, 167
13.6 Sensible Heat Flux, 167
13.7 Latent Heat Flux, 167
13.8 Carbon Dioxide Flux, 168
References, 168
14

Measurement of Eddy Covariance

169

14.1 Meteorological Towers, 169
14.2 Gas Analyzers, 170
14.3 Quantum Cascade Laser Spectroscopy for Atmospheric Gases:

Eddy Covariance Flux Measurements, 171
14.4 Stable Isotopes of Carbon Dioxide, 172
14.5 Quantum Cascade Laser Absorption Spectrometry, 173
14.6 Eddy Covariance Measurement of Carbon Dioxide Isotopologues, 173
14.7 Measurement of Eddy Accumulation, 174
14.8 Interaction of Climatic Factors, 174
14.9 Automatic Weather Stations, 175
Reference, 176
Practical Exercise 7. Eddy Covariance Measurement

177

Questions and Problems, 178
Further Reading, 179
Electronic Reference, 180
PART II ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS
15

Atmosphere

183

15.1 Composition of the Atmosphere, 183
15.2 Air Pollution, 183
15.3 Air Quality, 184
Reference, 184
16

Measurement of Ambient Air Quality

185

16.1 Measurement of NO2 , 185
16.1.1 Chemiluminescence, 185
16.1.2 The Automatic Cavity Attenuated Phase Shift NO2
Analyzer, 187
16.1.3 Micro-Gas Analysis System for Measurement of NO2 , 189


xiv

CONTENTS

16.1.4

Measurement of NO2 in a Liquid Film/Droplet
System, 189
16.1.5
Electrochemical Sensor, 189
16.1.6
Passive Diffusive Samplers, 190
16.1.7
Thick Film Sensors, 192
16.1.8
Open-Path Differential Optical Absorption
Spectrometer, 193
16.2 Effect of Nitrogen Dioxide on Human Health, 195
16.3 Measurement of SO2 , 195
16.3.1
Fluorescence Spectroscopy, 195

16.3.2
Micro-Gas Analyzers for Environmental Monitoring, 196
16.4 Effect of Sulfur Dioxide on Human Health, 198
16.5 Measurement of CO, 198
16.5.1
Infrared Photometry, 199
16.5.2
Open-Path Fourier Spectrometry, 200
16.5.3
Effect of Carbon Monoxide on Human Health, 202
16.6 Particulate Matter Sampling, 202
16.7 Gravimetric Methods, 203
16.7.1
High-Volume Samplers, 203
16.7.2
Impaction Inlet, 203
16.7.3
Cyclonic Inlet, 203
16.7.4
Low-Volume Samplers, 204
16.7.5
Dichotomous Sampler, 204
16.8 Continuous Methods, 206
16.8.1
Beta Attenuation Monitor, 206
16.8.2
Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance, 207
16.9 Effect of Particulate Matter on Human Health, 208
16.10 Nanoparticles, 209
16.11 Effect of Nanoparticles on Human Health, 209

16.12 Bioaerosols, 209
16.13 Bioaerosol Sampling and Identification, 210
16.13.1 Bioaerosol Sampler Spore-Trap, 210
16.13.2 Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time of
Flight Mass Spectrometry, 211
16.14 Measurement of Atmospheric Ozone, 212
16.14.1 Radiosondes, 212
16.14.2 Dobson and Brewer Spectrophotometry, 213
16.15 Measurement of Ground-Level Ozone, 214
16.16 Effect of Ozone on Human Health, 214
16.17 Measurement of Lead, 214
16.17.1 Atomic Spectrometry of Lead, 214
16.17.2 Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, 215
16.18 Effect of Lead on Human Health, 216
References, 216


CONTENTS

Practical Exercise 8. Fundamentals of Spectroscopy

xv

218

1 Beer–Lambert–Bouger Law, 218
2 Photometry of Ozone in Gas Phase, 219
3 Fourier Transform Spectrometry, 220
Questions and Problems, 221
Further Reading, 221

Electronic References, 221
17

Indoor Air Quality

223

17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5

Indoor Air, 223
Volatile Organic Compounds, 224
Sources of Volatile Organic Compounds, 224
Effect of External Factors on VOCs Emission in Indoor Air, 225
Health Effects and Toxicity of Volatile Organic Compounds, 226
17.5.1 Sick Building Syndrome, 226
17.5.2 Estimation of Health Effects of VOCs through the
Questionnaires, 226
17.5.3 Principles of Phytoremediation, 227
References, 227
18

Methods of Analysis of Volatile Organic Compounds
18.1 Principal Stages of Volatile Organic Compounds Analysis, 229
18.2 Gas Chromatography, 230
18.3 Detection Systems, 231
18.3.1 Flame Ionization Detectors, 231

18.3.2 Thermal Conductivity Detectors, 232
18.4 Mass Spectrometry, 233
18.4.1 Sector Field Mass Analyzer, 233
18.4.2 Quadrupole Mass Analyzer, 234
18.5 Combination of Gas Chromatography and
Mass Spectrometry, 235
18.6 Photoacoustic Spectroscopy, 236
18.7 Proton Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometry, 238
18.8 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
of Volatile Organic Compounds, 239
Questions and Problems, 240
References, 240
Further Reading, 242
Electronic References, 242

229


xvi

CONTENTS

PART III HYDROGRAPHIC FACTORS
19

Water Quality

247

19.1

19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5

Water Resources, 247
Properties of Water, 247
Classification of Water, 249
Quality of Water, 249
Water Quality Parameters, 249
19.5.1 Drinking Water Quality Parameters, 250
19.5.2 Groundwater Quality Parameters, 250
19.5.3 Surface Water Quality Parameters, 251
19.6 Effect of Water Quality on Human Health, 251
References, 252
20

Measurement of Water Quality Parameters

253

20.1 In Situ Measurement of Water Quality Parameters, 253
20.1.1 pH value, 253
20.1.2 Measurement of pH of Water, 253
20.1.3 Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen, 254
20.1.4 Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen, 254
20.1.5 Oxidation–Reduction Potential, 255
20.1.6 Measurement of Oxidation–Reduction Potential, 256
20.1.7 Turbidity, 256
20.1.8 Measurement of Turbidity, 256

20.1.9 Electrical Conductivity of Water, 261
20.1.10 Measurement of Electrical Conductivity, 261
20.1.11 Measuring Stream Flow, 262
20.2 Laboratory Measurement of Water Quality Parameters, 262
20.2.1 Purge-and-Trap Gas Chromatography/Mass
Spectrometry, 263
20.2.2 Membrane Introduction Mass Spectrometry, 264
References, 266
Practical Exercise 9. Water Quality Parameters
1 pH-Value, 267
2 Oxidation–Reduction Potential. Nernst Equation, 267
3 Conductivity, 268
4 Water Quality Index, 269
Questions and Problems, 269
Further Reading, 270
Electronic References, 270

267


CONTENTS

xvii

PART IV EDAPHIC FACTORS
21

Soil Quality

275

21.1 Soil as a Natural Body, 275
21.2 Soil Structure and Composition, 276
21.3 Soil Quality, 276
21.4 Soil Quality Indicators, 277
References, 277
22

Physical Indicators

278

22.1 Aggregate Stability, 278
22.2 Measurement of Aggregate Stability, 279
22.2.1 Ultrasound Dispersion, 279
22.2.2 Laser Granulometer, 279
22.3 Available Water Capacity, 280
22.4 Measurement of Available Water Capacity, 280
22.5 Bulk Density, 282
22.6 Measurement of Bulk Density, 284
22.6.1 Bulk Density Test, 284
22.6.2 Clod Method, 284
22.6.3 Three-Dimensional Laser Scanning, 285
22.7 Infiltration, 285
22.8 Measurement of Infiltration, 286
22.8.1 Infiltration Test, 286
22.8.2 Single-ring and Double-ring Infiltrometers, 286
22.8.3 Tension Infiltrometer, 287
22.8.4 The Automatic Infiltration Meter, 289
References, 289

23

Chemical Indicators

291

23.1 pH of Soil, 291
23.2 Electrical Conductivity of Soil, 292
23.3 Optical Emission Spectroscopy with Inductively Coupled Plasma, 292
23.4 Mass Spectrometry with Inductively Coupled Plasma, 293
23.5 Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, 294
References, 295
24

Biological Indicators
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4

Earthworms as Soil Bioindicators, 297
Analysis of Earthworms, 298
A Biota-to-Soil Accumulation Factor, 299
Soil Respiration, 299

297


xviii

CONTENTS

24.5 Measurement of Soil Respiration, 300
24.5.1 The Draeger Tubes, 300
24.5.2 Soil CO2 Flux Chambers, 301
24.5.3 The Automated Soil CO2 Flux System, 301
References, 303
Practical Exercise 10. Determination of the Sedimentation Velocity and
the Density of Solid Particles

305

1 Derivation of the Sedimentation Equation, 305
2 Determination of the Sedimentation Velocity
of Solid Particles, 306
3 Determination of the Density of Solid Particles, 307
Questions and Problems, 308
Further Reading, 308
Electronic References, 309

PART V
25

VEGETATION FACTORS

Spectroscopic Analysis of Plants and Vegetation

315

25.1 Spectroscopic Approach, 315

25.1.1 Optical Radiation, 315
25.1.2 The Interaction of Light with Plant Objects, 316
25.1.3 Reflectance, 316
25.2 Reflectance Spectroscopy, 317
25.3 Methods of Reflectance Spectroscopy, 317
25.3.1 Laboratory Methods, 318
25.3.2 Portable Reflectance Instrumentation, 319
25.3.3 Near-Field Reflectance Instrumentation, 319
25.3.4 Vegetation Indices, 320
25.3.5 Remote Sensing of Vegetation Reflectance, 321
25.3.6 Multispectral Scanning, 321
25.3.7 Spectral Bands MSS and TM, 322
25.3.8 Spectral Vegetation Indices that are used in the Remote
Sensing, 323
25.4 Effect of External Factors on Single Leaf and Canopy Reflectance, 324
25.5 Fluorescence Spectroscopy, 325
25.5.1 Photosynthesis and Chlorophyll Fluorescence, 325
25.5.2 Fluorescence Properties of a Green Leaf, 326
25.5.3 Fluorescent Properties of Vegetation, 326
25.6 Laboratory Methods of Fluorescence Spectroscopy, 327
25.6.1 Spectrofluorometry, 327
25.6.2 Fluorescence Induction Kinetics, 328


CONTENTS

xix

25.6.3 Optical Multichannel Analysis, 330
25.6.4 Pulse Amplitude Modulation Fluorometry, 330

25.6.5 Fluorescence Indices, 332
25.7 Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence, 333
25.7.1 Laser-Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy for In Vivo
Remote Sensing of Vegetation, 333
25.7.2 Laser Spectrofluorometer, 333
25.8 The Effect of Various Factors on the Chlorophyll Fluorescence, 335
References, 335
Practical Exercise 11. Determination of Perpendicular Vegetation Index

338

Questions and Problems, 340
Further Reading, 341
Electronic References, 341

PART VI
26

Mechanical Vibration
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4

27

348

Resistive Transducers, 348
Electromagnetic Transducers, 349

Capacitive Transducers, 349
Piezoelectric Transducers, 349
Laser Doppler Vibrometer, 350

Noise
28.1
28.2
28.3
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9
28.10

345

Parameters of Vibration, 345
Vibration Level, 346
Sources of Vibration, 346
Effect of Vibration on Human Health, 346

Measurement of Vibration
27.1
27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5

28

PHYSICAL TYPES OF POLLUTION

351
Main Defintions of Noise, 351
Sources of Noise, 351
Parameters of Noise, 352
Equivalent Sound Level, 352
Integrating Sound Level, 353
Spectral Density of Noise, 353
Effect of Noise on Human Health, 354
Mechanisms of Noise Action, 354
How to Protect Yourself from Noise, 355
Effect of Noise Pollution on Ecosystem, 355


xx

29

CONTENTS

Measurement of Noise
29.1
29.2
29.3
29.4

356

Sound Level Meters, 356
Types of Microphones, 357
Noise Frequency Analyzers, 357
Sound Intensity Measurement, 357

Practical Exercise 12. Sound Insulation and Reverberation Time

358

1 Sound Insulation, 358
2 Reverberation Time, 359
30

Thermal Pollution

362

30.1 Sources of Thermal Pollution, 362
30.2 The Effect of Thermal Pollution on Living Organisms, 362
31

Measurement of Thermal Pollution

364

31.1 Thermal Discharge Index, 364
31.2 Indirect Measurement of Thermal Pollution, 364
32

Light Pollution

365

32.1 The Sources of Light Pollution, 365
32.2 Types of Light Pollution, 365
32.2.1 Light Trespass, 366
32.2.2 Over-Illumination, 366
32.2.3 Glare, 366
32.2.4 Clutter, 366
32.2.5 Sky Glow, 366
32.3 Effects of Light Pollution on Human Health, 366
32.4 Effects of Light Pollution on Wildlife, 367
References, 367
33

Measurement of Light Pollution

368

33.1 Digital Photography, 368
33.2 Portable Spectrophotometers, 369
33.3 Sky Quality Meter, 369
33.4 The Bortle Scale, 370
References, 370
34

Electromagnetic Pollution
34.1 Principal Terminology and Units, 371
34.2 Electromagnetic Pollution, 372

34.3 Effect of Elecromagnetic Pollution on Human Health, 373
34.3.1 Extremely Low Fields, 373

371


CONTENTS

xxi

34.3.2

Estimation of Health Effects of EMF Through the
Questionnaires, 374
34.3.3 Radiofrequency and Microwave Fields, 375
34.3.4 Effect of Mobile Phones on Human Health, 375
34.3.5 Effect of Computer on Human Health, 375
References, 376
35

Measurement of Electromagnetic Pollution

377

35.1 EMF Meter, 377
35.2 Types of EMF Meters, 377
36

Radioactive Pollution

380

36.1
36.2
36.3
36.4

Principal Definitions, 380
Units of Radioactivity, 381
Nuclear Explosions and Testing of Nuclear Weapons, 381
Accidents at Nuclear Power Plants, 382
36.4.1 Three Mile Island Accident, 382
36.4.2 Kyshtym Accident, 382
36.4.3 Chernobyl Accident, 382
36.4.4 Fukushima Accident, 383
36.4.5 Effect of Radioactive Pollution, 383
References, 384
37

Measurement of Ionizing Radiation

385

37.1 Doses of Ionizing Radiation, 385
37.2 Gas-Filled Detectors, 386
37.2.1 Ionization Chamber, 387
37.2.2 Proportional Counter, 388
37.2.3 Geiger–M¨uller Counter, 389
37.3 Scintillation Counter, 390
37.4 Semiconductor Diode Detector, 390

37.5 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter, 391
Practical Exercise 13. Investigation of Radionuclide Activity and
Determination of the Absorption Coefficient of Gamma Radiation
1 Objectives, 393
2 Theory, 393
3 Experiment, 394
Questions and Problems, 395
References, 396
Further Reading, 396
Electronic References, 397

393


xxii

CONTENTS

PART VII BIOTIC FACTORS
38

Bioindication

401

38.1 Lichens as Bioindicators, 401
38.2 Algae as Bioindicators, 402
38.3 Classification of Water Reservoirs, 402
38.4 Water Quality Indices, 402
38.5 Invertebrates as Bioindicators, 404

References, 406
Electronic References, 406
39

Biomonitoring

407

39.1
39.2
39.3
39.4

Test-Organisms and Test-Functions, 407
Bacteria as Test-Objects, 408
Protozoa as Test-Objects, 408
Algae as Test-Objects, 408
39.4.1 Photomovement Parameters of Algae as Text-Functions, 408
39.4.2 Gravitaxis Parameters of Algae as Text-Functions, 409
39.5 Invertebrates as Test-Objects, 409
39.5.1 Daphnia as Test-Object, 409
39.5.2 Daphnia Toximeter, 410
39.6 Fungi as Test-Objects, 410
39.7 Fish as Test-Objects, 410
39.8 Remote Water-Quality Monitoring, 411
References, 411
Practical Exercise 14. Photomovement Parameters as Test-Functions
During Biomonitoring

412

1 Simultaneous Use of Several Test-Functions During
Biomonitoring, 412
2 Vector Method of Biomonitoring, 413
Questions and Problems, 414
References, 415
Further Reading, 415
Electronic References, 415

APPENDIX

417

INDEX

421


Understanding that the world does not belong to any one nation or generation,
and sharing a spirit of utmost urgency, we dedicate ourselves to undertake bold
action to cherish and protect the environment of our planetary home.
Al Gore
September 16, 1992
Sioux Fall, South Dakota