A study on english idioms denoting fear with reference to the vietnamese equivalents

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNVERSITY

NGUYỄN THỊ THANH MAI

A STUDY ON ENGLISH IDIOMS DENOTING
"FEAR” WITH REFERENCE TO THE
VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS
(NGHIÊN CỨU CÁC BIỂU ĐẠT MANG TÍNH THÀNH NGỮ VỀ
NỖI SỢ HÃI TRONG SỰ LIÊN HỆ TƯƠNG ĐƯƠNG VỚI TIẾNG VIỆT)

M.A. THESIS
Field: English Language
Code: 60220201

Hanoi, 2015


MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNVERSITY

NGUYỄN THỊ THANH MAI

A STUDY ON ENGLISH IDIOMS DENOTING
“FEAR” WITH REFERENCE TO THE
VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS

(NGHIÊN CỨU CÁC BIỂU ĐẠT MANG TÍNH THÀNH NGỮ VỀ
NỖI SỢ HÃI TRONG SỰ LIÊN HỆ TƯƠNG ĐƯƠNG VỚI TIẾNG VIỆT)

M.A. THESIS

Field: English Language
Code: 60220201
Supervisor: Dr. Trần Thị Thu Hiền

Hanoi, 2015


CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY
I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report
entitled A study on English idioms denoting “FEAR” with reference to
the Vietnamese equivalents

submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Master in English Language. Except where
the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used without due
acknowledgement in the text of the thesis.
Hanoi, 2015

Nguyen Thi Thanh Mai

Approved by
SUPERVISOR

(Signature and full name)
Date:……………………

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all those who gave me
the possibility to complete this thesis.
First of all, I am deeply indebted to my beloved supervisor, Dr. Trần
Thị Thu Hiền for the invaluable support, enthusiastic guidance, and
encouragement he gave me throughout my research. I am truly grateful to
her for his advice and suggestions right from the beginning when this study
was only in its formative stage. Without her untiring patience in reading the
manuscript and clarifying my ideas, the thesis would have never been in the
current shape.
Secondly, I would like to give our thanks to all lectures of
Postgraduate Faculty at Hanoi Open University for their valuable teaching
and tremendous assistance that have enlightened my study path.
Thirdly, I am also indebted to the field workers who were kind
enough to tolerate the painstaking task of collecting the data. Then my
thanks also sent to my classmates at the Master Course Class who have
taken time and trouble to alert me to errors in my thesis and provided me
with useful data on which this thesis is based.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to family members whose
support and encouragements have greatly contributed to the completion of
my study. For my little experience and knowledge, I would like to receive
more useful comments from lectures and others.

ii


ABSTRACT
Idioms are used regularly and naturally in everyday communication,
however, the inner meaning of the concept of idioms is still unclear to a lot

of people. Therefore, The author thinks a study on the subject of idioms in
Vietnamese and English is helpful for improving the knowledge of
language learners, as well as the students learning English in general. In
the study the author finds out that : first, a semantic and culture analysis
of English idioms denoting fear has shown that English idioms denoting
fear mentions death, a number of others mention life/ live/living in
expressing fear . Besides that the use of white colour in English idioms can
be explained by their climate with cold weather and white snow. Clearly,
the climate not only helps build English people personality but also affect
their language, particularly idioms denoting fear. While in Vietnamese,
fear appears more colourful with colours related to our daily life and
planting agriculture. Second, the comparison between English and
Vietnamese idioms in terms of semantics has proposed that English
idioms use coldness as the main domain to denote fear while
Vietnamese ones use soul and spirit as the key domain together with
agricultural country so daily images are used in idioms. And the author
also think s that the idiom is not only a particular semantic item - an
important part of the language but also reflects the cultural characteristics
of each ethnic group. Idioms are classified in different groups in which the
author chooses idioms of English idiomatic expressions denoting
“FEAR” to be my subjects as they occupy a significant role and have
special structure, is an appropriate subject for a study contrastive.

iii


LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 2.1. A Selection of Lists of “Basic” Emotion
Table 4.1: Brief description of the semantic features of English and
Vietnamese idioms denoting fear of human feelings

iv


TABLE CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY ........................................................ i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ..............................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ........................................................ iv
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1
1.1. Rationale for the research ..................................................................... 1
1.2. Aims of the research............................................................................. 2
1.3. Objectives of research .......................................................................... 3
1.4. Scope of the research............................................................................ 3
1.5. Significance of the research.................................................................. 3
1.6. Structural organization of the thesis ..................................................... 4
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................... 6
2.1. Review of previous studies ................................................................... 6
2.2. Review of theoretical background ......................................................... 7
2.2.1. Theoretical framework .................................................................... 7
2.1.2. Theoretical background ................................................................... 8
2.1.2.1. Idioms ....................................................................................... 8
2.1.2.2. Idioms and other languages units ............................................ 18
2.2.2.2. Human Emotions ..................................................................... 22
2.3. Summary............................................................................................. 26
Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 27
3.1. Research-governing orientations ........................................................ 27
3.1.1. Research questions ........................................................................ 27
3.1.2 Research setting ............................................................................. 27
3.1.3 Research approaches ...................................................................... 28

3.1.4 Criteria for intended data collection and data analysis .................... 28
3.2. Research methods ............................................................................... 29


3.2.1 Major methods versus supporting methods .................................... 29
3.2.2 Data collection techniques ............................................................. 29
3.2.3. Data analysis techniques ............................................................... 30
3.3. Summary............................................................................................. 31
Chapter 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ......................................... 33
4.1. Semantic features of English idioms denoting Fear with reference to
Vietnamese equivalents ............................................................................. 33
Table 4.1: Brief description of the semantic features of English and
Vietnamese idioms denoting fear of human feelings .................................. 34
4.1.1. Similarities .................................................................................... 35
4.1.1.1. Fear in the nature of coldness .................................................. 36
4.1.1.2. Fear in using parts of body ...................................................... 37
4.1.2. Differences.................................................................................... 38
4.1.2.1. Fear is soul and spirit leaving the body .................................... 39
4.1.2.2. Fear is a part of body ............................................................... 40
4.1.2.3. Fear in the feature of country .................................................. 40
4.1.2.4. Fear is facing the death ............................................................ 41
4.1.2.5. Fear is mind-absence ............................................................... 41
4.2. Cultural features of English idioms denoting fear with reference to
Vietnamese equivalents ............................................................................. 42
4.2.1. Similarities .................................................................................... 42
4.2.1.1. The reflection of religion......................................................... 42
4.2.1.2. The reflection of social background ........................................ 43
4.2.2. Differences.................................................................................... 45
4.2.2.1. The point of view .................................................................... 45
4.1.1.2. The use of colour .................................................................... 45

4.3. Implications ........................................................................................ 47
4.3.1. General suggestions on teaching idioms ........................................ 47
4.3.1.1. Cultural differences ................................................................. 48


4.3.1.2. Word order in idioms .............................................................. 49
4.3.1.3. Idioms and sound patterns ....................................................... 49
4.3.2. A model lesson.............................................................................. 50
4.3.2.1. Activity 1: Find someone who is afraid ................................... 50
4.3.2.2. Activity 2: Combining language and living skills .................... 52
4.3.2.3. Longer lessons: Integrated skills ............................................. 54
4.3. Summary ............................................................................................ 65
Chapter 5: CONCLUSIONS .................................................................. 66
5.1. Recapitulation .................................................................................... 66
5.2. Concluding remarks ........................................................................... 66
5.3. Limitations of the current research ..................................................... 67
5.4. Recommendations and suggestions for a further research................... 68
5.4.1. Recommendations ......................................................................... 68
5.4.2. Suggestions for a further research ................................................. 68
REFERENCES ........................................................................................ 69
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................... 72
APPENDIX 1............................................................................................ 73
APPENDIX 2............................................................................................ 79


Chapter 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1.

Rationale for the research

Idioms have always attracted attention of linguists, although they

were not given enough recognition in the past. The new trends in English
syntactic and semantic studies, however, have thrown a completely different
light on these multi-word units with more or less unpredictable meanings.
Being regarded as something inherently linked with a successful acquisition
of a foreign language, idioms are of great importance in any language
system. With different levels of figurativeness they represent indispensable
semantic elements that help any foreign language speaker sound more
native and proficient. It is obvious that different languages will have
different idioms, both in structure and meaning. Also the repertoire of
idioms will vary from one person to another, depending on their social or
intellectual background.
Human feelings are very complicated as Fernando (1997; 12)
said “Emotions are internal and formless, language, in this case primarily
idioms signifying internal states through images, gives emotions from and
so empowers the language users to concretize the amorphous by bringing
two different experiential gestalts into analogical correspondence”. People
use various means of language to express their different feelings such as joy,
grief, sorrow, fear, anger … The idiom is one of the most popular means
used to express these human feelings in daily communication especially fear
such as “hết hồn hết vía, sợ sái mất thần tài, nổi cả gai ốc”... There have
been some studies of fear by Nguyễn Thị Thủy (2010), of human
feelings by Võ Thanh Quyên (2006) and the thesis entitled “Đối chiếu
thành ngữ chỉ trạng thái tâm lý trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt” by Lâm Thị
1


Hòa Bình (2005) . However, there has been hardly any research into the
idioms expressing fear in English and Vietnamese in terms of culture and

semantic features. Let’s take the case of the idiom “chattering teeth”. In
English, this idiom cannot be translated literally words by words into
Vietnamese. Meanwhile, this idiom is equivalent to such Vietnamese idiom
as “sợ run cầm cập” or longer explanation as “sợ răng va vào nhau cầm
cập”. In this way, differences in idioms expressing fear could cause
difficulties and problems for learners of English and Vietnamese as a
foreign language.
In the process of learning and then teaching English as a foreign
language, the author of this paper herself, has made mistakes some time
when using English idiomatic expressions and translating them from
English into Vietnamese. In spite of the fact that there are various types of
English

idiomatic

expressions

denoting human

being

physical

and mental conditions, those relating to emotion and feelings seem to be the
most difficult and interesting. However, it is due to the limitation of time
and requirement of a master thesis, just “A study on English idioms
denoting “FEAR ” with reference to the Vietnamese and equivalents”
could be taken into consideration.
1.2.

Aims of the research
The thesis aims at investigating the culture and semantic features of

English idioms denoting FEAR with reference to the Vietnamese
equivalents, thus suggesting some possible implications for learning
English.


1.3.

Objectives of research
To achieve the mentioned aims above, the following objectives can be

put forward:
- To find out similarities and differences in semantic features of
English idioms denoting

fear with reference to the Vietnamese

equivalents
- To find out similarities and differences in cultural features of English
idioms denoting fear with reference to the Vietnamese equivalents
- To propose some implications for teaching and learning English
idioms denoting fear
1.4.

Scope of the research
There are a variety of English idiomatic expressions denoting human

feelings. However, due to the time allowance and limited knowledge, it is

impossible to carry out a comprehensive study of all kinds of English
idiomatic expressions. Within the framework of a mater graduation thesis,
English idiomatic expressions denoting fear with reference to the
Vietnamese equivalents could be put under investigation of this thesis.
This thesis mainly focuses on semantic features and cultural features
of English idioms denoting fears and their Vietnamese equivalents. Other
aspects are out of the scope of this study. They, although can be found
somewhere in this paper, are only meant to support of illustrate some
arguments of the author.
1.5.

Significance of the research
The research is expected to contribute an in-depth description of

English idiomatic expressions denoting fear in terms of syntactic and


semantic features with reference to the Vietnamese equivalents, thus making
a certain contribution to help Vietnamese EFL learners to overcome
difficulty in dealing with idioms denoting fear in particular and idioms in
general.
1.6.

Structural organization of the thesis

The study is organized into five chapters: Introduction, Literature
Review, Methodology, Findings and Discussion, and Conclusion.
Chapter 1 - Introduction: presents the rationale to the study, aims and
objectives of the research, scope of the research, significance of the study
and structure of the thesis.

Chapter 2 - Literature Review: provides the readers with the
literature review of the research, which attempts to present the theoretical
background including general understanding about language learning
process, an overview of English idiomatic expressions denoting “FEAR”
and Vietnamese and their equivalents
Chapter 3 - Methodology: describes the research methodology in
details and comprises the information of the subjects, instruments of data
collection and methods of data analysis.
Chapter 4 - Findings and Discussion: presents syntactic and semantic
features of English idiomatic expressions denoting FEAR with reference to
the Vietnamese equivalents. The features are accompanied by statistical
results and the analysis of the data shown in the tables. The later part of
chapter 4 works with some implications for teaching and learning English
idioms denoting fear.


Chapter 5 - Conclusions: summarizes the thesis with concluding
remarks. Also, the limitations of the study are presented with suggestions
for further studies.


Chapter 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Review of previous studies
So far, there have been some studies conducts to find out features and
related aspects of idioms. For example, in her research paper, Nguyen Thi Thu
Hien (2013) studies syntactic and semantic features of idioms expressing
anger in English and Vietnamese.

She analyses 400 idioms denoting

anger in English and Vietnamese in terms of syntax and semantic, and
indicate the distinction between idioms meanings by native speakers of
English and Vietnamese. Syntactically, the classification of the data is
mainly based on the different structural categories, namely: noun phrases,
verb phrases, adjective phrases, prepositional phrases and adverbial
phrases… The study focuses on “the basis of typical semantic and syntactic
features of idioms expressing anger in both languages” (Nguyen Thi Thu
Hien, 2013). With regard to the semantic results, the data reveal that the
meanings of all the collected anger idioms in English and Vietnamese could
be expressed through such means as metaphor, metonymy and symmetry.
Based on the functional grammar viewpoint, the author has investigated
each semantic field based on superficial grammatical structures. In the light
of this approach, idioms are analyzed in forms of phrasal structures and
clause structures in relation to their semantic features. The phrasal structures
could be categorized into noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases
and adverbial phrases. Besides, idioms are also structured by clauses.
Besides, Tran Ngoc Que Chau (2011) compares and contrasts idioms
denoting family in English and Vietnamese in terms of syntax and
semantics. In the syntactic aspects, idioms in English and Vietnamese are
analyzed under phrasal structures. These structures are categorized into


noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases and prepositional phrases.
Semantically, English and Vietnamese idioms denoting family in her study
express their meaning through such means as metaphor, metonymy,
hyperbole and symmetry.
The author of this study finds that examining on idioms denoting fear
is interesting and worth-doing. She, however, does not study the structural
aspect of idioms but desires to look at idioms denoting fear in English and

their Vietnamese equivalents in terms of their meaning and its cultural
aspect. She does hope that she can find out their similarities and differences
in semantic and cultural features, then on that basis propose some
implications for teaching and learning idioms denoting fear in particular and
English idioms in general.
2.2. Review of theoretical background
2.2.1. Theoretical framework
There have been a number of writers making investigations into idioms
with different points of view and objectives. In English, there are some
famous ones being collected and written by researchers such as “The
American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms” by Ammer (2009). In “NTC’s
American Idioms Dictionary”, Spears, R. and Kirkpatrick, (2007) focus on
the meaning, usage and appropriate contexts for each idiomatic phrase.
Nguyễn Lực, Lương Văn Đang (2009) are two authors who made a
significant contribution in the field of Vietnamese idioms. They
wrote “Thành ngữ Tiếng Việt” which is a collection of Vietnamese idioms
arranged in alphabetical order with clear explanations and examples
extracted from Vietnamese novels, newspapers and magazines. Moreover,
Nguyễn Trần Trụ who wrote “Thành ngữ tục ngữ lược giải” (2008)


explains meanings of the most common idioms and proverbs in such simple,
clear ways that learners can use this book for consulting and reference
purposes.
After that, it is the appearance of “Từ điển thành ngữ tục ngữ Việt
Nam” by Đặng Hồng Chương (2007), “1575 Thành ngữ - Tục ngữ cần bàn
thêm” by Lê Gia (2009) … and a number of contrastive studies on the
various aspects of idioms have been carried out by Vietnamese researchers.
Among the important approaches that look into the study of diverse
idioms definition, distinctive features of English idioms, distinction between

idioms, proverbs and some other terms: sayings, phrasal verbs,
colloquialisms and so on. These approaches give insights into
understanding how certain English idiomatic expressions denoting FEAR
with reference to the Vietnamese equivalents could be put under an
investigation.
2.1.2. Theoretical background
2.1.2.1. Idioms
a. Concept of idioms
Language follows the rules but an idiom is one of the interesting
things that are anomalies of language, mavericks of the linguistic world.
The very word idiom comes from the Greek idios- “one’s own, peculiar,
strange”.
According to the definition of Vietnamese Dictionary (Linguistics
Institute -1977) “ Thành ngữ là tập hợp những từ cố định quen dung mà
nghĩa của nó thường không thể giải thích được một cách đơn giản bằng


nghĩa của các từ tạo nên nó” (An idiom is a set of expression whose
meaning is often impossible to deduce from its components)
Examples: Rán sành ra mỡ
Sợ run như cầy sấy
Đâm ba chẻ củ
“An idiom, as Jonathan Crowth (1995) defines, is a phrase whose meaning
is difficult or sometimes impossible to guess by looking at the individual
word it contains” (Advanced Learners’ Dictionary).
Or an idiom can be defined as a number of words which when taken
together, have a different meaning from the individual meaning of each
word.
Jackson, Amvela and Palmer(2000, p.66), share the similar viewpoint
on idiom definition, “an idiom may be defined as a phrase the meaning of

which cannot be predicted from the individual meanings of the morphemes
it comprises”. Palmer (1990), states that an idiom is an expression whose
meaning cannot be inferred from the meanings of its parts. It can be seen
that there are two visible points in their statements. First, an idiom is a
phrase; second, its meaning is not simply the meanings of constituents
making up the phrase. Having the same point of view is Seidle and Mordie
(1978, p.8) who consider “an idiom is a number of words which, taken
together, mean something different from the individual words of the idiom
when they stand alone” Collins has a different way to define idioms but
shares the similar idea. To take the definition by Collins (1995) to
consider, an idiom is a special kind of phrase. It is a group of words
which have a different meaning when used together from the one it would


have if the meaning of each word were taken individually […] idioms are
typical metaphorical: they are effectively metaphors which have become
“fixed‟ or “fossilized‟. In his definition, there are two noticeable terms,
“typical metaphorical” and “fossilized” used to describe idioms.
“Metaphorical‟ could be referred to figurative and non-literal characteristics
of idioms. In the meanwhile, “fossilized” implies unchangeable property of
idioms. It can be seen from the definitions mentioned above; the linguists
have defined idioms just in terms of their semantics and syntax.
Idioms, like proverbs, are common sayings. However, they usually do
not make sense at first sight and do not offer any advice: “to blow one’s
own trumpet”, which means, to praise oneself or boast…
So that, idioms are fixed expressions that are commonly used. They are
not complete sentences but words- An idiom is equal to a phrase.
Idioms do not give comments, experience, a moral lesson, advice that
made idiom aesthetic not educated, that is the reason why an idiom does not
become a literary work- idioms belong to the language.

An example of a Vietnamese idiom “ mặt xanh nanh vàng” or “mặt hoa
da phấn” it only indicates the aesthetic – beauty or fear of a face not a
comment or advice or criticism. Even though an idiom can be ornate and
flowery (aesthetic function): so idioms do not bring about the full
understanding about life and any lesson of the people’s relationship in the
society (function of education and function of comprehension).
To sum up, an idiom is a phrase where the words together have a
meaning that is different from the dictionary definition of the individual
words, which can make idiom hard for English learners to understand..


b. Distinctive features of English idioms
Analysis of the idioms in terms of definition simultaneously
demonstrates some features of idioms. Idioms should be treated as a special
kind of every language. They separate themselves from regular rules
compared with other sorts of a language. In other words, only in idioms the
unacceptability in both meaning and form of a language could exist. If a
sentence “she puts her money where her mouth is” immediately indicates
the meaning via its words, it could be changed into passive voice “her
money is put where her mouth is”. However, strangely enough, following
the same form of every form that could be changed into passive voice
Agent – Action – Recipient, the form mentioned above must not be
employed in passive voice, otherwise, it looks odd. Because, in fact “put
one‘s money where one‘s mouth is” is an idiom, it is therefore necessary
to be known as a fixed unit which does not permit any rearrangement of
its elements. Another aspect of idioms should be put into consideration is
semantics. Whether the sentence he loses his wallet should be treated as
having a meaning directly through words or an idiom denoting “losing a
great deal of money”, it will depend on the context it is embedded with.
That means idioms deal with pragmatics.

b.1. Semantic features of English idioms
It is undoubted that meaning is the most important factor when
talking about semantic feature of idioms. Figurative meaning is the basic
characteristic of idioms which helps to decide whether a fixed expression is
an idiom or not. Here is an idiom to exemplify: “to take one’s medicine” (to
accept something unpleasant, for instance, punishment, without protesting
or complaining) in Vietnamese we have “thuốc đắng dã tật, sự thật mất
lòng”.


However, the meaning of these idioms can be guessed from the
meaning of their components. The meaning of an idiom is either partly or
completely different from the meaning of all components. In case of any
partial difference, their figurative meaning is not different from the literal
one. The partly different ones are such as kill two birds with one stone, to
cut a long story short, in seven heaven, etc.
Besides, idioms can convey positive, neutral, or negative meanings.
For the first group, conveying positive meaning we have some examples
such as a fair godmother (a person who helps you unexpectedly when you
most need help), the fruit(s) of something (the good result of an activity or a
situation), be (all) plain sailing (be simple and free from trouble). The
second group, examples of idioms expressing neutral meaning we have take
a/the hint (understand what somebody wants you to do, even though they
tell you in an indirect way), in somebody’s shoes (be in somebody’s
position), bring something home to somebody (make somebody realize how
important, difficult or serious something is). And in the last group typical
examples of idioms with negative meanings are monkey business (dishonest
or silly behavior), a mummy’s boy (a boy or man who is thought to be too
weak because he is influenced and controlled by his mother), a fairweathered friend (somebody who is only a friend when it is pleasant for
them, and stops being a friend when you are in trouble).

According to Johnson-Laird (1993: vii), idioms are illogical and
frustrating features of discourse since their meanings do not depend on
the meanings of their parts and the syntactic relations of those parts.
English idioms are not only extraordinary in terms of their syntax as
analyzed but their semantics also.


While Philip (2007) believes that the ease with which an idiom can
be interpreted is based on its level of semantic transparency as well as truth
conditions and other contextual cues. As regards the level of semantic
transparency, an idiom varies from opacity to transparence. An idiom is
transparent if the expression is straightforwardly connected to its meaning,
without much semantic re-elaboration, for example mind/ watch your
language can easily bring out the meaning “be careful about what you say
in order not to upset or offend someone” at first sight. At the contrary level
to transparence is opacity when there is arbitrariness between the idiom’s
expression and its meaning, for example, “call the shots” has nothing to
do

with “be in control” since the relationship

between them is

unmotivated and the product of conventionalization. In the view of Gill
Philip, it is not easy to decide whether the idiom is transparent or not, as “it
is affected by the individual’s real-world knowledge, awareness of cultural
norms, and general familiarity with the phrase”.
Sharing the same points of view with Philip (1996), but Fernando
makes it more concrete by classifying idioms and bringing out necessary
criteria accompanied with. According to Fernando, in her book Idioms

and

Idiomaticity

(1996),

the

degree

of literalness leads to the

classification of idioms into pure idioms, semi-idioms and literal idioms as
follows:
Pure idioms are non-literal and conventionalized, therefore invariant,
which means that the meaning is completely figurative. The only way
to deduce the meaning of a pure idiom is to learn and memorize.
For instance:
kick the bucket means die


do a bunk means do a bunk with somebody"
It resists interruption by other words whether they are semantically
compatible or not.
Semi-idioms have at least one literal constituent sense and at least
one non-literal constituent sense. Thus invariance or permission of
restricted variance in the structure occurs in this kind of idioms.
There will be a part of the idiom whose meaning can be referred.
Consider:
A necessary evil (a thing that is unpleasant or even harmful, but which must

be accepted because it brings some benefit) “necessary” is the part that have
the literal meaning “must be”
A new man (a man who shares the work in the home that is traditionally
done by women, such as cleaning, cooking and taking care of the children)
Literal idioms have non-literal element in their meaning, are hence
less complicated than pure idioms and semi-idioms, which means that the
meaning will immediately be deduced from the meanings of every word.
Invariance and restriction on variance are found in literal idioms.
For example:
Take your chances (make as much use as you can or your opportunities)
In every nook and cranny (everywhere; all part of a place)
Most English idioms are based on conceptual metaphor or
metonymy, which is another salient feature of idioms and known as
metaphoricity. This feature explains for the case why the idiom is difficult


to be controlled and mastered. The idiom cock-and-bull story is based on
metaphor, denoting a story that is unlikely to be true but is used as an
explanation or excuse. Sense of “a/ per head” is based on the metonymy,
denoting “for each person”.
In short, idioms can be motivated, partially – motivated and non –
motivated. Also, idiomatic expressions can convey positive, neutral, or
negative meanings.
b.2. Cultural features of idioms
Culture and language are means of collective co-existence and social
practice kept in the memory of the society that is created by the people
during the centuries. Cultural awareness helps people to become more
understanding and tolerant of behaviors which are different from their own.
Difference between cultures causes some misunderstandings in the
interactive communications between a foreigner and a native-speaker.

Millions of people travel around the world and they all need to
communicate in some way. They need to acquire not only linguistic
competence but cultural awareness as well. Cross-cultural investigations can
provide materials that assist language learners to deal with the problems of
unknown environments. The native speaker puts in language his world
vision, mentality, and the relation to other people in cross-cultural dialogue,
and the non-native speaker receives that vision. “It is clear that there is a
difference between the native and the non-native speakers’ focus when they
evaluate an oral discourse. The former focuses on the vocabulary related to
the cultural and social factors. On the other hand, the latter lacks the ability
to consider such factors. This is one of the major problems of the non-native


speakers both at production and comprehension level (Kenan Dikilitaş,
2012).
Language and culture exist in each individual person. That individual
is a thinker, a creator, a transmitter of the culture, he is the part of the
society, and he uses the language for communication with other members of
this society where he is supposed to be understood as they belong to the
same community. But the indispensable condition of realization of any
communication is that a speaker and a listener should have a mutual
knowledge of realities or the background knowledge as a basis of a
language interaction to understand each other. A “Language world picture”
gives a non-native speaker the opportunity to realize the implicit meaning of
the vocabulary through explicit meaning, to understand cumulated
unconscious cultural information via background knowledge, to investigate
cultural values via communicative process, to synthesize interrelation and
interaction of the culture and the language.
Special interest should be drawn to idioms which are the most
difficult items of language. If one can use them correctly in the

communication, like native speakers, we say definitely that one’s English is
fluent. The lingua-cultural approach in teaching phraseology aspires to be
approached to reality; it is focused on the maximum explication of processes
which occur in the reproduction and perception of the English idioms.
It can be stated that idioms should be viewed as a cultural-based
language unit. Obviously, an idiom most often reflects the national
specificity of the people. It is a figurative interpretation of reality and an
emotional model of communication. Idioms are highly interactive items.
They are strong and colorful examples of cross-cultural relations. The
source of their origin is sometimes difficult to ascertain. They are firmly