Wiley Advanced Cellular Network Planning And Optimisation _ www.bit.ly/taiho123

ADVANCED CELLULAR
NETWORK PLANNING
AND OPTIMISATION
2G/2.5G/3G. . . EVOLUTION TO 4G

Edited by
Ajay R Mishra
Nokia Networks



ADVANCED CELLULAR
NETWORK PLANNING
AND OPTIMISATION



ADVANCED CELLULAR
NETWORK PLANNING
AND OPTIMISATION
2G/2.5G/3G. . . EVOLUTION TO 4G

Edited by
Ajay R Mishra
Nokia Networks


Copyright

C

2007

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,
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Dedicated
to
The Lotus Feet of my Guru



Contents
Forewords

xiii

Acknowledgements

xvii

Introduction

xix

1
1.1
1.2

1.3

1.4

2

Cellular Networks
Ajay R Mishra
Introduction
First Generation Cellular Networks
1.2.1 NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephony)
1.2.2 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)
Second Generation Cellular Networks
1.3.1 D-AMPS (Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System)
1.3.2 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
1.3.3 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)
1.3.4 GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
1.3.5 EDGE (Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution)
Third Generation Cellular Networks
1.4.1 CDMA2000
1.4.2 UMTS
1.4.3 HSDPA in UMTS

Radio Network Planning and Optimisation

Johanna K¨ahk¨onen, Nezha Larhrissi, Cameron Gillis, Mika S¨arkioja, Ajay R
Mishra and Tarun Sharma
2.1 Radio Network Planning Process
2.1.1 Network Planning Projects
2.1.2 Network Planning Project Organisation
2.1.3 Network Planning Criteria and Targets
2.1.4 Network Planning Process Steps
2.2 Preplanning in a GSM Radio Network
2.2.1 GSM Network Planning Criteria
2.2.2 Introducing GPRS in the GSM Network
2.2.3 Introducing EGPRS in the GSM Network
2.2.4 WCDMA in UMTS
2.3 Radio Network Dimensioning
2.3.1 Link Budget Calculations

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viii

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

3
3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

Contents

2.3.2 Dimensioning in the EGPRS Network
2.3.3 Dimensioning in the WCDMA Radio Network
Radio Wave Propagation
2.4.1 Okumura–Hata Model
2.4.2 Walfish–Ikegami Model
2.4.3 Ray Tracing Model
2.4.4 Model Tuning
Coverage Planning
2.5.1 Coverage Planning in GSM Networks
2.5.2 Coverage Planning in EGPRS
2.5.3 Coverage Planning in WCDMA Networks
Capacity Planning
2.6.1 Capacity Planning in GSM Networks
2.6.2 EGPRS Capacity Planning
2.6.3 Capacity Planning in WCDMA Networks
Frequency Planning
2.7.1 Power Control

2.7.2 Discontinuous Transmission
2.7.3 Frequency Hopping
2.7.4 Interference Analysis
Parameter Planning
2.8.1 Parameter Planning in the GSM Network
2.8.2 Parameter Planning in the EGPRS Network
2.8.3 Parameter Planning in the WCDMA Network
Radio Network Optimisation
2.9.1 GSM Radio Network Optimisation Process
2.9.2 Optimisation in the EGPRS Network
2.9.3 Optimisation in the WCDMA Network

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Transmission Network Planning and Optimisation
Ajay R Mishra and Jussi Viero
Access Transmission Network Planning Process
3.1.1 Master Planning
3.1.2 Detail Planning
Fundamentals of Transmission
3.2.1 Modulations
3.2.2 Multiple Access Schemes
Digital Hierarchies – PDH and SDH
3.3.1 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
3.3.2 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
3.3.3 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Microwave Link Planning
3.4.1 Microwave Link
3.4.2 Microwave Tower
3.4.3 Microwave Link Design
3.4.4 LOS Check
3.4.5 Link Budget Calculation
3.4.6 Repeaters

Microwave Propagation
3.5.1 Slow Fading

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Contents

ix

3.5.2 Fast Fading

3.5.3 Overcoming Fading
3.6 Interface Planning
3.6.1 Abis Planning
3.6.2 Dynamic Abis
3.6.3 Interface Planning in the UMTS Access Transmission Network
3.7 Topology Planning
3.8 Frequency Planning and Interference
3.8.1 Loop Protection
3.9 Equipment Planning
3.9.1 BSC and TCSM Planning
3.10 Timeslot Planning
3.10.1 Linear TS Allocation
3.10.2 Block TS Allocation
3.10.3 TS Grouping
3.10.4 TS Planning in the EDGE Network
3.12 Transmission Management
3.12.1 Element Master
3.12.2 Management Buses
3.13 Parameter Planning
3.13.1 BTS/AXC Parameters
3.13.2 RNC Parameters
3.14 Transmission Network Optimisation
3.14.1 Definition of Transmission
3.14.2 GSM/EDGE Transmission Network Optimisation
3.14.3 UMTS Transmission Network Optimisation

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4

315

Core Network Planning and Optimisation
James Mungai, Sameer Mathur, Carlos Crespo and Ajay R Mishra

Part I Circuit Switched Core Network Planning and Optimisation
4.1 Network Design Process
4.1.1 Network Assessment
4.1.2 Network Dimensioning
4.2 Detailed Network Planning
4.3 Network Evolution
4.3.1 GSM Network
4.3.2 3GPP Release 99 Network
4.3.3 3GPP Release 4 Network
4.3.4 3GPP Release 5 and 6 Networks
4.4 3GPP Release 4 Circuit Core Network
4.4.1 Release 4 Core Network Architecture
4.4.2 CS Network Dimensioning
4.5 CS Core Detailed Network Planning
4.5.1 Control Plane Detailed Planning
4.5.2 Control Plane Routing
4.6 User Plane Detailed Planning
4.6.1 Configuring Analyses in the MSS
4.6.2 Routing Components of the MSC Server
4.6.3 User Plane Routing

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Contents

4.7 CS Core Network Optimisation
4.7.1 Key Performance Indicators
4.7.2 Network Measurements
4.7.3 CS Core Network Audit
4.7.4 Audit Results Analysis
4.7.5 Network Optimisation Results

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Part II Packet Switched Core Network Planning and Optimisation
4.8 Introduction to the PS Core Network
4.8.1 Basic MPC Concepts
4.8.2 Packet Routing (PDP Context)
4.8.3 Interface of the GPRS with the 2G GSM Network
4.9 IP Addressing
4.9.1 Types of Network
4.9.2 Dotted-Decimal Notation
4.9.3 Subnetting
4.10 IP Routing Protocols
4.11 Dimensioning
4.11.1 GPRS Protocol Stacks and Overheads
4.12 IP backbone Planning and Dimensioning
4.12.1 Current Network Assessment
4.12.2 Dimensioning of the IP Backbone
4.12.3 Bandwidth Calculations
4.13 Mobile Packet Core Architecture Planning
4.13.1 VLAN
4.13.2 Iu-PS Interface
4.13.3 Gn Interface Planning
4.13.4 Gi Interface Planning
4.13.5 Gp Interface Planning
4.14 Packet Core Network Optimisation
4.14.1 Packet Core Optimisation Approaches
4.14.2 Packet Core Optimisation – Main Aspects
4.14.3 Key Performance Indicators
4.14.4 KPI Monitoring
4.15 Security
4.15.1 Planning for Security

4.15.2 Operational Security
4.15.3 Additional Security Aspects
4.16 Quality of Service
4.16.1 Introduction to QoS
4.16.2 QoS Environment
4.16.3 QoS Process
4.16.4 QoS Performance Management

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Fourth Generation Mobile Networks
Ajay R Mishra
5.1 Beyond 3G
5.2 4G Network Architecture
5.3 Feature Framework in a 4G Network
5.3.1 Diversity in a 4G Network
5.4 Planning Overview for 4G Networks

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Contents

5.4.1 Technologies in Support of 4G
5.4.2 Network Architectures in 4G
5.4.3 Network Planning in 4G Networks
5.5 OFDM
5.5.1 What Is OFDM?
5.5.2 MIMO Systems
5.6 All-IP Network
5.6.1 Planning Model All-IP Architecture
5.6.2 Quality of Service
5.7 Challenges and Limitations of 4G Networks
5.7.1 Mobile Station
5.7.2 Wireless Network
5.7.3 Quality of Service

xi

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427
428

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435
435
435
437

Appendix A: Roll-Out Network Project Management
Joydeep Hazra
A.1 Project Execution
A.2 Network Implementation
A.2.1 Site Selection and Acquisition
A.2.2 Provision of Site Support Elements
A.2.3 Site Planning and Equipment Installation
A.2.4 Legal Formalities and Permissions
A.2.5 Statutory and Safety Requirements
A.3 Network Commissioning and Integration
A.3.1 Confirming the Checklist
A.3.2 Powering-Up and System Precheck
A.3.3 Commissioning
A.3.4 Inspection and Alarm Testing
A.3.5 Parameter Finalisation
A.3.6 Tools and Macros
A.3.7 Integration of Elements
A.3.8 System Verification and Feature Testing
A.3.9 System Acceptance
A.4 Care Phase
A.4.1 Care Agreement
A.4.2 Care Services
A.4.3 Other Optional O&M Assistance Services

439

Appendix B: HSDPA
Rafael S´anchez-Mej´ıas
B.1 Introduction
B.2 HSDPA Performance
B.3 Main Changes in HSDPA
B.3.1 HSDPA Channels
B.3.2 MAC Layer Split
B.3.3 Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC) Scheme
B.3.4 Error Correction (HARQ)
B.3.5 Fast Packet Scheduling
B.3.6 Code Multiplexing (Optional)
B.3.7 Impact on the Iub Interface
B.4 Handset Capabilities

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xii

Contents

B.5 HSDPA Planning and Dimensioning
B.5.1 Planning Basics
B.5.2 HSDPA Dimensioning

B.5.3 HSDPA Planning
B.6 Further Evolution: Release 6 HSDPA, HSUPA and HSPA
B.6.1 HSDPA Release 6 Improvements
B.6.2 HSUPA

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Appendix C: Digital Video Broadcasting
Lino Dalma
C.1 Introduction
C.2 Handheld Television: Viewing Issues
C.3 System Issues of DVB-H and Broadband Wireless
C.4 Mobile Broadcasting
C.5 Mobile Broadcasting
C.5.1 DVB-H Technology Overview
C.6 DVB-H Introduction
C.6.1 Motivation for Creating DVB-H
C.6.2 Overview of Mobile TV Broadcasting Technology (DVB-H)
C.6.3 Overview of DVB-T
C.6.4 DVB-H Innovative Elements
C.6.5 DVB-T and DVB-H Coexistence
Conclusion

483

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488
490
491
492

Appendix D: TETRA Network Planning
Massimiliano Mattina
D.1 TETRA Standard
D.2 TETRA Services
D.3 TETRA Network Elements
D.4 TETRA Main Features
D.4.1 Physical Layer
D.4.2 TETRA Memorandum of Understanding
D.5 Introduction to TETRA Network Planning
D.5.1 Radio Network Planning
D.5.2 Traffic Capacity Planning

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496

499
500
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503
505

Suggested Reading

507

Index

511


Forewords
Mobile Revolution
A global revolution is going on – and most people do not even realise that it is happening. I am talking
about the Mobile Revolution.
During each of the next 5 years there will be about 350 million additional people on this earth who
will be connected to the communications network or, in other words, 1 million new subscribers every
day or 10 new subscribers every second. By the time you will have finished reading this page, another
1000 more people will have become members of the global communications community. For most of
them it will not only be their first mobile phone, it will be their first phone, and for at least half of them
it will be their first camera, their first music player and, of course, their first Internet access.
Mobile Revolution is a big word, you might say. Why not be more humble and call it a Mobile
Evolution? Actually, the growth pattern of the cellular industry in the 1990s was very much evolutionary.
However, in the last couple of years the momentum has attained a different quality. From making voice
mobile we are moving to all aspects of our lives. Mobile music, mobile TV, mobile email and mobile office

all allow us to liberate ourselves from a fixed location. People no longer need to rush back home in order
not to miss the first minutes of a sports event on television and sales people update their sales catalogue
and price lists over-the-air directly into the mobile device on the way to their clients. Mobile services
with video capabilities have the capacity to transform the way production plants are being monitored
and maintained. Complete value chains are just now being redefined. Sociologists have started academic
studies on the effect of mobile communications on societies, for instance regarding community building
among teenagers. Whereas tribal behaviour among teenagers used to be tied to a certain location, e.g. the
local park, communities nowadays are formed through communications devices irrespective of location.
This will have a significant effect on the way societies will develop.
In April 1991, I saw the first commercial GSM Base Station in the field. Most probably the last pieces of
this first generation equipment have long found their way into the technical museums of this world. Since
then thousands of innovative and experienced engineers have worked together in order to take technology
from GSM to GPRS, EDGE, WCDMA and HSPA; soft switching is replacing traditional switching
concepts and IP technology enables true technology and service convergence. The true challenge of the
future, however, does not lie in bringing even higher speeds into the networks or in connecting even
more people faster. In my mind the real engineering masterpiece will be to create superior quality-ofexperience for the end user. Consumers are not interested at all in three- or four-letter abbreviations, let
alone in understanding how they work. Consumers want ease-of-use and superior quality – anytime and
anywhere. The ultimate engineering challenge is to understand the desired experience and implement
the technical ecosystem from the user interface and the operating system of the mobile device through
the radio network and the air interface, passing through the application middleware and connecting to
the Internet, the voice network or the corporate environment.
Mobile networks enable an uninterrupted phone conversation to be enjoyed while driving on German
motorways with no speed limits at speeds of 200 km/h with handovers every 50–60 s or allow businessmen
to check their emails while riding elevators in some of the highest buildings in the world in Shanghai or


xiv

Forewords

Hong Kong. However, do they know about the technology behind it, the radio propagation, the cell design,
the handover optimisation or the latency management? Imagine what technical understanding is needed
to plan, design, implement and optimise the service and the network, end-to-end. Broadband, real-time
services like video calls are just being added as an additional dimension to the already complex equation.
Both the service providers and operators need to have a detailed understanding of what is required to
create a quality network for mobile users in order to provide them with a quality experience. This is
where this book Advanced Cellular Network Planning and Optimisation comes in handy. Covering the
aspects that are required to design and optimise various types of networks ranging from GSM to EGPRS
to UMTS and across all domains, radio, transmission and core, this book will definitely help people in
the cellular industry to get their networks to a level where the subscribers will have a quality experience.
Also, with an introduction to fourth generation technologies, this book offers a window towards what the
future has in store for us.
In this book, Ajay R Mishra and his colleagues have put in their years of experience, ranging from
the R&D labs to actual network planning in the field across all six continents, on paper for the benefit of
professionals in the mobile industry.
One hundred years ago, railways and roads were built in order to connect cities. The Internet is
connecting computers and machines. The Mobile Revolution is now connecting the world – connecting
people and their lives.
Bosco Novak
Senior Vice President and General Manager
Nokia Networks
Dusseldorf, Germany

On the Crossroads of History
The mobile telecommunications industry has reached an important crossroads in its development: one
road leads to a maturing 2G voice-centric end user industry, while the other offers incredible possibilities
for end users to enjoy a variety of data-centric 3G services on top of the conventional voice services.
The profitability of the industry is at reasonably high levels, although the industry still suffers from
infrastructure overcapacity, which arguably leads to aggressive price reductions as mobile operators
fight for market share. The recent strong growth in 2G mobile subscribers, in emerging markets in

particular, resulted in the expected passing of the 2 billion benchmark in mobile subscriptions during the
year 2005. The long-awaited issuance of 3G licenses in China and the start of 3G roll-outs in the US
should take place during 2006. In Western Europe, where 3G services have been launched commercially,
subscriber adoption has remained below previous forecasts, despite the coverage build-outs in urban
areas.
It is believed that data offers – not only to offset declining voice ARPUs (annual revenues per user) –
substantial additional revenue opportunities for mobile operators. The current data revenues account for
16 per cent of ARPU. Moving to higher data speed technologies, such as WCDMA/HSDPA and CDMA
1X/EV-DO, which are specifically designed for higher data throughput and capacity, can greatly boost
operators’ revenues.
The competitive outlook of the telecommunications industry calls for a new approach in managing
costs: one has to go beyond cost cutting and find the underlying ways to improve efficiency, while
delivering value-added services for mobile end users. One solution lies in the planning and optimisation
of networks, through which improved asset utilisation and fine-tuned add-on network investments can
be achieved, which in turn enable enhanced network performance.
The challenges in the planning and optimisation of networks are exhaustively covered by Ajay R
Mishra and his colleagues in this book. Notwithstanding their several publications on the subject area,


Forewords

xv

they have been able to maintain a direct involvement with the actual network planning and optimisation
discipline. This rare combination is evident throughout the text. In addition to academic soundness, this
book offers hands-on guidance to solve a variety of practical network planning and optimisation issues.
Timo S. Hanninen
Vice President
Nokia Networks
Helsinki, Finland

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank, on behalf of all the contributors, various people within the organisation who
encouraged each of us to write this book. Firstly, I would like to thank Kari Suneli and Antti Rahikainen
for their immense encouragement to take on this project.
I would like to also thank Veli-Pekka Somila, Reema Malhotra and Juha Sarkioja for their support in
the difficult times in the course of this project.
Special thanks are due to the following colleagues and friends for taking time to contribute and read
the manuscript and give their valuable comments: Johanna K¨ahk¨onen, Nezha Larhrissi, Tarun Sharma,
Cameron Gillis, Mika S¨arkioja, Jussi Viero, Sameer Mathur, James Mungai, Carlos Crespo, Pauli Aikio,
Tomi Nurmi, Olli Nousia, Manuel Blasco, Christophe Landemaine, and Irina Nicolescu.
Many thanks are due to Bosco Novak and Timo Hanninen for donating their precious time to write
the visionary forewords for this book.
I would like to also thank students of University of Delhi, Rajat Budhiraja and Sandeep Makker, whose
contributions during the course of writing this book were immense.
Thanks are also due to Azizah Aziz for helping me during the last phases of writing this book. I would
also like to thank Joydeep Hazra, Rafael Sanchez, Massimiliano Mattina and Lino Dalma who provided
the material for the appendices.
A big thanks goes to the team at John Wiley & Sons for their guidance and legendary patience during
the course of writing this book.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents Mrs Sarojini Devi Mishra and Mr Bhumitra Mishra who gave
me the inspiration to undertake this project and deliver it to the best of my capability.
Ajay R Mishra



Introduction
With each passing day, the maturity level of the mobile user and the complexity level of the cellular

network reaches a new high. The networks are no more ‘traditional’ GSM networks, but a complex
mixture of 2G, 2.5G and 3G technologies. Not only this, but new technologies beyond 3G are being
utilised in these cellular networks. The very existence of all these technologies in one cellular network
has brought the work of designing and optimisation of the networks to be viewed from a different
perspective. Gone are the days of planning GSM, EGPRS or WCDMA networks individually. Now
the cellular network business is about dimensioning for new and advanced technologies, planning and
optimising 3G networks, while upgrading 2G/2.5G networks. This is not to mention the hard work
required to maintain these networks in the phases after designing, implementing and commissioning.
This book has been written keeping the present day in mind. There are many instances where a practical
approach has been followed in writing this book; e.g. problems faced by design and optimisation engineers
have been provided with the solutions in an easy-to-follow approach. The project management related
issues that have an impact on network planning have been covered as it gives the reader an insight into the
real life situation. For this purpose an appendix on project management in the roll-out project has been
included, giving the reader an end-to-end view of a roll-out project process. Though the fundamentals
for most of the concepts are covered in the book Fundamentals of Cellular Network Planning and
Optimisation (published by John Wiley & Sons, 2004), some places in this book do have some basic
concepts for the benefit of the reader. However, Fundamentals is highly recommended.
The book has been divided into five chapters. The first chapter deals with the introduction to the cellular
networks. This chapter takes us on a journey from the first generation to the third generation networks.
Chapter 2 describes radio network planning and optimisation. The chapter deals with the issues of
planning and optimisation for GSM, EGPRS and WCDMA networks. Every time a concept is explained,
e.g. planning in GSM, it is followed by planning in EGPRS networks followed by planning in WCDMA
networks. This is done while keeping in mind the philosophy behind this book. It will give the engineer
working in the field quick information on how he/she should handle a particular technology network.
Chapter 3 discusses transmission network planning and optimisation. Microwave planning has been
covered in much more detail for the benefit of the transmission/microwave planning engineers. PDH,
SDH and ATM have been covered in much more detail as compared to Fundamentals. Again the writing
methodology is similar to Chapter 2.
Chapter 4 is about core network planning and optimisation. This chapter is divided into two parts: circuit
switched core and packet switched core network planning and optimisation. As core planning engineers

are aware, the planning of core networks these days is based on releases, e.g. release 99, release 4,
etc. Therefore the presentation is based on the release rather than the technologies (GSM, EGPRS, etc.).
Chapter 5 discusses technologies beyond 3G. However, as the standardisation for 4G is not yet there,
we have just tried to touch this field from the perspective of the design engineers in the field, so that they
have some idea of what is to come.
A few appendices are also given. These appendices contributed by the experts in the respective fields
deal with aspects such as Cellular Network Roll-Out Project Management, High Speed Packet Switched


xx

Introduction

Data, Digital Video Broadcasting and TETRA Network Planning. I hope that engineers will find these
extremely useful for their work.
In the end, there is a list of carefully chosen books and papers that I am sure the reader will find useful.
I would be very grateful if readers would send in feedback to , making any
comments/suggestions that might improve the book.
Ajay R Mishra
(Editor)


1
Cellular Networks
Ajay R Mishra

1.1 Introduction
The cellular technology evolution has been going on since the late 1950s, though the first commercial
systems came into being in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Here is a brief overview of the cellular
technologies and the networks that made an impact on the development and the fast evolution of the

mobile communications.

1.2 First Generation Cellular Networks
Since the late 1970s when the cellular era started, mobile communication has gone through an evolutionary
change every decade in terms of technology and usage. Japan took the lead in the development of
cellular technology, which resulted in the deployment of the first cellular networks in Tokyo. Within a
couple of years Nordic Mobile Telephony (NMT) started cellular operations in Europe. Along with it,
systems such as AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) started in the USA, while TACS (Total Access
Communication System) started in the UK. These formed a part of what was called ‘First Generation
Mobile Systems’, which catered for speech services and were based on analogue transmission techniques.
The geographical area was divided into small sectors, each called a cell. Hence, the technology came
to be known as cellular technology while the phones were called cell phones. All the systems that were
initially developed were quite incompatible with each other. Each of these networks implemented their
own standards. Facilities such as roaming within the continent were impossible and most countries had
only one operator. The penetration was also low; e.g. penetration in Sweden was just 7 %, while countries
like Portugal had a penetration of only 0.7 %. Handsets were also expensive, the minimum being more
than $1000. Apart from higher costs and incompatibility with other cellular networks, first generation
technology also had an inherent limitation in terms of channels, etc.

1.2.1 NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephony)
The NMT mobile phone system was created in 1981 as a response to the increasing congestion and heavy
requirements of the ARP (auto radio puhelin, or car radio phone) mobile phone network. The technical
principles of NMT were ready by 1973 and specifications for base stations were ready in 1977. It is based
Advanced Cellular Network Planning and Optimisation
C 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Edited by Ajay R Mishra


2

Cellular Networks

on analogue technology (first generation or 1G) and two variants exist: NMT 450 and NMT 900. The
numbers indicate the frequency bands used. NMT 900 was introduced in 1986 because it carries more
channels than the previous NMT 450 network. The NMT network has mainly been used in the Nordic
countries, Baltic countries and Russia, but also in the Middle East and in Asia. NMT had automatic
switching built into the standard from the beginning. Additionally, the NMT standard specified billing
and roaming. The NMT specifications were free and open, allowing many companies to produce NMT
hardware and pushing prices down. A disadvantage of the original NMT specification is that traffic was
not encrypted. Thus, anyone willing to listen in would just have to buy a scanner and tune it to the correct
frequency. As a result, some scanners have had the NMT bands ‘deleted’ so they could not be accessed.
This is not particularly effective as it is not very difficult to obtain a scanner that does not have these
restrictions; it is also possible to re-program a scanner so that the ‘deleted’ bands can be accessed. Later
versions of the NMT specifications defined optional analogue encryption, which was based on two-band
audio frequency inversion. If both the base station and the mobile station supported encryption, they
could agree upon using it when initiating a phone call. Also, if two users had mobile stations supporting
encryption, they could turn it on during conversation, even if the base stations did not support it. In
this case audio would be encrypted all the way between the two mobile stations. While the encryption
method was not at all as strong as encryption in newer digital phones, it did prevent casual listening with
scanners. The cell sizes in an NMT network range from 2 km to 30 km. With smaller ranges the network
can service more simultaneous callers; e.g. in a city the range can be kept short for better service. NMT
used full duplex transmission, allowing for simultaneous receiving and transmission of voice. Car phone
versions of NMT used transmission power of up to 6 watts and handsets up to 1 watt. Signalling between
the base station and the mobile station was implemented using the same RF channel that was used for
audio, and using the 1200 bps (bits per second) FFSK modem. This caused the periodic short noise bursts
that were uniquely characteristic of NMT sound.

1.2.2 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)
The first cellular licences in the US were awarded in 1981, and the cellular services started in 1983 in

Chicago and The Baltimore–Washington area using the AMPS. The AMPS was based on the FDMA
(frequency division multiple access) technology, which allowed multiple users in a cell or cell sector.
Initially, cell size was not fixed and an eight mile radius was used in urban areas and a twenty-five mile
radius in rural areas. However, as the number of users began to increase, new cells were added. With the
addition of every new cell, the frequency plan was to be re-done to be able to avoid interference related
problems. This system not only had capacity related problems, but the security system was also poor.
If you are able to get hold of another person’s serial code, it would be possible to make illegal calls.
Although efforts were made to address these problems, especially the ones related to capacity, the results
were not sufficient and the industry started to look into other options, such as the next generation digital
systems. The TACS was similar to the AMPS and operated in the 900 MHz frequency range.

1.3 Second Generation Cellular Networks
Due to the incompatibility of the various systems in place, the European commission started a series
of discussions that tried to change the then existing telecommunication regulatory framework, leading
to a more harmonised environment which resulted in the development of a common market for the
telecommunication services and equipment. In the early 1990s, digital transmission technology came
into force, bringing with it the next generation system, called the ‘Second Generation Mobile System’.
Digitisation means that the sound of the speaker’s voice was processed in a way that imitated a human
ear through techniques such as sampling and filtering. This made it possible for many more mobile users
to be accommodated in the radio spectrum. Key 2G systems in this generation included GSM (Global