Handbook of chemical industry labeling charles j OConnor, sidney i haber

HANDBOOK
OF
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
LABELING

Edited by

Charles J. O'Connor
Labeling and Hazard Analysis Consultant
Greens Farms, Connecticut

Sidney 1. Lirtzman
Baruch College
City University of New York
New York, New York

NOYES PUBLICATIONS
Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA


Copyright 0 1 9 8 4 by Noyes Publications
No part o f this book may be reproduced in any form
without permission in writing from the Publisher.
Library of Congrerr Catalog Card Number: 83-22108
ISBN 0-8155-09a4
Published in the United States of America b y
Noyes Publications
Mill Road, Park Ridge, New Jersey 07656
1098765

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:
Handbook of chemical industry labeling.
Includes bibliographies and index.
1. Chemicals- -Labeling- -Law and legislation- -United
States. 2. Products liability- -Chemical productsUnited States. 3. Chemicals- Labeling- -United States.
1. O'Connor, Charles J.
KF3958.H36 1984 344.73'0424
83-22108
ISBN 081!j6.0966-0 347.304424

-

-


Contributors

Adria C. Casey
Stauffer Chemical Company
Westport, CT

Donald G. MacKellar
Toxigenics, Inc.
Decatur, IL

Harry Fund
Labelmaster
Chicago, IL

Richard Moriarty

National Poison Center
Children’s Hospital
Pittsburgh, PA

Anthony J. G m o
The City College of New York and
the Mount Sinai School of
Medicine
New York, New York

Charles J. O’Connor
Labeling and Hazard Analysis
Consultant
Greens Farms, CT

John E. Gillick
Kirby, Gillick, Schwartz and
Tuohey, P.C.
Washington, D.C.

Flo H. Ryer
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Washington, D.C.

Steven D. Jellinek
Jellinek Associates, Inc.
Washington, D.C.

Norma Skolnik

International Playtex, Inc.
Paramus, N.J.

Sidney I. Lirtzman
Graduate School and University
Center and Baruch College
City University of New York
New York, NY

Robert M. Sussman
Covington and Burling
Washington, DC

Jennifer Machlin
Orrick, Herrington and Sutcliffe
San Francisco, CA

James Toupin
Covington and Burling
Washington, DC

xi


xii

Contributors

Jay A. Young
Consultant

Silver Spring, MD

David F. Zoll
Chemical Manufacturers Association
Washington, D.C.


Preface

This handbook presents for the first time, in a single volume, a concise treatment of a long negleded subjectChemica1Industry Labeling. The necessity
for such a volume has long existed and has been highlighted in recent months
by news of newly legislated worker and public "Right to Know" obligations in
Connecticut, California, New York, New Jersey, and Philadelphia as well as
the recently published Federal OSHA Hazard Communication Standard.
"he need for informative labeling in the workplace, transportation, distribution and disposal operations has been formally recognized in various city, state
and Federal statutes and regulations. Society at large has demanded increased
information on chemical producta for many years; organized labor has long
been in the f o r e h n t for an improved hazard label communication program;
and the chemical industry published the first label guide for its members in
1938, and has updated its guide to precautionary labeling periodically,
culminating in 1976 as the American National Stundurd (2129.1)for the Precautionary Labeling of Hazardous Zndustrial Chemicals.
It was the need to serve these three major populatiom+labor, industry, and
the public--that led to publication of this handbook. It is designed to provide
an in-depth review of, and act as a source for the major elements of a Hazard
Label Communication Program.
Today, labeling is defined as all written, printed and graphic material that
accompanies or may accompany a product. In some cases it may include advertising and material data sheets. It is sometimes referred to as product communication, or product information.
Typically, a label provides information on what the product is, what it does,
how to use it, how not to use it, and how to dispose of it, what to do if a fire.
occurs, or a spill or leak, and first aid when appropriate.

A chemical label should include the name of the chemical in sufficient detail
to permit (1)medical treatment in case of a n accident and (2) appropriate and
effective emergency response in case of fire, spill or leak. Medical instructions
should be written by a n occupational health physician. An additional prudent


vi

Preface

step would be to review such instructions with the National Poison Control
Center in Pittsburgh.
This Center run by Richard Moriarity is probably the best single source of
information for the emergency treatment of consumer and occupational chemical exposure. Operated by physicians, nurses and pharmacists 24 hours a day,
every single day of the year, it is available instantly by phone. The Center will
accept trade secret data on a confidential basis to be used only in case of a medical emergency. The true chemical identity of one’s product will only be released to a physician who is treating a medical emergency. The cost for this
service is very modest.
For the purpose of emergency response to a major spill, a fire or a leak, at the
minimum the Department of Transportation (DOT) nomenclature should be
followed; for those chemicals that meet the requirements of any one or more
DOT classes a UN or NA number must also be assigned. Chemtrec, a 24 hour,
every day, all year emergency response center, is available for emergencies by
phone. Chemtrec will accept product information that would be useful in responding to fire, leak or spill emergency situations. This Center, run by the
Chemical Manufacturers Association (CMA) as a public service is probably the
best single source of emergency response information. The Chemtrec phone
number with a n appropriate statement should appear on the label. A closely
related service is The Emergency Response Guide published by DOT. The
Emergency Response Guide, produced by the applied Physics Laboratories of
John Hopkins University and reviewed by an industrial chemical advisory
group, was published by DOT in 1980. It is currently undergoing revision and

a new edition should be available soon.
This DOT pamphlet is intended to accompany every transport vehicle that
moves hazardous chemicals, be available in every fire house, on every fire
truck, in every ambulance, police car, police department and emergency response center in the nation.
The Guide lists by proper shipping name and also by UN/NA number all
chemical commodities regulated by DOT with cross-reference to specific instructions on what to do in case of fire, spill or leak. It is the best single,
printed source of emergency response information available today.
There are a number of different ways of supplying sufficient information
about a product, so that users, transporters and workers can be assured of adequate information in case of accidental exposure. There is evidence from the
social sciences that simplified identification coupled with expert instruction is
superior to reliance on chemical nomenclature to convey hazard information.
When one has selected some combination of chemical nomenclature, generic
name, and first aid and emergency response instruction, one should next consider the selection of a signal word and a set of hazard statements. Historically, “Danger”, ‘warning”, “Caution” have served as the three indicators of
potential hazard. “Danger” indicates the highest level, “Caution” the lowest
and ‘warning” is intermediate. In many standards, these words are further
defined in terms of LCso, LDso, flash point, skin corrosion and physical properties such as explosivity and radioactivil$. Studies have shown that workers
perceive a significant difference between “Danger”, and ‘warning” or “Caution”. However, little if any difference is perceived between ‘Warning” and


Preface

vii

“Caution.” This seems to indicate that employers should instruct workers in
the meaning of these terms.
The selection of a signal word for certain chronic effects, i.e. cancer, teratology and mutation is a controversial subject. When the chemical also possesses
acute hazards, this fact may determine one’s choice. If, for example, following
the ANSI Appendix, the product is extremely flammable and a carcinogen, the
signal word “Danger” is selected based on the flammability hazard.
“he controversy centers about the fact that many practitioners feel the signal word “Danger” should be reserved for those hazards which are immediate

and life-threatening. The probability of human harm is virtually certain with
overexposure to acutely hazardous chemicals, but highly uncertain with
overexposure to chemicals that possess chronic hazards. This concept is
referred to as ‘Zabeling Under Uncertainty”.
This probabilistic property as applied to carcinogens, is further defined as
follows: (1)known human carcinogen, (2) known animal and probably human
carcinogen, (3)known animal carcinogen and (4) known mutagens. Much of
our knowledge seems to indicate that some mutagens are probably carcinogens. Anthony G a m discusses this relationship in Part II. Some feel that action should be taken on this information and others prefer to at least obtain
mammalian data before including any statement on a label.
An appendix to the CMA label proposal establishes a selection system which
appears reasonable for most long-linked chronic hazards, i.e., cancer,
mutagens and teratogens.
Although some effects as nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity are often treated
as chronic effects, at times the onset of symptoms may be rapid, and when this
is true, such effects should be handled as part of acute toxicity.
Statement of hazards should be simple, direct, and concise, but the stress
should be on “simple”. The use of what have become standard phrases is encouraged. A list of these phrases is contained in the LAPUANSI Guide discussed by Jay Young in Part IV.
This book is organized into four parts: Label Communication; Science and
Labels; Product Liability, Regulations and Labels; and Industry Standards
and Practice.
Part I is devoted to the perceptual and graphic elements of hazard label communication and the underlying science base which supports their practical
use. In Chapter 1of this section Sidney Lirtzman reports on a radical and revolutionary Hazard Label Communication Research Program conducted by
O’Connor and Lirtzman, and the conclusions to which their research has led.
The research program utilized specially modified infra-red eye scan equipment. The basic equipment was provided by the Applied Science Laboratories
as a working grant to the research team. Norma Skolnik, in the second c h a p
ter, provided a review and suggested program for utilizing both manual and
machine based data services, as a source of label information. Harry Fund, in
the last chapter of Part I deals with the graphic and production arts required to
print and manufacture labels, placards and tags.
In Part 11 Adria Casey, Donald MacKellar, Anthony Garro and Richard

Moriarity discuss the applied science that underlies much of labeling. Anthony
Garro of Mt. Sinai School of Medicine and Donald MacKellar of Toxigenics,


...
vuz

Preface

Inc. exp!ore the biological basis for chronic and acute toxicity, while Adria
Casey explicates physical and chemical test parameters; and classification
based on physical, chemical and biological data.
Labeling, Product Liability and Government Regulations form the major elements of Part 111.David Zoll of the Chemical Manufacturers Association leads
off with a discussion of product liability, the “prudent man” and case law.
James Toupin of Covington & Burling follows with a chapter on trade secrets,
patents and trademarks. Steven Jellinek discusses the label requirement for
the sale and use of pesticides under FIFRA. TSCA and RCRA labeling regulations with specific case examples are explored by Robert Sussman and Jennifer
Machlin. Robert Sussman also covers consumer product labeling in his chapter
on the Consumer Product Safety Commission. John Gillick of the law firm of
Kirby, Gillick, Schwartz and Tuohey reviews labeling in transportation. He
details DOT label and placard regulations for air, water, road and rail movements for packages as well as for bulk containers. Flo Ryer, former Director of
Health Standards for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), details the label requirements of OSHA’sHealth Standards and reviews OSHA’s latest label standard proposal.
This controversial standard has been in development for more than eight
years. OSHA’slatest draft includes provisions for container and reactor labels,
area placarding, a material safety data sheet in the workplace, worker training and a provision for maintaining trade secrets. Overall this standard is
performanced-based, apparently permitting many existing systems to meet
OSHA requirements.
In Part IV,the last section, Jay Young and Charles O’Connor discuss current and proposed industry standards. The Chemical Manufacturers Association (CMA) sponsored ANSI Guide to Precautionary Labeling of Hazardous
Chemicals and the National Fire Protection Association’s (NFPA) Identification of Fire Hazards of Materials are the two oldest standards. The ANSI

Standard owes its beginnings to the original Labels and Precautionary Information Committee (LAPI) Guide published by CMA in 1938, while the NFPA
System was first explicated in 1952.
Jay Young outlines the basic requirement of the CMA sponsored ANSI
Standard and the specific elements required to compose an appropriate “Hazard Label”. He brings special insight to this task, having served as the CMA
executive responsible for the labeling activities of the association.
The two systems are complementary. NFPA uses a color keyed symbol system with high recognition value. This permits an observer to quickly assess
the hazardous nature of a tank or area. ANSI, relying primarily upon text to
convey its message, is better suited for container labeling. Intelligent application of both systems significantly improves label hazard communication. The
current use and development of material safety data sheets are also discussed
as a part of a hazard communication program.
An example of such a combined system is offered by the NIOSH Identification System for Occupationally Hazardous Materials. This identification system uses color-keyed symbols with numerical “degree of hazard” indicators for
placards. The system adds precautionary text and hazard statements for la-


Preface

ix

bels, and requires the availability of a material safety data sheet in the
workplace.
The authors also include a discussion of the current ASTM Z 535.2 proposal
for Safety Signs. This system combines three elements: color, shape, and signal
words to create three distinctive levels of hazard alert signs. ASTM uses the
traditional signal words: “Danger”, (‘Warning,” “Caution”. These words are
not independent elements, but are always combined with specific colors and
specific shapes.
“Danger” always appears with a combination of white, red and black on an
oval shape; ‘Warning” is used with a combination of orange and black on a
truncated diamond; and ‘(Caution”always appears on a rounded-corner rectangle, colored yellow and black.
Jay Young and Charles O’Connor present the National Paint and Coatings

Association (NCPA) Label Guide and in-plant Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS). HMIS is a complete hazard communication system. It
utilizes labels, tags, wallet cards, wall posters, employee handouts, placards,
symbols for personal protection, an audio visual program, and a rating system
for health, reactivity, and flammability. This system will accommodate both
acute and chronic health effects. As in the NFPA System, blue, red and yellow
are used to highlight health, flammability, and reactivity. Rating or ranking
for each hazard class runs from one (1)to five (5), with five (5)the most hazardous. The HMIS Manual also includes a glossary, information on how to assign
hazard ratings, industrial hygiene, and raw material sheets. NPCA, under the
guidance of Larry Thomas, Executive Director, has produced an integrated
workable and highly valuable system.
I would like to express my thanks to Corrine Hessel for her help in preparing
and reviewing the manuscript in development and through the galleys. This
book would have been impossible without her professional help.
I hope that this handbook will provide a comprehensive library source, and
be useful for the health, safety, and legal decisions which must be made by
chemical manufacturers, attorneys, safety equipment producers, toxicologists,
industrial safety engineers, waste disposal operators, health care professionals, and the many others who may have contact with or interest in the Chemical Industry due to their own or third party exposure.
Greens Farms, Connecticut
December, 1983

Charles J. O’Connor


Contents

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

v
xi

PART I
LABEL COMMUNICATION

.

.................

1 LABELS, PERCEPTION AND PSYCHOMETRICS
5
Sidney Z Lirtzman
Functions of Labeling ................................
5
Background .....................................
5
Definition ......................................
6
Purpose of Labeling ................................
6
Views About Labeling ..............................
8
Hazard Labeling ..................................
9
Perceptual Issues in Labeling ...........................
10
Perception .....................................
10
Perceptual Representation ...........................
10
Attention Processes ...............................

12
Form ........................................
13
Color ........................................
13
Color Preferences ................................
14
Color and Emotion ...............................
16
Color Visibility
18
Color and Hazard Labeling ............................
18
Legibility ........................................
19
Symbols and Labeling
20
Advantages of Graphic Symbols in Labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Disadvantages of Graphic Symbols .....................
23
Reading Level of Label ...............................
25
Estimating Reading Level ...........................
26
Evaluating the Impact of Labeling .......................
27
Evaluation Criteria ................................
27

.

..................................

...............................

xiii


xiv

Contents
Implications for Hazard Labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
TestingMetho ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
Tachistoscopic Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Eye Motion and Pupilometrics Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Research in Hazard Labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
Attitudes About Hazard Warnings on Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Food Labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
FDA and DHEW Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
Children and Hazard Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32

Hazardwarnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
Improving Label Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
Additional Suggested Readings..........................
39

2. INFORMATION SOURCES AND SYSTEMS FOR LABELING . . . . . . . .41
Norma Skolnik
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
Regulatory Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
Government Documents ............................
41
Computerized Data Systems .........................
44
Access to Government Documents .....................
45
Scientific Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
Self Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
Private On-Line Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
Search Services-Types and Costs ......................
54
Government Literature Retrieval Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61

3. TRANSPORTATION LABELS AND PLACARDS: TECHNOLOGY

. . . .63

Harry Fund
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Label Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Labels Other than DOT
Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Placards
Placard Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Technical Aspects of Label Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Choosing the Label Material .........................
Methods for Printing Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Planning A Label Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference Guides ................................
TheFuture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

............................
.........................................

63
66
71
72
72

73
-79
79
81
83
83
85
85

PART I1
SCIENCE AND LABELS

4. HAZARD ASSESSMENT AND CLASSIFICATION FOR LABELING . . . .89
Adria C. Casey
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
Classification Under DOT Regulations.....................
90


Contents

XU

Forbidden Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
Explosives and Blasting Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
Flammable and Combustible Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93

Flammable Solids. Oxidizers and Organic Peroxides . . . . . . . . . . 94
Corrosive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
Non-flammable and Flammable Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Poisonous and Irritating Materials ......................
96
Etiologic Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
Radioactive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
Other Regulated Materials (ORM).....................
100
Materials Meeting the Criteria of More Than One Hazard Class . . 102
Selection of a Proper Shipping Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Classification Under RCRA Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Definition of Hazardous Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
104
Empty Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
Some RCRA Exemptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
Classification Under FIFRA Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
122
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123

.

...............................

.....................................

5 LABELS AND MEDICINE

Richard Moriarty
Introduction
Development of First Aid Statements

....................

128
128
131

6.ACUTETOXICITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
141
Donald G. MacKellar
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
141
Routes of Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
Oral Administration ..............................
142
Dermal Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
143
Inhalation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
143
Ocular Toxicity Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
145
Dermal Irritation

145
Intravenous or Intramuscular Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Species Selection
145
Animal Husbandry .................................
146
Conduct of the Test ................................
147
Calculation of Results ..............................
148
Test Protocols and Guidelinee .........................
152
Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
152
Acute Oral Toxicity ..............................
152
Acute Dermal Toxicity ............................
156
Acute Inhalation ................................
162
Eye Irritation ..................................
167
Skin Irritation or Corrosion
174
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
178
Suggested Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
178

................................

..................................

.........................

7. CHRONIC TOXICITY

..................................

179

Anthony J Garro
Principlee of Chronic Toxicity .........................
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

179
179

.


xvi

Contents
General Design of Chronic Toxicity Studies: Carcinogenesis as a Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Detection of Mutagenic Substances and Application of
Mutagen Screening Tests for the Detection of Chemical
Carcinogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
184
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
184

Microbial Tests .................................
186
Mammalian Cells in Culture ........................
-188
DNA Repair-Dependent Assays of DNA Damage . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Metabolic Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
189
Insect Assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
190
In Vivo Mammalian Cytogenetic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
In Vivo Mammalian Genetic Assays
191
Application of Mutagen Screening Tests for the Detection
of Chemical Carcinogens ..........................
193
Quantitative Comparisons of Mutagenic and Carcinogenic
-195
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Noncarcinogenic Chronic Effects: Teratogenic/Reprodudive
Effects and Neurotoxic Effects
196
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
196
Nononcogenic Chronic Effects .......................
196
Teratogenic Effects ..............................
197
Reproductive Effects .............................
197
Neurotoxic Effects ..............................

198
Epidemiological Considerations and Application of Chronic
Toxicity Test Data to Humans ........................
198
Epidemiology as a Toxicological Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Qualitative Validation of Rodent Bioassays for the Identification of Chemical Carcinogens .......................
199
Validation of Animal Assays for Identifying Other Types of
Chronic Chemical Exposure-Related Health Effects
201
Quantitative Risk Estimates.........................
201
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
206

....................

........................

........

PART I11
PRODUCT LIABILITY. REGULATIONS AND LABELS

.

.......................
.......................................

8 PRODUCT LIABILITY AND LABELS

David F . Zoll
Overview
The Social Philosophy and Principles of the Common Law Duty
toWarn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Common Law of Torts
Negligence
Strict Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Theories of Liability
Review ......................................
Review of Court Decisions ...........................
The Risk of Harm-What Must A Manufacturer Know About
His Own Product?
Foreseeability-What Must A Manufacturer Foresee About How
His Product Will Be Used? .........................
What Kind of A Warning Must Be Given?

.........................
....................................
.........................

..............................

217
217
219
219
219
220
221

225
226
226
229

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232


xvii

Contents

How Far Into the Chain of Commerce Must the Warning Be
Sent?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
236
Suggested “Duty T o Warn” Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
Overview-The Need For an Information System
241
Compile Health And Environmental Effects Information On The
Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
244
Identify Mandatory Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
Identify Industry Customs and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Identify Foreseeable Uses and Misuses Of The Product
245
Identify The Primary and Supplementary Methods of Communication Available...............................
245
Consider the Efficiency of the Specific Messages of Warning
245
Use Common Sense ....................

C
246
Congressional Initiatives in the Product Liability Arena . . . . . . . 246
Collateral Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
246
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
247

..........

......

..
........

.

9 PATENTS, TRADE SECRETS AND TRADEMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
James Toupin
Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-252
Basic Coverage of the Patent Act
253
Patent Disclosure Requirements and Trade Secret Protection 257
The Importance of Patent Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Protection in Foreign Countries .....................
260
Label Licenses and Patent Misuse ....................
260
Patent Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

262
Trade Secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
263
Basic Requirements and Relationship to Patent Protection
264
Trade Secrets and Labelling Hazardous Substances
268
Trademarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
271
Types of Marks Protected .........................
271
The Choice of Trademarks
273
The Usefulness of Searches in Choosing Trademarks. . . . . . . . 274
Guidelines for Preventing Trademarks from Becoming
275
Unprotectable
Registering Trademarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
276
Trademark Registration Marking
278
Copyright and Trademark Protection of Labels Compared. . . . 279
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
279

....................

..

...

.........

........................

................................
....................

.

10 PESTICIDE LABELING UNDER THE FEDERAL INSECTICIDE.
FUNGICIDE AND RODENTICIDE ACT (FIFRA)
Steven D Jellinek
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EPA’s Pesticides Program
Introduction
Registration
Conditional Registration
Tolerances
Special Registrations
Reregistration
Rebuttable Presumption Against Registration (RPAR)
Imports and Exports

.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
281

........................... 282
.................................. 282

.................................. 282
.......................... 283
.................................. - 2 8 3
............................ 284
................................. 284
. . . . . . 284
............................ 285


xviii

Contents
Information That Must Be Included In Pesticide Labels . . . . . . . 285
285
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Product Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
286
Warnings and Precautionary Statements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288
Directions For Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
292
295
Format of Pesticide Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
295
295
Placement of the Label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Placement and Prominence of Label Statements . . . . . . . . . . 297
Labeling for Experimental Use Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
Label Improvement Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
298

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
299

11. LABELING UNDER THE TOXIC SUBSTANCES CONTROL ACT
(TSCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
300
Robert M Sussman
EPA's General Labeling Authority Under Section 6(a) . . . . . . . . 301
302
Definition of Unreasonable Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
306
306
Adequate Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Least Burdensome Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
306
307
Category of Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
308
Relation to Other Statutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effective Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
308
308
Required Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
309
Confidentiality Protections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Labeling Requirements for PCBs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
311
Statutory Provisions Relating t o PCBs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
EPA's Disposal Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

312
EPA's Ban Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
313
Court Decisions Involving PCBs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
314
314
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.

12. LABELING UNDER THE RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND
RECOVERY ACT (RCRA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
316
Robert M Sussman and Jennifer Machlin
The Statutory Hazardous Waste Management Program . . . . . . . . 316
Identification of Hazardous Waste: RCRA 8 0 1004(5),
1004(27) and 3001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
316
Standards Applicable to Persons Who Generate, Transport,
Treat, Store, or Dispose of Hazardous Wastes: RCRA 8 8
318
3002,3003, and 3004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RCRA Requirements for Labeling Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . 320
321
Part 171: General Information .....................
Part 172: Hazardous Waste Communication Regulations . . . . 321
322
Part 173: General Shipment and Packaging Requirements
Parts 174-177: Shipment of Hazardous Waste by Rail, Air,
Vessel, and Public Highway .......................

322
Parts 178-179: Shipping Container and Tank Specifications . 323

.

...

.

13. LABELING REQUIREMENTS ADMINISTERED BY THE CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY COMMISSION (CPSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Robert M . Sussman
Labeling Under the FHSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
325


Contents

xix

Purposes and Overall Approach of the FHSA . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Definition of “Hazardous Substance” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
Warning Requirements Prescribed Under the FSHA . . . . . . . . 330
Compliance With Statutory Labeling Requirements . . . . . . . . 331
CPSC Authority to Designate Hazardous Substances by
Regulation or Prescribe Special Labeling Requirements . . . . . 332
Banned Hazardous Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
334
Regulation of Electrical. Mechanical and Thermal Hazards . . . 336
Preemption of State Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
338

Consumer Product Safety Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
338
Safety Standards and Bans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
339
Labeling Requirements Promulgated Under Section 27(e) . . . 345
Reporting Under Section 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
347
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
350
1 4. LABELING IN TRANSPORTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
352
John E . Gillick
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
352
Development of the Transportation Department’s Hazardous
Materials Transportation Regulatory Program Over the Last
352
Decade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hazard Information System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
353
Consolidation of Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
354
Emergency Response Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
356
Environmental and Health Effects Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
UN Shipping Descriptions and Identification Numbers . . . . . . 357
Conceptual Overview of Compliance with the Hazardous
Materials Regulatory Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
358
Compliance with the Program’s Labeling Requirements . . . . . . . 361

Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
361
Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
366
Placarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
372
Hazardous Materials Transportation Regulation in the 1980s
376
Appendix A: Schedule for Review of Hazardous Materials
Regulations by the Department of Transportation . . . . . . . . . . 378
Appendix B: Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
378
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
380

....

1 5 . OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
(OSHAkLABELING IN THE WORKPLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
Flo H . Ryer
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
385
Labeling Requirements in OSHA Safety Standards. . . . . . . . . . . 386
Labeling Requirements in OSHA Health Standards . . . . . . . . . . 387
Asbestos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
387
Carcinogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
388
Vinyl Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
389

Arsenic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
389
Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
390
Benzene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
390
Coke Oven Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
391
Cotton Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
391
1,2.Dibrom 0.3chloropropane and Acrylonitrile . . . . . . . . . . 392


Contents

xx

Cancer Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
392
The Need for Labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
393
History of the Proposed Labeling Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Provisions of the Proposed Labeling Standard(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
399
Effective Dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendices in the Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
399
400
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART IV

INDUSTRY STANDARDS AND PRACTICE

16. AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE (ANSI)
GUIDE TO PRECAUTIONARY LABELING OF HAZARDOUS
CHEMICALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
407
Jay A . Young
407
Precautionary Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
ANSI 2129.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
410
AppendixB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
410
B.l General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
411
411
B.2 Labeling Carcinogens .........................
B.3 Labeling Reproductive Toxicants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
B.4 Labeling Other Serious Chronic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
412
B.5 Labeling Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B.6 Signal Words Applicable t o Serious Chronic Effects . . . . . 412
B.7 Precautionary Measures Applicable to Serious Chronic
Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
412
B.8 Placement of Statements of Hazard for Serious Chronic
Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
412
Footnotes t o Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

414
Construction and Judgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

.

1 7 OTHER RECOGNIZED LABELING STANDARDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Charles J. O'Connor
National Fire Protection Association-Identification System NFPA
704 Fire Hazards of Materials-1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .416
417
Kind of Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Degree of Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
418
Spatial and Color Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
420
NIOSH-An Identification System for Occupationally Hazardous
420
Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ASTM 2535.2 Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
427
National Paint and Coatings Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
The Paint Industry Labeling Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
Hazardous Materials Identification System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
ANSI Adjunct Systems.............................
444
The J.T. Baker Chemical Company Saf-T-Data" System . . . . 444
The Fisher Scientific Company Chem-Alert" System . . . . . . 445

18. MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS

......................

446

Jay A Young
Footnote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

451

.


Contents

xxi

APPENDIX: OSHA 1983 STANDARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
452
~1910.1200
Hazard Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
452
Appendix A to 131910.1200: Health Hazard Definitions (Mandatory) . . . 466
Appendix B to ~1910.1200:Hazard Determination (Mandatory) . . . . . . 469
Appendix C t o 131910.1200: Information Sources (Advisory) . . . . . . . . 470
471
Miscellaneous Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
472
Bibliographic Data Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..........................................

473

..............................................

476

ACRONYMS
INDEX


Part I

Label Communication

Underlying the practices associated with labeling in the chemical industry
and in other industries, and for consumer product labeling as well, is the implied but usually unstated assumption that labeling is important because exposure to the label will cause changes to occur in the person who comes into
contact with the product to which the label is affixed. These changes are construed to be either psychological in nature or changes in overt behavior associated with the problem to be avoided. From this perspective labeling is both a
communication process and an information handling process as far as people
are concerned. Thus, the evidence and data which behavioral science can bring
to bear upon the labeling process is of vital importance to all those in the chemical industry who are charged with the design, evaluation, and production of
labels to be used with or on products manufactured for distribution and sale
and in the workplace.
This section presents three approaches to the behavioral science aspects of
the labeling process. Chapter 1reviews in detail behavioral considerations associated with labeling. In Chapter 2, there is a discussion of the information
systems available to the labeler which are useful and necessary in decisionmaking activities with respect to chemical labeling and classification. Following in Chapter 3 comes a discussion of the technology of designing, developing
and producing labels and placards.
Chapter 1provides a discussion of the functions of labeling and the nature of
labeling as a communications system whose function is to deliver a message or
messages to a reader or consumer. The chapter provides a definition of labeling

and discusses in some detail the purposes of labeling industrial products and
products in general. Alternative perspectives of the importance of the labeling
process in industry are presented as is an introduction to the problems involved in hazard labeling in the industry.
This is followed by a detailed summary of the major perceptual issues associated with labeling, including the processes of perception, attention, form,

1


2

Handbook of Chemical Industry Labeling

color, color preferences and emotional characteristics, and visibility, and a
discussion of color and hazard labeling. The chapter also discusses the issues
associated with legibility and summarizes the evidence and controversy involved with the use of symbols in the labeling process. The author also summarizes both the advantages and disadvantages of graphic symbols and provides
some research evidence.
Also discussed in Chapter 1is the issue of reading ability and reading levels
in terms of the usefulness of the label. The chapter also presents data associated with the evaluation of label effectiveness and discusses three major criteria
against which to evaluate results, including time, optical efficiency, and the
communication value of labels, and relates these to the issues associated with
hazard labeling. The reader is provided with a discussion of the methods now
available and in use for testing the efficiency and effectiveness of labeling.
The chapter provides the reader with a summary of research and results of
research conducted with respect to hazard labeling in the areas of foods, drugs,
chemicals, children and hazard warnings. The author presents in some detail
the results of research which has been conducted with respect to hazard warnings, hazard labeling, hazard communications over the past five years. He provides the reader with a series of recommendations for practically improving
the effectiveness of the label and related guidelines.
A detailed reference list and suggested readings is provided for the reader.
Chapter 2 provides the reader with a wealth of useful information designed
to improve the efficiency and speed of information access for those charged

with the responsibility for making decisions about whether specific labels are
required for a given product, and the nature of the information and warnings
which may be necessary in designing a useful label for a chemical product.
The chapter is divided into two major sections: the first summarizing sources
of regulatory information; the second sources of scientific information for use
in the labeling process. The first section on regulatory information summarizes the nature of government documents and particularly discusses the Federal Register and the Code of Federal Regulations as they apply to the needs of
the labeler. Other sources of Federal documents, including the National Technical Information Service, and the Monthly Checklist of State Publications are
discussed. This section also summarizes the major computerized data systems
for Federal information, including the Federal Index Data Base, the Legal
Data System, including LEXIS and WESTLAW Systems. The chapter also discusses the easiest ways to obtain access t o Government documents.
The second and more detailed section of the chapter discusses the scientific
literature data bases relevant to the process of labeling in the chemical industry. It provides information with respect to services readily available to the labeler directly including libraries, chemical references and bibliographical
sources for toxicological and medical information. The importance of the computerized literature retrieval system is discussed in detail because of its ability
to increase the comprehensiveness and the efficiency of the search, especially
for material involving hazardous chemical data in general and toxicological information in particular.
Chapter 2 provides a useful section on the issues associated with hazard
evaluation and offers a compilation of sources for toxicological information


Label Communication

3

which is very extensive and useful, especially to the novice in the field. The
chapter then describes in detail government literature retrieval systems, especially the Medlar’s System of the National Library of Medicine, which includes
over fifleen relevant data bases, including the Toxicology Data Bank,
MEDLINE, TOXLINE, RTECS (the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances list), and CANCERLIT. A discussion on the Chemical Substance Information Network (CSIN) being developed by the Environmental Protection
Agency is also included.
This chapter also discusses private on-line computerized abstracting services, including the Chemical Abstract Service, and CAS ONLINE which is the
computerized system providing access to substance information from the

chemical abstract system registry file. The Lockheed DIALOG Information
Retrieval Service, BIOSIS Previews, CHEMSEARCH, CHEMSIS,
ENVIROLINE, the Excerpta Medica, SCISEARCH, and related services are
discussed. The Bibliographic Retrieval Services Data Base is also discussed in
some detail. A particularly useful aspect of this chapter is a discussion of
search services--their type and their costs-which enable the executive and
decision-maker to do searches in-house rapidly and efficiently. In this regard
both commercial and noncommercial search services are discussed and their
advantages and disadvantages as well as costs are detailed.
Finally a very useful bibliography of information sources is provided to the
reader.
Chapter 3 on labeling and placarding presents a very practical view of the
issues, information, and recommendations which the person responsible for
the actual production of product labels will find indispensable. In this chapter
the author discusses the problems of production of labels and placards under
various regulatory schemes. He also relates production problems to the national regulations and laws.
He then proceeds to a discussion of label technology, covering various types
of labels, their advantages and disadvantages, as well as the problems associated with their use in different contexts, including transportation. He provides
the reader with relevant excerpts from the laws and regulations governing the
production and use of such labels. In addition, there is also a discussion of the
history and use of placards which are functionally related but different from
the label itself and have different production problems associated with them.
The author then discusses technical aspects of label production, covering in
turn choice of labeling materials, different face and stocks, and the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of the alternative materials available to
the labeler. He provides a useful set of guidelines and recommendations with
respect to the use of adhesives with certain types of labels and stocks. The
chapter then discusses methods for printing labels, and provides a useful summary chart to the labeler, detailing the advantages and disadvantages of different methods of production for different types of labeling. The chapter then
gives the labeler a series of guidelines for production of the label, and provides
a bibliography of sources for further information on the functional labeling
process.

1

Labels, Perception and Psychometrics
Sidney I. Lirtzman
Graduate School and University Center
and
Baruch College
City University of New York
New York, NY
This chapter deals with the practical issues involved in the labeling of chemical products. Specifically. this chapter will cover (1)the functions of labeling,
(2) the underlying perceptual issues associated with labeling, (3) the perceptual impact of labeling, (4) existing research information concerning hazard
labeling, (5) procedures for evaluating labeling, and (61,suggestions to guide
the development of labeling.

FUNCTIONS OF LABELING
Background
What is known about the factors contributing to the development and impact of labels for chemical products is largly a result of experience gathered
over the past hundred years in the advertising and marketing of consumer
products. As bulk shipment and packaging of products shifted toward unit
packaging in response to a rise in general income, increased demand for utility
and convenience by consumers as well as improved storage and transportation
ability, the realization grew that packaging and labeling were important factors in attracting customers, informing them of product lines, and developing
and maintaining product loyalty. The package and label gradually shifted
away from almost purely functional roles to more sophisticated vehicles designed to communicate a variety of themes to potential and actual consumers.

5

6

Handbook of Chemical Industry Labeling

A review of such sources as Dreyfus (1972), Kamekura (1965) and Humbert
(1972) is instructive in seeing the radical changes in labeling over time.
Indeed, it has become very clear to all involved in labeling activity that
through the package, the label(s) and related inserts, associated flyers and information, and the context of response, the consumer and the manufacturer
have formed a communication system. The function of this system is to deliver
a message or messages to the consumer-communication of brand name and
product class, product function and instructions for use, and evocation or perception of product qualities felt likely to enhance trial purchase andlor repeat
purchase.
Millions of dollars have been spent on the development and testing of labels
and packages in the consumer and related industrial products area. Despite
this, almost no published research or guides exist for use by people who are
responsible for developing labeling in the chemical industry, particularly for
chemical products falling under the general rubric of hazardous products.
These include products whose manufacture and distribution are governed by
statutes such as the Federal Hazardous Substances Act (FHSA), the Federal
Insectiside, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA),and the Toxic Substances
Control Act (TSCA).
Much of the material covered in this chapter reflects information gathered
and research conducted by the author during the course of his work in advertising, marketing research, and label and package design and evaluation. The
remainder of the material is based on published materials and related research
in psychology, behavioral science, economics, sociology, perception, and
communications.

Definition
While there a commonly accepted definition of the term label, the concept
itself is surrounded by a' considerable degree of ambiguity. In the chemical industry the term label or labeling incorporates the printed device(s) affixed directly or indirectly to a container surface, inserts found within the container,

associated Material Safety Data Sheets, product descriptions, overpacks and
wrappers, workshop signs and placards, most forms of advertising and the like.
From this perspective, labeling of chemicals is a system involving a variety of
elements.
However, for the purposes of this chapter, we will define a label as any element, affixed to or associated with a functional container or package, whose
purpose is to communicate in language or other symbols, in color or form, specific information and emotional/perceptual stimuli designed to affect the perceptions and behavior of human beings who are prospective users of the
products.
Although other factors such as the material safety data sheets (MSDS) are
important parts of labeling we will not deal with them in this chapter. I will
refer to them where appropriate in the context of discussion or research.
Purpose of Labeling

Probably no aspect of a package is as frequently taken for granted as is the
label. We all expect to see a label on a product but when called upon to describe


Labels, Perception and Psychometrics

7

the label we are often at a loss to do so with great detail. Yet, labels are functional; they are designed to change behavior of the people who are exposed to
them.
In general, a label has at least eight common uses:

1. Identifying the name of the product and manufacturer.
Most products are generally identified by a brand name
or some common name. We call for a product by its name,
and check the label to make sure we have the correct
product.
2. Marketing and promotional information. The label can be

used to promote the product by providing information
stressing the quality and performance of the product (e.g.,
warranties, grades, seals of approval, image and status elements, advertising copy and the like).

3. Identification of the function of the product. The label tells
a potential user what the product is supposed to do (“relief
of sore muscle’s ache,” “contact adhesive,” “oxidizer,”
etc.).
4. Providing directions for use of the product. The label informs the potential user of the correct or advised way of
using the product. (“Take two teaspoonfuls every six
hours;” “Apply adhesive to one surface of articles to be
bonded).
5 . Education of the user. The label provides information to
the user which may be of potential value by listing components, nutritional values, identifying data such as presence of color additives, doses, weights and measures, etc.
6. Providing hazard warnings. The label gives warning of
potential dangers related to use or misuse of the product
and specifies the proper actions of the individual to avoid
the danger.
7 . Provide remedial information. The label will inform the
user of actions to be taken or avoided if the warned
against danger actually occurs (e.g., first aid information,
notice to contact a physician, notice to avoid inducing
vomiting, etc.).
8 . Idiosyncratic information. The label provides information
of potential importance to specific classes of prospective
users with certain personal conditions, e.g., the presence
of allergens, contra-indicated use for medical reasons, etc.
A review of the eight functions of labeling shows that the implicit if not explicit major assumptions of the labeling processes is that the label will cause
changes to occur in the person who comes into contact with the product. These
changes can be construed to be either psychological influences (changes in atti-

8

Handbook of Chemical Industry Labeling

tude, belief, emotion, comprehension, memory, risk evaluation mechanisms,
etc.) or altered overt behavior (changes in actual handling of product, procedure of work, disposal of container or waste, reference to raw materials, questioning activity, etc.). Marketers, advertisers and regulators all share the
unspoken assumption that the product label itself,irrespective of any other related elements of the product communication system is capable of and does
cause changes in the overt and/or potential behavior of the person coming into
contact with the label as consumer or worker. Two major corollaries to this implicit assumption are (1) that every element of the label is equally capable of
causing and likely to cause a desired effect, (2) that every potential reader
values the label, and therefore will read the label and all its elements. If these
effects of labeling were not presumed, then there would be little concern on the
part of manufacturers, government, consumers, or labor about what appears
on labels.
In trying to assess the validity of these labeling assumptions it should be
kept in mind that there is almost no empiric evidence publicly available which
supports them. For the most part such proof as exists is proprietary and results
from market, consumer and advertising research studies conducted by and for
manufacturers, usually of consumer products, a portion of which involves
packaging or labeling effectiveness or design issues. The remaining data are
drawn from research in psychology and communications, or from a few relatively specific researchers into the effect of multifaceted programs designed to
inform or warn consumers about ingredients or hazards associated with products or product use. In this regard, the editors have found no published research which clearly isolates the effect of a given label on a specific chemical
product from the effects of other factors including inserts, training, general
media information, advertising and promotion or consumerist activities.
Furthermore, almost nothing is known about what the consumerlr ader,'
worker really does when exposed to a chemical product label, nor what this
person may want to have appear in such labels.

Views About Labeling
Since labeling was presumed to influence the behavior and psychological attributes of prospective readers, how to use and design product labels became
important to the manufacturer. Labeling began to be evaluated as a n important element in the execution of public policy with respect to consumer and
worker protection (Food and Drug Administration [FDA], Federal Trade Commission [ETC], etc.), especially with respect to toxic and hazardous chemicals
and substances (FIFRA, TSCA, FHSA). The regulated use of labels has proliferated to the point that chemical labeling is now an' enterprise requiring professional attention. In deciding how and why to label, different interest areas
bring different concerns to the process.
Government: Government approaches labeling from the perspective of
public policy, asserting a police powers mandate to protect the citizen in his or
her role as consumer or worker from non-negligible risks associated with the
potential use or misuse of a product in commerce. The government perspective
requires a decision to ban or label a product, and if labeling is the vehicle chosen, then government's perspective is directed toward label rule making which
ostensibly will result in reduced risk to the citizen.