Handbook of the physicochemical properties of the elements g v samsonov (auth ), g v samsonov (eds )

Handbook of the
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
of the ELEMENTS


Handbook of the
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
of the ELEMENTS
Edited

by

G. V. Samsonov

Director, Laboratory of Metallurgy of Rare Metals and
Refractory Compounds, Institute of Cermets and Special Alloys,
Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Kiev

Translated from Russian

IF I/PLENUM • NEW YORK-WASHINGTON • 1968


Contributors:
T. V. Andreeva
M. M. Antonova
I. G. Barantseva
A. S. Bolgar
A. L. Burykina
A. P. Epik
V. V. Fesenko

V. S. Fomenko
Yu. M. Goryachev
L. P. Isaeva

P. S. Kislyi
T. Va. Kosolapova
M. S. Koval'chenko
O. T. Khorpyakov
L. K. Lamikhov
G. V. Lashkarev
M. D. Lyutaya
V. A. Obolonchik
V. V. Ogorodnikov
Yu. B. Paderno

A. D. Panasyuk
S. V. Radzikovskaya
B. M. Rud'
G. V. Samsonov
A. A. Semenov-Kobzar'
O. I. Shulishova
L. A. Sorin
L. L. Vereikina
M. V. Vlasova
V. L. Yupko

First Printing- February 1968
Second Printing - June 1968

The original Russian text, published for the Materials Science Institute of the

Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR by Naukova Dumka Press, Kiev, in
1965, has been extensively revised and updated for the American edition.

f. B.

CAMCOHOB

FIZIKO-KHIMICHESKIE SVOISTVA ELEMENTOV
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-6068-1
001: 10.1007/978-1-4684-6066-7

e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-6066-7

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 67-10536
© 1968 I F I / Plenum Data Corporation

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1968
A Subsidiary of Plenum Publishing Corporation
227 West 17 Street, New York, N. Y. 10011
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any
form without written permission from the publisher


PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION
The American edition of this handbook contains concise information on the basic physical properties of the elements and on their chemical characteristics. In general, the data selected for inclusion in the
handbook are those which either agree well with calculated data (in
those cases where calculations could be carried out) or satisfy various

correlations, particularly those based on concepts of the distribution of
valence electrons of isolated atoms in the formation of a condensed
state, as electrons localized at atomic ions in the form of energetically
stable configurations, and as nonlocalized electrons.
The Russian edition was published in the USSR in 1965, and new
or previously omitted data have been added to all the sections of the
present edition. In addition, the authors have considered it necessary to
include a series of new sections. Thus, a new table has been included,
"Electronic Configurations and Ground States of Free Atoms and Their
Ions," since, in the ionization of some atoms (particularly for transition
metals), the electrons are not always abstracted from the outer shell,
and, consequently, calculation of the ground state (electron energy
level) using the usual vector model does not give a direct result. The
ground states are obtained experimentally and the table contains the
corresponding data on the configurations and states of triply-ionized
atoms (which is usually sufficient).
We have added tables giving the radii of the main maxima of the
outer orbitals of isolated atoms and ions recently calculated on the basis
of a solution of the Dirac equation [2570-2572]. The authors of these
calculations based their work on the same electronic structures of isolated atoms as those adopted in this handbook, with the exception of the
atoms Tb, Cf, Es, and Fm, for which the following configurations of the
outer shells were used i.nthecalculations: 4f6S 2, 5f'6d1s 2 , Sf106d 1S2 , and
5f1l 6d 1S2, respectively.
The additional table "Bond Energies of Deep-Lying Electrons"
gives the energies required for the abstraction of inner electrons from
the atomic core. The bond energies are given in electron volts so that


vi

PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION

these values may be compared readily with the ionization potentials of
outer electrons.
The section "Nuclear and Physical Properties of the Elements"
has been supplemented with the table "Energy Levels of Nuclei. "
Tables have been added which characterize the reactions of electrons
with solids.
The section on diffusion constants and other sections in the physics
part of the handbook have been considerably enlarged. The chemistry
part has a supplementary table giving data on the reactions of a number
of elements with refractory compounds in the solid phase, since these
data are important for high-temperature technology. There are also
other additions.
The authors hope that the book will prove useful to wide circles
of American specialists, from scientists and engineers to students. The
authors are grateful to Plenum Press for their interest in this work on the
correlation of data on the physical and chemical properties of elements.

G. V. Samsonov


PREFACE
The extensive development of new branches of technology and
the expansion of eXisting ones require a sharp increase in the amount of
scientific, technological, and constrnctional work being done with new
materials having complex physical, mechanical, and chemical properties; this, in turn, requires a knowledge of the basic properties of the
chemical elements.
Most of the handbooks on the properties of the elements published
in the USSR and abroad are either of a strictly specialist nature (e.g.,

handbooks on nuclear physics and nuclear materials) or are individual
collections, often including all the data on a specific problem so that
the reader must select the most reliable values from the numerous and
sometimes contradictory ones (e.g., the handbook by M. A. Filyand and
E. 1. Semenova, Properties of Rare Elements). Furthermore, some
handbooks are considerably out of date - e.g., the monograph by
M. P. Slavinskii, Physicochemical Properties of the Elements, published
in 1952. Although the basic handbook Structure and Properties of Binary
Metal Systems by A. E. Vol, which is being published at the present
time, does not have the above shortcomings, it does not include all the
properties of the elements.
In considering the shortcomings of previous publications, the
authors of the present handbook attempted to compile a more concise
work which would, at the same time, include a wider range of subjects,
so that it would be useful to teachers, graduate students, and undergraduates, as well as to specialists in various branches of the natural and
technological sciences.
The authors clearly realized the complexity of such a task and
the impossibility of avoiding mistakes in the organization of the book
as well as in the presentation of complete and reliable factual material.
Nonetheless, they decided to proceed with this task as they themselves
have been inconvenienced and their work hamper~d daily by the lack
of a single collection of reliable data on the properties of the elements.
vii


viii

PREFACE

The handbook was compiled by a large group of authors consisting of the staffs of the Refractory Materials Section of the Institute of

Problems in the Study of Materials, Academy of Sciences UkrSSR and
of the Metal Reduction Laboratory of the Institute of the Physicochemical Principles of Processing of Mineral Raw Materials, Siberian branch
of the Academy of Sciences USSR, and consultants for various sections,
in particular, A. S. Povarennykh (Geological Institute of the Academy of
of Sciences UkrSSR), V. S. Neshpor (State Institute of Applied Chemistry),
and others to whom the authors are grateful for comments and advice.
The authors hope that despite its inevitable shortcomings, the
handbook will prove useful to a wide circle of readers; we will be grateful for all comments, recommendations, and wishes.
The authors would like to thank G. A. Koval', T. K. Kononenko,
T. G. Kutsenok, and L. F. Ochkas for their help in compiling the
handbook.


CONTENTS
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 1. Atomic Structure and Crystallochemical Properties
of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Content of Elements in the Universe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relative Content of Nuclei of Elements in Cosmic Rays .
Abundance of Elements in the Earth's Crust. . . . . . . . . . .
Content of Elements in Sea Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Atomic Weights, Atomic Volumes, and Year of Discovery
of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • .
Electronic Structure of Isolated Atoms . . . .
Ionization Potentials of Atoms . . . . . . . . .
Electron Affinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electronegativity of Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bond Energies of Deep-Lying Electrons . . . . . . . . .
Electronic Configuration and Ground States of Free
Atoms and Their Ions . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of Spectral Lines of the Elements . . . . . . .
Spectral Lines of the Elements
. . . . . . . . . . .
Wavelengths of L-Series . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
Wavelengths of K-Series . . . .
Wavelengths of M-Series . . . . . . .
. . . . . •. . . . . . . . .
Wavelengths of N -Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radii of the Main Maxima of Outer Orbitals of Atoms
Radii of the Main Maxima of Outer Orbitals of Ions .
Atomic and Ionic Radii. . . . . . .
Crystal Structure of the Elements. . . .
Polymorphic Conversions. . . . . . . . .
Density of the Elements . . . . . . . . .
Chapter II. Nuclear Physical Properties of the Elements
IsotopiC Composition of the Elements. . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Levels of Nuclei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal Neutron Absorption and Scattering Cross Sections
of Nuclei of Elements and Isotopes. . . . . . . . . . . . .
ix

1
7
7
7
8
9

10
13
16
20
21
22
24
29
30

68
72
73
87

88
92
97

110
124
128
131
131
181
198


x

CONTENTS

Thermal Neutron Fission Cross Sections of Nuclei
of Heavy Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interaction of Nuclei of Elements with Neutrons in
Resonance Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . • . .
Interaction of Nuclei of Elements and Isotopes with
Fast Neutrons .••. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .
Maximum Range of Electrons in SoUd Elements ... . . . .
Scattering of Electrons at Atoms . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . .
Properties of Elementary Particles . . . . . . . . . • • . . • . . .
Chapter III. Thermodynamic and Heat Properties
of Elements . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . • • • . . . . • • • . . . • . .
Entropies of Gaseous Elements . . . . . .
Entropies of Substances . . . . . . . . . .
Heat Capacity. . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . .
Melting and Boiling Points . . . . . . . . . .
Heats of Fusion and Sublimation . . . . . . . . .
Vapor Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . .
Vapor Pressures of Elements at Melting Points
.•....
Critical Parameters of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reduced Thermodynamic Potentials ... .
Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Characteristic Temperature . • • . . . . . . . • . . . .•.
Mean Square Displacement of Atoms in Thermal
Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crystal Lattice Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .

Dynamic Viscosity of Elements in Liquid State . . . . . .
Kinematic Viscosity of Elements in Liquid State . . . . .
Viscosity of Some Liquified Gases . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . .
Self-Diffusion Parameters of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interdiffusion Parameters of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mobility of Ions in Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .
Chapter IV. Electrical and Magnetic Properties
of the Elements . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrical Conductivity . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . .
Thermal Coefficient of Electrical Resistance . . . .
Superconductivity •• . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • • . • •
Thermoelectric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . .

217
217
222
227
230
234
236
236
239
242
248

250
252
258
261
262

268
278
284
285
286
287
288
291
292
293
299
312
314
314
323
327
329


CONTENTS

Galvanomagnetic Properties . . . . .
. ...... .
Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . ... .
. ..... .
Emission Properties. . . . . . . . . . .
Work Function of Different Faces of a Tungsten
Single Crystal. . . . . . .
. ..........•..

Secondary Electron Emission.
Width of Forbidden Band.
Dielectric Properties. . . . . .

xi

332
338
354
362
363
364
366

Chapter V. Optical Properties of the Elements
Color . . . . " . • . • . . . . . . .
Emissivity . . . . . . . • . . .
Reflectivity . . . . . . . • . . . . .
Refractive Indices ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

374
374
377
383
386

Chapter VI. Mechanical Properties of the Elements
Modulus of Normal Elasticity . . . . . . . . • .
Shear Modulus. . . . . . . . . .
. .....

Poisson's Ratio . . . . • . . . . .
Compressibility . . . . . . . . .
Velocity of Sound in Matter ..
Limit of Proportionality during Strain . . .
Tensile Yield Stress . . . .
Tensile Strength . . . . .
Relative Elongation ... .
Compressive Strength .. .
Fatigue Limit under Alternating Bending ..
Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Long-Term Strength of Metals .. .
Impact Strength . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hardness on Mineralogical Scale.
Brinell Hardness. . . . . . . . .
Vickers Hardness ...
Rockwell Hardness
Microhardness . . . . . . . .

387
387
394
396
397
398
400
403
408
415
422
424

425
427
428
432
432
438

Chapter VII. Electrochemical Properties of Elements
NormaLElectrode Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrochemical Weight Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Oxidation-Reduction Potentials of Elements
and Ions in Water at 298°K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

447
447
449

443
445

452


xii

CONTENTS

Evolution of Hydrogen on Various Metals in Aqueous
Solutions of Acids and Alkalis at 293°K . . • . . . . . . . .
Chapter VIII. Chemical Propenies of the Elements . . . . . . .

Interaction of the Elements with Various Reagents. . . . . . .
Corrosion of the Elements in Various Media. • . . . . • . . . .
Reactions of the Elements with Hydrogen. . . . . . . . . . • . .
Reactions of the Elements with Boron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reactions of the Elements with Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reactions of the Elements with Silicon. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reactions of the Elements with Nitrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reactions of the Elements with Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . .
Reactions of the Elements with Oxygen. . . . .. . . . . . . . .
Reactions of the Elements with Sulfur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reactions of the Elements with Selenium and Tellurium.
Reactions of the Elements with Refractory Materials
in the Solid Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Toxicity . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

455
457
457
609

721
737
745
754
762
778
788
810
827

.
.

836
848

References . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

857


INTRODUCTION
The study of the properties of the chemical elements has always
lagged considerably behind their discovery, and this has mainly been
due to the difficUlty in obtaining elements in a sufficiently pure form,
as well as to the need for the development of special investigation
procedures and the corresponding equipment and instruments. This, in
particular, has been responsible for the presence in the scientific literature of much data on the physical and chemical properties of substances
which were obtained with samples of varying 'Clegrees of purity and
which often differed substantially from each other and even contradicted each other.

In connection with the development of semiconductor technOlogy,
nuclear physics, and high- and low-temperature technOlogy, considerable success has now been achieved in the preparation of elements in a
highly pure state, and this has lead to the accumulation of a large
amount of data on the electrophysical, nuclear, and structural properties of the elements. However, it should be noted that there is some
lag in the investigation of the thermal, thermodynamic, and, particularly, the mechanical properties of substances. This lag also applies to
some extent to chemical properties, information on which is largely of
a purely qualitative descriptive character.
These peculiarities in research on the properties of the elements
are naturally reflected in the present handbook, which was compiled
from literature data available to the authors. An attempt was made to
present the most reliable data, with the degree of reliability determined
mainly from the dependability of the method used in establishing the
numerical values of the properties, the purity characteristics and states
of the samples, and also statistical criteria. In a number of cases the
degree of reliability was also estimated from the agreement of the
measured properties with some well-established laws and the logical
conclusions from them.
Values whose degree of reliability is doubtful and for which there
are no reliable data are given in parentheses. Only one numerical value
1


2

INTRODUCTION

is given for each property of an element and this facilitates the use of the
handbook. The citations in the "References" column correspond to this
value. At the same time, additional literature references are given so
that specialists can draw their own conclusions on the degree of reliability of particular values and also on the effect of purity, measurement

method, and other parameters on the numerical values of the properties.
As a result of this, the handbOok is to some extent of a bibliographical nature. The number of references shows the statistical reliability
of the values and the extent to which they have been studied, and this
should attract the attention of research organizations and investigators
occupied with the study of the properties of elements.
The following comments shOUld be made on the material in the
individual chapters and tables. In Chapter I we give general information on the properties of the elements and the structure of their atoms.
Together with data on the abundance of the elements in the earth's
crust, we also give the relative abundances of the elements in the universe, in some cosmic objects, and in cosmic rays. The table of the
atomic weights and atomic volumes of the elements, which was compiled from data in 1962, gives information on the discovery of the corresponding elements. The table giving the electronic structure of isolated atoms has been changed somewhat and augmented in comparison
with that normally given; in particular, we give the electronic structure of recently discovered members of the actinide series, for the terbium atom we adopted the more probable configuration 4t'5d16gZ in
comparison with 4f6s2 , etc. The table giving the ionization potentials
of atoms has been augmented substantially, particularly for the rare
earth elements from the summary [1] and the articles [2590] and [2591].
The values of the electron affinity were taken from the handbook [2].
Together with data on electron affinity we also give values of the electropegativity of the elements; although the latter characteristic does not
have a sufficiently precise physical meaning and is formal in character,
it is still used by a number of investigators. Available data on the spectral characteristics of the elements in ground and ionized states are
presented systematically.
Particular comment should be made on the table of atomic and
ionic radii. The latter are arbitrary values, representing the possible
radius of the sphere of action of atoms in compounds with various saturated types of bond, namely, ionic, covalent, or metallic. In homoa-


INTRODUCTION

3

tomic compounds, half ofthe shortest interatomic distance is taken as the
radius of the atoms; in heteroatomic compounds of the ionic type the

radii of the ions are obtained by subtracting from the interatomic distances the radius of one of the ions, which is taken as a reference.
Therefore, the system of ionic radii depends on the values of the socalled reference radii, which are different according to different authors
(for example, according to Goldschmidt the radius ofd- is 1.32xlO- 1
nm .. according to Pauling it is 1.40xlO- 1 nm, according to Belov and
Bokii it is 1.36xlO- 1 nm, etc.). Since there are continuous transitions
between types of bond in a series of compounds, the values of the ionic
and covalent radii adopted are approximate and their sums differ
substantially from the corresponding interatomic distances. Povarennykh
[3] proposed a system of "varying" ionic radii, whose values depend on
the character of the bond in each actual compound and are calculated
from the difference in the electronegativities of the corresponding atoms
mentioned above. The coordination number and multiplicity of the
covalent bond also affect the values of the radii. More details on this
problem will be found in Batsanov's review [43].
In view of these circumstances and the physical uncertainty ofthe
concepts of atomic and ionic radii. the authors decided that it was
necessary to present all systems of these values without showing preference for any of them. At the end of the chapter we present data on
the density of the elements and their crystal structures and polymorphic
conversions.
Chapter II gives data on the main nuclear properties of the elements. Tables of the isotopic composition of the elements and the
characteristics of the interaction of elements with neutrons were compiled mainly from the Handbook of Nuclear Physics [4] and the properties of the elementary particles are from data in [5].
Unfortunately. the size of this handbook made it impossible to
include tables of the interaction of elements with neutrons having
resonance energies over the whole spectrum of resonance energies.
More complete information on the nuclear properties of the elements
may be obtained from the Nuclear Physical Constants handbook [249].
Chapter III covers the thermodynamic and thermal properties of
the elements. Most tables in this section were compiled on the basis
of handbooks and monographs [6-11] published in the USSR and abroad.

4

INTRODUCTION

In the tables giving the boiling points and vapor pressures of the elements, at the melting points we give mainly calculated data obtained
from experimental equations of the temperature dependence of the
vapor pressure. In the table of thermal expansion coefficients we give
the mean values of the coefficients for the given temperature ranges.
It should be noted that the conversion of dynamic into kinematic viscosity and vice versa was impossible in most cases because of the lack
of data on the density of liquids. In the tables of diffusion characteristics, together with the diffusion parameters we also give the methods
used for determining them in the original work.
Chapter IV gives data on the electrical and magnetic properties
of the elements. The values of the electrical resistances of the elements
are given for the widest possible temperature ranges. The electrical
resistance is a structurally sensitive property and depends very markedly
on the purity of the materials. Therefore, the data are most reliable
for those elements with which there has been the greatest progress in
improving purity in connection with their use in new fields of technology. It may be assumed that some of the values of electrical resistance
are somewhat high because of the inadequate purity of the samples, and
so in selecting the most reliable values we favored the lowest values.
Data on superconductivity are taken from B. Roberts' review [12] with
hardly any changes. The values given for the specific magnetic susceptibility may be connected readily into atomic or molar susceptibiliues
by multiplying by the atomic or molecular weight, respectively. In
the section on emission characteristics we give the values of the work
function for electron emission measured by various methods and estimated by empirical relations. Because of the substantial dependence of
the work function on the method of determination (thermoelectric,
photoelectric, autoelectronic, effusion, from the difference in contact
potentials, and calorimetric methods) and the character of the empirical
relation for the calculation, we give a range of literature references to

the original papers. More complete information on this problem may
be found in the handbook [1347]. In the table giving the widths of the
forbidden band we give the characteristics of the samples on which the
measurements were made. The thermal method gives the width of the
forbidden band at absolute zero, while the optical method gives the
value at the measurement temperature. Where we give the value at
absolute zero determined by the optical method this means that measurements were made of the temperature dependence of the absorption


INTRODUCTION

5

edge and the results extrapolated to absolute zero. For homopolar
substances, which include all elements, the optical and thermal
bandwidths should coincide. Because of the effect of the temperature
dependence of mobility on the thermal width of the band, which cannot
always be allowed for accurately in the determination of the latter from
the temperature dependence of electrical conductivity, the optical
measurements are more reliable. In the table of dielectric characteristics we give the values of the relative permittivity of the elements
6 = 61160, where 6 1 is the permittivity of the substance and 6 0 is the
permittivity of vacuum, which equals 8.85 X 10- 12 F 1m. Because of
the very slight deviation of 6 from I, for gases we give the values of
6 - 1.
Chapter V gives data on the main optical properties of the elements, namely, the color, emissive power, reflectance, and refractive
index.
Chapter VI covers the mechanical properties of the elements,
which are the least-studied properties. The data on these properties
are not only very limited, but also show considerable scatter because of
the indeterminacy of the composition of the samples studied, the effect

of various types of defect, texture, the character of the treatment, etc.
In Chapter VII we give the main electrochemical characteristics
of the elements. According to the system of signs for the electrode
potential adopted in the USSR we give the sign relative to a standard
hydrogen electrode, whose equilibrium potential is conventionally taken
as O. The electrochemical equivalents were calculated from the values
of the atomic weights adopted.
Chapter VIII covers the main chemical properties of the elements.
Here the authors decided that it was possible to abandon the order of
the elements adopted in the other sections and to examine them in the
groups of the Periodic Table, where chemically similar elements are
grouped together. In addition to a description of the main chemical
characteristics of the elements and the rate of their corrosion by various
reagents, we also give somewhat more detailed data on the interaction
of elements with nonmetals, namely, hydrogen, boron, carbon, silicon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, and tellurium, and point
out some classification principles referring to the character of the
interaction. In the same chapter we give the basic ideas of the toxicity
of elements.


6

INTRODUCTION

The values given in the handbook are in the SI (International
System) of units, which is adopted in the USSR, with the exception of
some units which are not included in the system. For the convenience
of readers, in some cases together with the new system we give values
in the cgs, mts (meter-ton-second), and other systems with the

conversion factors.


CHAPTER I

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND CRYSTALLOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
ELEMENTS
CONTENT OF ELEMENTS IN THE UNIVERSE
(approximate composition)

Atomic
number

of
IElement I Composition
universe, wt. 0/0

2

H

-75

He

-24

iReferences

[18, 19]

Remaining
elements

RELATIVE CONTENT OF NUCLEI OF ELEMENTS IN
COSMIC RAYS [18]
Number of
nuclei per
~05 prot<;ms
In cosmIC
rays

Mean content in
the cosmos, number of nuclei per
10 5 hydrogen
atoms

H

100,000

100,000

He

10,000

7000

~50-200

3.6. 10-4

520

80

160

30

30

1.5

Nuclei

Li, Be, B
C, N, 0

Nuclei with

z~

0

Fe

10-3

Nuclei with Z > 30
7


8

ATOMIC STRUCTURES AND CRYST ALLOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

ABUNDANCE OF ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH'S CRUST
(Lithosphere's composition according to A. P. Vinogradov) [20, 21, 23]
U'"
....
Q)

E.o
oE
.... ;::l

"'::c

8
1
14
13
11
26
20
12
19
22

6
15
7
25
16
9
17
3
56
a8
23
37
40
28
29

....c
Q)

E

~

U'"
....
Q)

At.

"/0

Mass

E.o
oE
.... ;::l

"/0

W

"'::1::

0

47,2
59
(0,15)
62
42
27.6
90
8.80
2,64
72
66
5.10
3,6
68
35

2.10
2,6
70
6. 10- 1
73
1
(1 . 10- )
92
8. 10-2
63
(1 . 10- 2 )
67
9· 10- 2
74
5. 10- 2
34
2.7 , 10-2
71
4.5 . 10- 2
65
6,5. 10-3
81
5. 10-2
69
4. 10-2
48
1.5. 10- 2
51
3.1 . 10-2
53

2. 10- 2
83
8. 10-3
47
1 . 10- 2
49
5. 10-3
80
3. 10-9
76
6. 10-4
46
4. 10-3
52
2.8. 10-3
44
4,5· 10-3
78
3. 10-4
79
1.5. 10-3
45
2,5. 10- 3
75
1.8 . 10-3
77
6. 10- 4
91
7. 10-4
I . I().-a

88
89
1.6. IO-a 1 84
I . 10-3
7, 10-4 1 94
86

58.0
(3,0)
H
Si
20,0
6,6
Al
2,4
Na
2,0
Fe
2.0
Ca
2,0
Mg
1,4
K
2,5. 10- 1
Ti
C (1.5 . 10-1 )
5, 10-2
P
N (2,5. 10-2)

Mn 3,2. 10-2
3,0. 10-2
S
2,8. 10- 2
F
2,6. 10- 2
CI
1.9, 10- 2
Li
5,7, 10- 2
Ba
I . 10- 2
Sr
6. 10-3
V
7. 10-3
Rb
4, 10-3
Zr
3.2 . 10-3
Ni
Cu 3,6. 10-3
1.5. 10-3
~o
Zn
1.5. 10-3
27 Co
1.2. 10-3
4 Be
7. 10-4

50 Sn
6. 10-4
39
Y
6. 10-4
58 Ce
6.10-4
5
B
4. 10-4
31 Ga
{i0 Nd 3,5. 10-4
2,5. 10-4
57 La
3, 10-4
21 Sc
2. 10-4
32 Ge
2. 10-4
41 Nb
1.5. 10-4
82 Pb
1 . 10-4
64_ Gd
55 Cs 9,5, 10-5

I

C
Q)

E
Q)

At.

"/0

Mass

"/0

~

Pr
Sm
Mo
Th
Hf

Dy

Er
Br
Yb
Ta

u

Eu
Ho

W

Sc
Lu
Tb
TI
Tu
Cd
Sb
I

Bi
Ag
In
Hg
Os
Pd
Te
Ru
Pt
Au
Rh
Re
Ir
Pa
Ra
Ac
Po
Pu

:Rn

9.
9.
6.
7.
5.
5.
5.
4.
3.
1,8.
2.
1.8.
1.5 .
1.
1.5·
1.
1.
(3 .
8.
(7,6 .
(5 .
4.
(1.7·
1,6 .
(1,5.
7.
5.
1.6·

(1,3 .

10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
10- 5
10- 5
10- 5
10-5
10- 5
10-5

10-5)
10-6

10-8 )

10-6 )
10-6
10-8 )
10-8
10- 6 )

10- 7
10-7
10- 7
10-7 )
(I . 10- 7)
5·105. 10-8
1,7 . 10-'
8,5. 10- 9
8.5. 10-9
(8 . 10- 12 )
9. 10- 12
(5 . 10- 15)
(2 . 10-15)
7. 1O- 17
(5 . 10-17 )

7. 10-4
7. 10- 4
3. 10-4
8. 10-4
3,2· 10- 4
4,5· 10-4
4. 10-4
1.6 . 10- 4
3. 10-4
2· 10-4
3. 10- 4
1.2. 10-4
1.3 . 10-4
1 . 10-4

6. 10-5
1.10-4
1,5 . 10-4
(3. 10-4 )
8· 10-;;
(5 . 10-5 )
(4 . 10-5)
(3 . 10- 6 )
(2 . 10-5 )
I . 10-5
(I . 10-5 )
7. 10- 6
5. 10-6
1 . 10-6
(I . 10-6)
(5 . 10-7)
5. 10- 7
5. 10-7
I . 10--7
I . 10- 7 •
I . 10- 7
(I . 10-1 °)
I . 10-10
(6 . 10- 1°)
(2 . 10- 14)
I . 10-15
(7 . 10- 18

• According to data from S. M. Basitova's investigations [22], the content of Re in wt. "/0 is one order higher.

CONTENT OF ELEMENTS IN SEA WATER

9

CONTENT OF ELEMENTS IN SEA WATER* [2352]

z0

.S:!
E
0

...

<:
3
5
6
7
9
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
19
20

21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

...c:::


E

z0

Concentration, g/ton


~

0.1
Li
4.6

B
28 (Inorganic)
C
1.2-3.0 (Organic)
C
N 0.01-0.80 (Inorganic)
0.03-0.2 (Organic)
N
1.4
F
Na
10,561
1272
Mg
0.16-1.9
Al
Si
0.02-4.0
0-0.016 (Organic)
P
884
S
18,980
CI
380
K
400
Ca
Se
0.00004

Ti
Present
0.0003
V
Present (Organic)
Cr
0.001-0.01
Mn
0.002-0.02
Fe
0.0001
Co
0.0001-0.0005
Ni
0.001-0.09
Cu
0.005-0.014
Zn
0.0005
Ga
Present
Ge

• Dissolved gases are ignored.

.S:!
E

'i::

E

<:

til

33
34
35
37
38
39
40
42
47
48
50
51
53
55
56
57
58
74
78
79
80
81
82
83

88
90
92

As
Se
Br
Rb
Sr

8

Concentration, g/ton


Y

Zr
Mo
Ag
Cd
Sn
Sb
I
Cs
Ba
La
Ce
W

Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Ra
Th
U

0.003-0.024
0.004
65
0.2
13
0.0003
Present (Organic)
0.0003-0.002
0.00015-0.0003
Present (Organic)
0.003
Present (Organic)
0.05
0.002
0.05
0.0003
0.0004
Present
Present (Organic)
4.10-°-8.10-6

0.0003
Present (Organic)
0.004-0.005
0.0002
2.10- 11 -3.10- 10
0;0005
0.00015-0.0016


10

ATOMIC STRUCTURES AND CRYST ALLOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

ATOMIC WEIGHTS, ATOMIC VOLUMES, AND YEAR OF
DISCOVERY OF THE ELEMENTS [25-30]
(atomic weights as of January I, 1962)
,....;

0

0

Z

U

'8

;.-

Element

S
-<

.-<

.B

a>.

Atomicwt.

H

1.00797:1:
0.00001 •

Hydrogen

2

Helium

He

4.0026

3
4

5

Lithium
Beryllium
Boron

Li

6
7
8
9
10

Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

C
N
F
Ne

6.939
9.0122
10.811:1:
0.003 •
12.01115

14.0067
15.9994
18.9984
20.183

11
12
13
14

Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Silicon

Na 22.9898
M~ 24.312
Al 26.9815
Si 28.086

15
16
17

Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine

18

Argon

P 30.9738
S 32.064
Cl 35.453:1:
0.001 •
Ar 39•.948

19
20

Potassium
Calcium

K 39.102
Ca 40.08

0

Year of discovery or isolation

-<

1

B

'80
~

(I)

Be

U

11.20 Fi:rst half of the XVI century;
P. Paracelsus. In 1776
G. Cav:endish established its
properties.
19.43 1868; discovered by J.Janssen.
It was isolated by W, Ramsay
in 1895.
12.94 1817; A. Arfvedson
4.89 1 'ffi7; N. Vauquelin
4.67 1808; H. Davy, I. Gay-Lussac,
and L. Thenard *
3.42 Known since ancient times
13.70 1772; D. Rutherford
10.89 1771; C. Scheele
14.61 1886; H. Moissan
14.0 1898; W. Ramsay and
M. Travers
23.80 1807; H. Davy
14.0 1808; H. Davy
10.0 1827; F, W6hler
12.04 1811; J. Gay-Lussac and
L. Thenard
13.93 1669; H. Brandt
15.38 Known since ancient times

17.38 1774; C. Scheele
24.12 1894; W. Ramsay and
D. Rayleigh
43.50 1807; H. Davy
26.20 1808; H. D~vy

.The atomic weight varies because of different isotopic compositions of
the element.


ATOMIC WEIGHTS AND VOLUMES

11

Continuation
0

'0

z

·s
()

Element

0

+-'

.--<

0
..CJ

a
:>..

:>

Atomic wt.

()

a
0

<:

21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

32
33,
34
35
36

Scandium
Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co

Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

44.956
47.90
50.942
51.996
54.9381
55.847
58.9332
58.71
63.54
65.37
69.72
72.59
74.9216
78.96
79.909
83.80

15.06
10.63
8.36

7.23
7.36
7.09
6.70
6.60
7.11
9.15
11.80
13.64
12.98
16.42
19.61
27.90

37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52

53
54

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium
Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru

85.47
87.62
88.905
91.22
92.906
95.94

55.48
33.35
19.88
13.97
10.76
9.39

Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe

101.07
102.905
106.4
107.870
112.40

114.82'
118.69
121.75
127.60
126.9044
131.30

8.13
8.28
8.84
10.27
13.01
15.76
16.29
18.19
20.02
25.72
36.76

55

Cesium

Cs

132.905

67.84

Rh

Year of discovery or isolation

+-'

en

<:

....

-

-

1879; L. Nilson
1789; W. Gregor
1830; G. Sefstrom
1797; N. Vauquelin
1774; C. Scheele
Known since ancient times
1735; G. Brandt
1751; A. Cronstedt
Known since ancient times
Known since ancient times
1875; Lecoq de Boisbaudran
1886; C. Winkler
Known since ancient times
1817; J. Berzelius
1826; A. Balard

1898; W. Ramsay and
M. Travers
1861; R. Bunsen
1808; H. Davy
1794; J. Gadolin
1824; J. Berzelius
1801; C. Hatchett
1781; P. Hjelm
1937; E. Segre andC. Perrier
1843; C. Klaus
1803; W. Wollaston
1803; W. Wollaston
Known since ancient times
1817; F. Stromeyer
1863; F. Reich and T. Richter
Known since ancient times
Known since ancient times
1782; Muller van Richenstei n
1811; B. Courtois
1898; W. Ramsay and
M. Travers
1860; R. Bunsen


12

ATOMIC STRUCTURES AND CRYST ALLOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Continuation
0

~
0

Z

t)

Os

Element

B

:86

>

Atomic wt.

...

<:

VJ

56
57
58
59

60
61

Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium

Ba
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm

137.34
138.91
140.12
140.907
144.24

62
63
64
65
66
67
68

69
70
71
72
,73
74
75

Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafuium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium

Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er

Tu
Yb
Lu
Hf
Ta
W
Re

150.35
151.96
157.25
158.924
162.50
164.930
167026
168.934
173.04
174.97
178.49
180.948
183.85
186.2

19.95
28.97
19.94
19.25
18.98
18.74
18.46

18.13
24.86
17.76
13.47
10.88
9.54
8.85

76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85

Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine

Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg

190.2
192.2
195.09
196.967
200.59
204.37
207.19
208.980

8.42
8.48
9.09
10.20
13.94
17.22
18.27
21.31

-

-

86
87

88
89

Radon
Francium
Radium
Actinium

Rn

T1

Pb
Bi
Po
At

Fr
Ra
Ac

Year of discovery or isolation

0

>.

<:

t)

Os

-

-

-

-

38.21
22.54
17.02
20.82
20.58

-

-

-

-

1808; H. Davy
1839; C. Mosander
1814; J. Berzelius
1885; C. A. Von Welsbach
1885; C. A. Von Welsbach

1946; J. Marinsky and
L. Glendenin; Ch. Coryell
1879; Lecoq de Boisbaudran
1901; E. Demarcay
1880; J. Marignac
1834; C. Mosander
1886; Lecoq de Boisbaudran
1879; P. Cleve
1834; C. Mosander
1879; P. Cleve
1879; J. Marignac
1907; C. A. Von Welsbach
1923; D. Coster and G. Hevese y
1802; A. Ekeberg
1781; C. Scheele
1925; W. Noddack and
I. Noddack
1803; S. Tennant
1803; S. Tennant
Known since ancient times
Known since ancient times
Known since ancient times
1861; V. Crookes
Known since ancient times
1529; G. Agricola
1898; P. Curie and M.-Curie
1940; E. Segre, D. Corson,
and K. MacKenzie
1900; E. Rutherford
1939; M. Perey

1898; P. Curie and M. Curie
1899; A. Debierne


ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ISOLATED ATOMS

13

Continuation
......

0

z

0

E

:>

'0 Atomic wt •

Element

.~

.~

..0

E

E

0
'-'

>.

rJ)

90 Thorium
91 Protactinium
92 Uranium

Th
Pa
U

238.03

93 Neptunium

Np

-

Pu

Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lw

-

Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium ..
Lawrencium
-

94
95
96
97
98
99

100
101
102
103
104

Year of discovery or isolation

0
'-'

232.038

19.79 1828; J. Berzelius
1917; O. Hahn and L. Meitner
12.50 1789; M. Klaproth; E. Peligot
isolated it in a pure form in
1841.
1940; E. McMillan and
P. Abelson
1941; G. Seaborg et al.
1945; G. Seaborg et al.
1944; G. Seaborg et al.
1949; G. Seaborg et al.
1950; G. Seaborg et al.
1952; A. Ghiorso et al.
1953; A. Ghiorso et al.
1955; G. Seaborg et al.
1958; G. N. Flerov: G. Seaborg

1961; A. Ghiorso et al.
1964; G. N. Flerov et al.

-

-

-

-

-

-

"The name of the element has not been accepted universally [29].

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ISOLATED ATOMS
U'"

.~
8..0
08

Energy states of electrons

C
8

KI LIM

c::

~

~

1

H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
0

I
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

'-';oj

2
3
4

5

6
7
8
9

10

~

F
Ne

25

I

2p 35

I I
3p

3d

- - - - - - - - I - - - 2 - - - 2 I - - 2 2 - - 2 3 - - 2 4 - - 2 5 - - 2 6 - - -

I

45

4p

N

4d

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

I

I I I 4/ I I
55

0
5p 15d 15/

- - - - - -- -- - -

I

65

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

I

I

P
Q
6p 16d -:;;

-

-1--

- - - - - - - -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

14

ATOMIC STRUCTURES AND CRYSTALLOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

u .....
• ~ Q)

Ei
Q)

Continuation

8.0

8

08
...
~
~

<:0 w
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34

35

36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45

46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57

58

Na
Mg
AI
Si
P
S
CI
Ar
K
Ca
Sc
Ti

Energy states of electrons

KI LIM
I 2p 3s I 3p I 3d I 4s I4p NI 4d I 41 I 5s I 5p0I5d I5f I6s I 6pp I 6d IQ
-;;

-;-; 25

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
V 2
Cr 2
Mn 2
Fe 2
Co 2
Ni 2
Cu 2
Zn 2
Ga 2
Ge 2
As 2
Se 2

Br 2
Kr 2
Rb 2
Sr 2
Y 2
Zr 2
Nb 2
Mo 2
Tc 2
Ru 2
Rh 2
Pd 2
2
2
In 2
Sn 2
Sb 2
Te 2
I
2
Xe 2
Cs 2
Ba 2
La 2
Ce 2

~S

2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

6
6
6
6
6
6

6

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2

6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2
6 2

- - - - I - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 1
6 6 2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

6
6
6
6

6
6
6

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

6

1
2
3
5
5
6
7
8

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

10

10
10
10
10

10
10
10

10

10

10

10
10
10
10
10
10

2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
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