Consumer behavior CRONLEY CLINE

Consumer Behavior
Frank R. Kardes
University of Cincinnati

Maria L. Cronley
Miami University

Thomas W. Cline
Saint Vincent College

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I


Consumer Behavior
Frank R. Kardes, Maria L. Cronley,
Thomas W. Cline
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Brief Contents

Part

1

Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy
1 | Understanding Consumer Behavior and Consumer Research

Chapter

Chapter 2 | Consumer Focused Strategy: Segmentation and Positioning

Part

2

Consumer Information Processing
Chapter 3 | Consumer Perception
Chapter 4 | Attitude and Judgment Formation and Change
Chapter 5 | Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 6 | Learning and Memory
Chapter

7 | Automatic Information Processing

Chapter 8 | Self-Concept and Personality

Part

3

Consumer Decision Making
Chapter 9 | The Consumer Decision Making Process
Chapter 10 | Product Consideration, Evaluation, and Choice
Chapter 11 | Behavioral Decision Theory

Part

4

Consumer Social Influences
and Contemporary Strategies for Marketers
Chapter 12 | The Influence of Culture and Values
Chapter 13 | Social Influence and Behavioral Compliance
Chapter 14 | Contemporary Strategies in Reaching Consumers
Chapter 15 | Online Consumer Behavior
Chapter 16 | Branding Strategy and Consumer Behavior
Endnotes
Glossary
Name Index
Subject Index
Company Index
III

Contents
Part

1

Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy 2
AN INTERVIEW WITH CHERYL STALLWORTH

Chapter

3

1 | Understanding Consumer Behavior and Consumer Research 5
Reality Television Works For Consumers
and Marketers 5

What Is Consumer Behavior? 8
Consumers: Individual versus Organizational 8
Consumer Activities 9
Consumer Responses 10
Why Study Consumer Behavior? 11
To Improve Business Performance 11
To Influence Public Policy 11
To Educate and Help Consumers Make Better Decisions 13
Consumer Behavior as a Field of Study 13
The Evolution of Consumer Behavior Research 14
Motivation Research 15
A Behavioral Science Perspective 15
Interpretivism 17
Consumer Behavior Research 18

Basic versus Applied Research 19
Correlations and Causal Relationships 20
Secondary versus Primary Data 22
Primary Data Collection Methods 23
Observation 24
Direct Questioning: Surveys, Interviews, and Focus Groups 24
Experiments 26
Projective Techniques 26
Chapter Summary 27
Key Terms 28
Review and Discussion 28
Short Application Exercises 29
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

IV

29


V

Contents

Chapter

2 | Consumer Focused Strategy: Segmentation and Positioning 30
America’s Most Entertaining Supermarket
Destination 30

A Divide and Conquer Strategy 32

How Consumers and Society Benefit from Market Segmentation 34
Factors Influencing Market Segmentation Strategies 35
Bases of Segmentation 37
Demographic Bases 37
Geographic Bases 37
Psychographic Bases 41
The VALS System 41
Behavioral Bases 46
Product Attributes or Benefits 46
Usage Occasions and Product Usage 47
Positioning 48
Positioning a Leader 49
Positioning a Follower 50
Positioning Linked to Segmentation Bases 51
Positioning by Core Benefit 51
Positioning by Price 51
Positioning by Product Usage Situation 52
Positioning by Product User 52
Repositioning 52
Perceptual Mapping 53
Chapter Summary 54
Key Terms 55
Review and Discussion 55
Short Application Exercises 56
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

56

End-of-Part Video Short 57

Part

2

Consumer Information Processing

58

AN INTERVIEW WITH ROBERT S. WYER, JR

Chapter

3 | Consumer Perception 62
Apple Paints the Market 62

Defining the Perceptual Process 63
Sensory Thresholds 66
The Absolute Threshold 66
The Just Noticeable Difference 67
Adaptation 69
Subliminal Perception and Advertising 70

59


VI

Contents

Physical Influences on Attention 72

Short-Term Memory 72
Arousal 73
Voluntary and Involuntary Selective Attention 74
Salient Stimuli 74
Novelty 75
Intensity 75
Complexity 76
Vividness 77
Emotional Interest 77
Concreteness 77
Proximity 79
Chapter Summary 79
Key Terms 80
Review and Discussion 80
Short Application Exercises 80
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

Chapter

81

4 | Attitude and Judgment Formation and Change 82
Erroneous Beliefs about Homeopathic Medicines 82

Nonevaluative Judgments: Beliefs 83
Evaluative Judgment: Attitudes and Their Properties 86
Zanna and Rempel’s Model 86
Overview of Involvement 88
Attitude Models Based on High or Low Consumer Involvement 90
Expectancy-Value Models 90

The Theory of Reasoned Action 91
Information Integration Theory 92
The Elaboration Likelihood Model 94
The Heuristic/Systematic Model 95
Parameters of Judgment 96
General Strategies for Changing Attitudes 97
Chapter Summary 98
Key Terms 98
Review and Discussion 99
Short Application Exercises 99
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

Chapter

100

5 | Motivation and Emotion 101
Nostalgia Sells 101

An Overview of Motivation and Emotion 102
The Process of Motivation 103
Motivation and Human Needs 104
Drive Theory and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 104
Self-Determination Theory 105


VII

Contents

The Trio of Needs 106
Attitude Function Theory 107
Balance Theory 110
Cognitive Dissonance Theory 111
Emotion 113
Discrepancy-Interruption Theory 114
Excitation Transfer Theory 115
Chapter Summary 117
Key Terms 117
Review and Discussion 117
Short Application Exercises 118
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

Chapter

118

6 | Learning and Memory 119
Martini & Rossi 119

The Importance of Learning and Memory 120
Types of Learning 120
Classical Conditioning 120
Operant Conditioning 124
Comprehension and Miscomprehension 124
Memory 126
The Seven Sins of Memory 126
Transience 127
Absent-mindedness 127
Blocking 128

Misattribution 131
Suggestibility 131
Bias 132
Persistence 132
Chapter Summary 133
Key Terms 133
Review and Discussion 133
Short Application Exercises 134
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

Chapter

134

7 | Automatic Information Processing 135
Subliminal Advertising 135

What Is Automatic Information Processing? 136
The Adaptive Unconscious 137
Thin Slice Theory of Informational Processing 138
Implicit Memory 139
The Priming Effect 140
The Implicit Association Test (IAT) 143
Familiarity Effects 144
Distraction Effects 144


VIII

Contents

Subliminal Advertising Revisited 145
Chapter Summary 146
Key Terms 146
Review and Discussion 147
Short Application Exercises 147
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

Chapter

148

8 | Self-Concept and Personality 149
Gap’s Khakis Have Personality 149

Self-Concept Defined 151
The Role of Self-Concept 153
The Extended Self 155
Loved Objects 157
Self-Monitoring 158
Impression Management Theory 159
Appearance Management 159
Ingratiation 160
Aligning Activities 161
Personality 162
Multiple Trait Theory 163
Brand-Personality 165
Characterization 168
Cognitive Factors 169
Need for Cognition 169

Need for Humor 170
Need for Cognitive Closure 171
Chapter Summary 172
Key Terms 173
Review and Discussion 174
Short Application Exercises 174
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

175

Part Video Short 175

Part

3

Consumer Decision Making 176
AN INTERVIEW WITH BABA SHIV

177

AN INTERVIEW WITH GEORGE LOEWENSTEIN

178

Chapter

9 | The Consumer Decision Making Process 180
Kellogg’s Company: Cereal with Disclosure 180

The Consumer Decision Making Process 181
Types of Consumer Decisions 181
Brand Laziness 184
Brand Loyalty 184


IX

Contents

Variety Seeking 185
Problem Solving 187
The Traditional Model of Consumer Decision Making 188
The Nature of Problem Recognition 189
Needs 190
Wants 192
Opportunities 193
The Nature of Information Search 195
Influences on Search 195
Motivation to Search 198
Results of Search 198
Economics of Search 198
Alternative Evaluation and Choice: An Uncertainty-Reduction
Model 199
Consumer Uncertainty 201
The Perceived Product-Market 202
Consideration and Choice 203
Cluster Size 204
Cluster Variance 205
Cluster Frontier (The Ideal Brand) 205

Brand Variance 206
Post-Purchase Evaluation 206
Consumer Satisfaction 209
Dissonance-Reduction 209
Expectancy Disconfirmation Model 210
Chapter Summary 211
Key Terms 212
Review and Discussion 212
Short Application Exercises 213
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

Chapter

213

10 | Product Consideration, Evaluation, and Choice 214
Sony Has a Television for Every Consumer Taste 214

The Consideration Set: Determining Choice Alternatives 216
Influencing the Consideration Set 217
Part-List Cuing 217
The Attraction Effect 218
The Compromise Effect 218
Constructing Evaluations to Make Choices 219
Consumer Choice: Stimulus-Based, Memory-Based, and Mixed Choice 220
Attitude versus Attribute-Based Choice Strategies 221
Choice Based on Heuristic Processing 223
Prediction Heuristics 226
Representativeness Heuristic 226
Availability Heuristic 228

Simulation Heuristic 230
Anchoring-and-Adjustment Heuristic 230


X

Contents

Choice Heuristics 231
The Lexicographic Heuristic 231
The Elimination-by-Aspects Heuristic 231
The Additive-Difference Heuristic 232
The Conjunctive and Disjunctive Heuristics 232
The Frequency of Good and Bad Features Heuristic 232
Chapter Summary 234
Key Terms 234
Review And Discussion 235
Short Application Exercises 235
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

Chapter

236

11 | Behavioral Decision Theory 237
Vioxx 237

Expected Utility Theory 238
Framing Effects 239
Framing Influences Marketing Decisions 240

Reference Dependence and Loss Aversion 241
The Endowment Effect, the Sunk Cost Effect, and Choice Deferral 243
Preference Reversals 245
Selective Thinking 247
Chapter Summary 250
Key Terms 250
Review and Discussion 251
Short Application Exercises 251
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

252

End-of-Part Video Short 252

Part

4

Consumer Social Influences and Contemporary
Strategies for Marketers 254
AN INTERVIEW WITH THOMAS O’GUINN

255

AN INTERVIEW WITH ROBERT CIALDINI

258

Chapter

12 | The Influence of Culture and Values 259
Cheaters Prosper 259

Culture Defined 261
A Cultural Framework for Consumer Behavior 262
The Culturally Constituted World 262
Station 2 in Figure 12.1: Consumer Products 263
Station 3 in Figure 12.1: Consumers 265
Enculturation and Acculturation 268


XI

Contents

Language 268
Cultural Translation 270
Body Language 270
High- and Low-Context Cultures 271
Symbols 273
Norms 275
Return Potential Model 276
Consumer Values 278
Core Values 278
Means-End Chains 278
Attributes 279
Benefits 279
Values 279
Rokeach Value Survey 281
The List of Values (LOV) 282

Chapter Summary 282
Key Terms 283
Review and Discussion 284
Short Application Exercises 284
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

Chapter

285

13 | Social Influence and Behavioral Compliance 286
An Influence Agent at Work 286

Defining Compliance 288
The Automaticity Principle 288
The Commitment and Consistency Principle 290
The Foot-in-the-Door Technique 290
The Low-Ball Technique 292
The Reciprocity Principle 293
The Door-in-the-Face Technique 294
The That’s-Not-All Technique 296
The Multiple-Deescalating-Requests Technique 298
The Even-a-Penny Technique 298
The Scarcity Principle 299
The Social Validation Principle 300
Cultural and Individual Differences 301
Injunctive Versus Descriptive Norms 303
The Liking Principle 306
Familiarity 306
Physical Attractiveness 307

Similarity 308
Ingratiation 309
The Authority Principle 309
Chapter Summary 311
Key Terms 311
Review and Discussion 312


XII

Contents

Short Application Exercises 312
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

Chapter

313

14 | Contemporary Strategies in Reaching Consumers 314
The E.B. Horn Great Diamond Hunt 314

Word-of-Mouth: Pushing the Buzz Button 316
Why Is Word-of-Mouth So Powerful? 317
Buzz Marketing 318
Product Pushers 319
Imitation Evangelists 319
Stealth Celebrity Endorsers 320
Consumer Generated Marketing 320
Celebrity and Athlete Endorsers 322

Product Placement 325
What Is Product Placement? 325
Why Is Product Placement Growing? 328
Added Realism 328
Reach and Longevity 328
Indirect Endorsements 328
Cost Reduction 329
Types of Product Placement 329
Chapter Summary 330
Key Terms 331
Review and Discussion 331
Short Application Exercises 331
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

Chapter

332

15 | Online Consumer Behavior 333
Yahoo! 333

The Age of Interactivity 334
Features of a Well-Designed Website 336
Choice and Customization 336
Information Search and Navigation 337
Organization of Information 337
The Implications of Reduced Search Costs for Information 339
The Consumer Advocacy Paradigm 341
Chapter Summary 344
Key Terms 345

Review and Discussion 345
Short Application Exercises 345
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

346


XIII

Contents

Chapter

16 | Branding Strategy and Consumer Behavior 347
Disney 347

Entry Strategy 348
Product Life Cycle Management 349
Brand Equity Management 351
Product Line Management 354
Managing Market Leaders and Market Underdogs 357
Acquisition Versus Retention Strategies 358
Chapter Summary 362
Key Terms 362
Review and Discussion 362
Short Application Exercises 363
M a n a g e r i a l A p p l i c at i o n

End-of-Part Video Short 363

Endnotes 365
Glossary 389
Name Index 399
Subject Index 401
Company Index 414

363


Preface
Businesses spend enormous amounts of time, money, and other resources on monitoring, predicting, understanding, and influencing the behavior of consumers. Success
depends on convincing consumers to use their products and services rather than competitors’ offerings. Toward this end, consumers are inundated by marketing communications in the traditional media (e.g., television, radio, print advertising, and direct
mail), the new media (e.g., Internet), and in retail stores (e.g., packaging and point-ofpurchase displays). However, effective marketing requires an in-depth understanding of
the variables that capture the attention and interest of consumers; that influence how
consumers acquire, retain, and update product knowledge; and that influence how
consumers use product knowledge as a basis for judgment and choice.
Consumer behavior encompasses all consumer activities associated with the purchase, use, and disposal of goods and services, including the consumer’s emotional,
mental, and behavioral responses that precede, determine, or follow these activities.
The unwavering focus on the consumer is the unique contribution of marketing that
distinguishes this activity from the other business functions (e.g., accounting, finance,
production, management). An in-depth understanding of consumers is needed to
develop better products and services, to market these products and services more effectively, and to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage.
This book provides in-depth, scientifically grounded explanations of consumer behavior without sacrificing breadth. We discuss a variety of “classic” consumer behavior topics,
including consumer information processing, consumer decision making, persuasion, and
the role of culture and society on consumer behavior. In addition, we address some novel
topics that enhance the usefulness and impact of the text, including an emphasis on international and ethical perspectives, an examination of “contemporary” or “state-of-the-art”
media, and a discussion of online tactics and branding strategies. In summary, we aim
to strike a balance among theoretical concepts, research findings, and applied marketing
examples to achieve a strong consumer-focused, strategy-oriented approach.

Organization of the Book
This book is organized in five main parts. Part One focuses on consumer behavior and
marketing strategy. It explores what consumer behavior comprises, how it fits into the
larger field of marketing, and how marketers study it. Part One also explains how marketing managers use their research-based knowledge about consumers to develop more
effective segmentation and positioning strategies. Effective strategic decisions related to
segmentation and positioning are essential for successful marketing practice.
Part Two focuses on consumer information processing, or the steps or stages of
thinking and reasoning that influence how consumers acquire, retain, and revise product knowledge. Here, we take an internal view of the consumer to examine how these
fickle, stubborn, passionate, and fascinating creatures interact with the marketing world
by processing information and making decisions.
Part Three focuses on consumer decision making, or how consumers use their
knowledge about products and services to choose the brands they buy. The chapters in
Part Three break down consumer decision making and examine each step in detail.
XIV


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Preface

Part Four focuses on consumer social influences and contemporary strategies for
marketers. Part Four explains the external influences of culture, values, and referent
others on consumers and their behaviors. It also explains how to reach consumers more
effectively, how to develop more effective online tactics, and how to develop more
effective branding strategies.
Part Five focuses on common biases and errors in managerial decision making and
how to avoid them. Even experts are susceptible to a wide range of decision-making biases
that can hurt business. A clearer understanding of managers’ decision-making processes
helps managers to avoid some common pitfalls. Part Five’s chapters 17 and 18 can be
found on the book companion site, />Finally, it should be noted that although the chapters are presented in separate sections in this book, all chapters, topics, and themes are related to all the others.

Pedagogical Enhancements
We believe that students work best when they can see phenomena from all angles:
when they can understand what theories and concepts mean, see how they integrate
with other concepts, and see how they are applied to smart business practice. To help
students understand, apply, and integrate the concepts of consumer behavior in terms
of real companies and marketing situations, this book is filled with a variety of features,
with a heavy emphasis on interesting examples, strong visuals, and applied exercises.

Part Features
Each of the first four parts of the book begins with an interview with one or two wellrespected consumer researchers to stimulate student interest. This helps set the tone
for each part, providing a “big picture” of its theme that helps students understand the
relevance of the topics in the part.
At the end of the last chapter in each part is a link to a short video case study and
set of applied questions to accompany the video. The videos are real-world examples
that illustrate topics found in the parts. The accompanying questions are designed to
apply chapter concepts. These videos can be found on the book companion site, http://
www.cengage.com/marketing/kardes.

Chapter Features
Each chapter includes a variety of aids to enrich student interaction and learning,
including:
• Learning Objectives. A list of key concepts and objectives for each chapter.
• Opening Vignette. A mini-case using a real company, product, or situation to
bring the subject of the chapter alive.
• Marketing in Action. A feature that illustrates the use of various consumer behavior concepts in the practice of marketing for a real company, product, or situation.
• Eye on International. A feature that discusses the use of consumer behavior
concepts in real companies, products, or situations in international contexts.
• Ethics. A feature to increase student sensitivity to ethical issues and to stimulate
classroom discussion.

XVI

Preface

• Advertisements, Websites, Photos, Charts, and Illustrations. Specific
examples to show students how companies attempt to persuade and influence
consumers. Numerous photographs and illustrations of products, package
designs, and consumers in action increase student interest and involvement in
the material.
• Chapter Summary. An overview of key topics and concepts. Students can check
their comprehension of the material by reviewing the summary.
• Key Terms. A list of the key concepts presented in the chapter, which can be
used to reinforce students’ comprehension.
• Review and Discussion. Questions to encourage students to think critically
about what they have just read.
• Short Application Exercises. Questions help students apply the knowledge
they have gained from reading the chapter.
• Managerial Application. A mini-case problem requiring the use of multiple
concepts discussed in the chapter.

The Consumer Behavior Resource Package
Teaching consumer behavior is an exciting and challenging task. A comprehensive set
of ancillary materials has been created to support instructors.

FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
Instructor’s Manual
This teaching tool provides suggestions and additional assignments designed to supplement the textbook and help enhance the classroom experience. Each chapter includes
the following materials:

• Learning objectives and teaching tips
• Lecture outlines
• Answers to review and discussion questions
• Suggested classroom activities and assignments
The Instructor’s Manual is available on the Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM or can
be downloaded from the book companion site, />kardes.

Test Bank
A comprehensive test bank is available to assist instructors in assessing student learning.
The test bank contains more than 1,200 questions, including a mix of:
• Definitional questions that test knowledge of concepts
• Conceptual questions that test the ability to recognize concepts and relate to
situations
• Applied questions that test the ability to integrate and apply concepts


XVII

Preface

Question formats include multiple-choice, true/false, and essay questions for each chapter.
Recent pressure on faculty and institutions to implement and report on learning outcome
requirements by the AACSB and other accreditation bodies is a challenge in higher education. The development of Consumer Behavior has given us the opportunity to help faculty
meet these needs. We have tagged test items with general business and marketing discipline
outcomes that allow you to more easily produce learning outcome reports for accreditation
purposes. An electronic version of the test bank is available and allows instructors to add,
delete, edit, and easily generate multiple forms of a test. The Test Bank is available on the
Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM or can be downloaded from the book companion site.

ExamView

Available on the Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM, ExamView contains all the questions
in the Test Bank tagged as described above. This program is easy-to-use test creation
software compatible with Microsoft® Windows®. Instructors can add or edit questions,
instructions, and answers, and select questions (randomly or numerically) by previewing them on the screen. Instructors can also create and administer quizzes online over
the Internet, a local-area network (LAN), or a wide-area network (WAN).

PowerPoint® Presentation
A comprehensive set of PowerPoint® slides is available to adopters of the textbook. These
chapter-by-chapter slides include important figures, tables, and graphs taken directly from
the text, as well as an overview of the key concepts of each chapter. User friendly, the
PowerPoint® slides can be used “as is” or integrated with the instructor’s own PowerPoint®
presentations. Instructors can modify or delete any slide or add their own slides to the
existing set. In addition, instructors may choose to share the slides with students by uploading them to the school’s network. The PowerPoint® slides are available on the Instructor’s
Resource CD-ROM or can be downloaded from the book companion site.

Instructor’s Resource CD
(ISBN 0-538-75650-0)
The Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM includes electronic versions of all the instructor
supplements: PowerPoint® slides, Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, and ExamView testing files software and more.

Instructor Book Companion Site
/>Specially designed Web content provides additional information, guidance, videos,
and activities for instructors. There is additional information for chapter 12 regarding
demographics and subculture, along with student exercises for these topics to enhance
learning on the site. Part 5 of the textbook (Chapters 17 and 18) can be found on the
book companion site.

For the Student
/>Specially designed Web content provides additional information, guidance, and activities for students. The student book companion site includes key terms, learning objectives,

XVIII

Preface

videos, interactive review quizzes, and a resource center providing useful links to other
consumer behavior-related websites. Part five of the textbook (Chapters 17 and 18) can be
found on the book companion site.

Acknowledgments
We would like to warmly acknowledge the many helpful comments and insights from
David Ackerman, Ph.D. (California State University—Northridge), Ronald J. Adams,
Ph.D. (University of North Florida), Jeri Mullins Beggs (Illinois State University),
Nivein A. Behairy, Ph.D. (University of California—Irvine), Drew Boyd (Ethicon
EndoSurgery), Deborah L. Cowles, Ph.D. (Virginia Commonwealth University), Susan
Emens (Kent State University), Vicki Blakney Eveland, DBA, (Mercer University),
Annette D. Forti, DBA (SUNY College at Old Westbury), Dorothy Harpool
(Wichita State University), Curtis Haugtvedt, Ph.D. (Ohio State University), Dale
F. Kehr (University of Memphis), Michael Lynn, Ph.D. (Cornell University), Susan
Powell Mantel, Ph.D. (Ball State University), Havva J. Meric, Ph.D. (East Carolina
University), Bruce E. Pfeiffer, Ph.D. (University of New Hampshire), Andrew J. Rohm,
Ph.D. (Northeastern University), Joel Saegert, Ph.D. (The University of Texas at San
Antonio), and Eric Yorkston, Ph.D. (Texas Christian University). Finally, we would
like to acknowledge the many undergraduate and graduate students we have taught
over the years who have helped shape our thinking for this textbook.


About the Authors
Frank R. Kardes

Courtesy of Thomas Cline

Courtesy of Maria Cronley

Image not available due to
copyright restrictions

Frank R. Kardes is the Donald E. Weston
Professor of Marketing at the College of Business
at the University of Cincinnati. He is a recipient of the Distinguished Scientific Achievement
Award of the Society for Consumer Psychology,
and a Fellow of the American Psychological
Association, the American Psychological Society,
Maria L. Cronley
Thomas W. Cline
the Society for Consumer Psychology, and the
Society for Personality and Social Psychology.
His research focuses on omission neglect, consumer judgment and inference processes, persuasion and advertising, and consumer and managerial decision making.
He has published in many leading scientific journals and is frequently invited to present his research at leading universities throughout the world—including Wharton,
Yale, Cornell, Chicago, Northwestern, Michigan, the Australian Graduate School of
Management, the London Business School, the Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology, and INSEAD (France). Dr. Kardes was an Editor of the Journal of
Consumer Psychology, Advances in Consumer Research, and the Handbook of Consumer
Psychology, and is currently an Associate Editor of the Journal of Consumer Research
and the Journal of Consumer Psychology. He also serves on the editorial boards of
Behavioral Marketing Abstracts, the International Journal of Research in Marketing,
and Marketing Letters.

Maria L. Cronley
Maria L. Cronley is an Associate Professor of Marketing in the Farmer School of

Business at Miami University, where she teaches undergraduate and graduate courses
in Consumer Behavior, Customer Acquisition, and Marketing Strategy. She earned
her Ph.D. in Marketing from the University of Cincinnati and brings several years
of industry experience to the field. Her primary research interests center on consumer judgment and decision processes, with specific emphasis in the areas of inference, biased processing, and persuasion. She sits on the Journal of Consumer Psychology
Editorial Review Board and has published numerous articles in scholarly journals,
including the Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal
of Business Research, Journal of Economic Psychology, Advances in Consumer Research,
and the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. She has received over three dozen
awards and grants for her scholarship and teaching. Dr. Cronley also serves on the
Executive Board for the Society for Consumer Psychology and co-chairs the Training
and Education Committee for the Society that oversees the prestigious national SCP
Dissertation Proposal Competition.

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About the Authors

Thomas W. Cline
Thomas W. Cline is Professor of Marketing in the Alex G. McKenna School at Saint
Vincent College, where he teaches courses in consumer behavior, marketing research,
advertising and promotion, strategic marketing, and statistical methods. He is a recipient of the International Teaching Excellence Award from the Association of College
Business Schools and Programs. Dr. Cline has twenty years experience as a marketing
research consultant, specializing in surveys, experimental designs, and focus groups.
He earned a Ph.D. at the University of Cincinnati and an MBA from the University
of Virginia. Dr. Cline has published numerous articles in academic journals, including the Journal of Advertising, Journal of Consumer Psychology, and Journal of Economic
Psychology, Psychology and Marketing, and Journal of Marketing Communications.
Dr. Cline is widely cited in the popular press, including USA Today, Psychology Today,

CBS News, The LA Times, MSNBC, and The Washington Times. Dr. Cline also serves as
head coach for the men’s and women’s golf teams for Saint Vincent College, hosted at
Arnold Palmer’s Latrobe Country Club in Latrobe, PA.


Consumer Behavior

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PART

1

Consumer Behavior
and Marketing Strategy

chapters

2

1

| Understanding Consumer Behavior and Consumer Research

2

| Consumer Focused Strategy: Segmentation and Positioning

Cheryl Stallworth: Navone Studios

AN INTERVIEW WITH
CHERYL STALLWORTH
Chief Executive Officer
Greenfield Consulting Group

Cheryl Stallworth is the Chief Executive Officer for the Greenfield Consulting Group,
a global marketing research firm that specializes in qualitative research methodologies.
The Greenfield Consulting Group is part of Millward Brown, one of the top ten global
marketing research agencies. As a marketing generalist with expertise in qualitative
research methodologies, Greenfield Consulting Group focuses on using insights to develop
effective marketing strategies.

Q Why is it important for companies to acquire a deep
understanding of their consumers?
Without a deep understanding of consumers it is impossible to meet their expectations. Going beyond the
fundamental “functional” needs, e.g., the need for food
and shelter, it is important to understand deeper needs
like the need for social acceptance. These are the higher
order needs that only surface when marketers dig deeper
into brand relationships and how these relationships allow
consumers to express themselves. For example, a consumer can tell me that they are purchasing a car because
they need transportation. A deeper exploratory of their
real need is to convey a certain image . . . so this consumer
doesn’t need just a car . ww. . they need a Toyota Prius because they want to be accepted within the tribe of people
that are environmentally conscious opinion leaders.

Q What research techniques do you use to learn about
your consumers?

Our company specializes in qualitative research, so
these are tools that are not designed to be projectable
to large populations. They are designed to allow us to
probe deeply into motivations and desires. In addition
to focus groups, we practice “qualographies” which
are “ethnographic-like” tools that enable us to actively
observe and interact with people in real life environments like their kitchens, or in-store in order to:

• Understand how people interact with categories and
brands in a socio-cultural context

• Understand people’s rituals, artifacts, and folklore to
help de-codify the role and meaning of brands

We also use a number of digital tools that enable us
to speak to creative consumers across broad geographies
to understand trends, social development, and differences in attitudes based on geographic influencers.
Basic focus groups are a terrific way of letting consumers “play off of ” perceptions relative to categories
and brands. In order to understand the strengths and
weaknesses of a brand’s equity, we can create a “consumer brawl” in a focus group with consumers taking
opposing sides to “argue” the benefits or drawbacks
of a brand and highlight issues and opportunities for
positioning enhancement.
These are just examples of the many tools that can
be employed to “dig deeply.”

Q How can knowledge about consumer behavior be used
to develop more effective segmentation strategies?
Consumers can be clustered based on similar attitudes
and behavior to determine which clusters are most similar.

This then enables marketers to develop messages that appeal to specific clusters. The size of clusters is often quantified to determine if a viable business opportunity exists.

Q How can knowledge about consumer behavior be used
to develop more effective positioning strategies?
Understanding consumer motivations, attitudes and
ensuing behavior helps determine the role of a category
or brand in the consumer’s world. Uncovering the
brand’s role provides the context or language for talking
about that brand in a way that makes sense and is useful
for the consumer. So for example, understanding that
a consumer feels better about the world that they are

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living in when they are doing something active to care
for the environment, taps into a basic need for
well-being (for them and their family). Not saying that
Toyota has done this, but a brand like Toyota Pruis can
become part of the consumer’s “personal toolkit” of
products that help them to achieve a personal sense of
well-being. Thus, this can then be a position for Prius to
play in, based on an insight that well-being is an important attribute/feeling/state-of-mind for environmentally
conscious consumers.

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Q How can knowledge about consumer behavior be used
to help consumers make better choices?
This knowledge can help marketers develop products

and shape messages that actually meet people’s needs
instead of creating products that “trick” consumers into
buying them based on gimmickry. In other words, identifying and delivering against real needs allow marketers
to develop sustainable long-term relationships with
consumers, which is much more efficient and profitable
in the long run.