Air evacuation in war the role of RAAF nurses undertaking air evacuation of casualties between 1943 1953

i

AIR EVACUATION IN WAR:
THE ROLE OF RAAF NURSES UNDERTAKING AIR EVACUATION
OF CASUALTIES BETWEEN 1943-1953

A research thesis submitted by Maxine Dahl, BAppSc (Nursing Sc), MNSt, in
fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation
Queensland University of Technology
2009


ii


iii

ABSTRACT
Air transportation of Australian casualties in World War II was initially carried out in
air ambulances with an accompanying male medical orderly. By late 1943 with the
war effort concentrated in the Pacific, Allied military authorities realised that air
transport was needed to move the increasing numbers of casualties over longer
distances. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) became responsible for air
evacuation of Australian casualties and established a formal medical air evacuation
system with trained flight teams early in 1944.

Specialised Medical Air Evacuation Transport Units (MAETUs) were established
whose sole responsibility was undertaking air evacuations of Australian casualties
from the forward operational areas back to definitive medical care. Flight teams

consisting of a RAAF nursing sister (registered nurse) and a medical orderly carried
out the escort duties. These personnel had been specially trained in Australia for their
role.

Post-WWII, the RAAF Nursing Service was demobilised with a limited number of
nurses being retained for the Interim Air Force. Subsequently, those nurses were
offered commissions in the Permanent Air Force. Some of the nurses who remained
were air evacuation trained and carried out air evacuations both in Australia and as
part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan.

With the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, Australia became responsible for
the air evacuation of British Commonwealth casualties from Korea to Japan. With a
re-organisation of the Australian forces as part of the British Commonwealth forces,


iv
RAAF nurses were posted to undertake air evacuation from Korea and back to
Australia from Iwakuni, Japan. By 1952, a specialised casualty staging section was
established in Seoul and staffed by RAAF nurses from Iwakuni on a rotation basis.

The development of the Australian air evacuation system and the role of the flight
nurses are not well documented for the period 1943-1953. The aims of this research
are three fold and include documenting the origins and development of the air
evacuation system from 1943-1953; analysing and documenting the RAAF nurse’s
role and exploring whether any influences or lessons remain valid today. A
traditional historical methodology of narrative and then analysis was used to inform
the flight nurse’s role within the totality of the social system. Evidence was based on
primary data sources mainly held in Defence files, the Australian War Memorial or
the National Archives of Australia. Interviews with 12 ex-RAAF nurses from both
WWII and the Korean War were conducted to provide information where there were

gaps in the primary data and to enable exploration of the flight nurses’ role and their
contributions in war of the air evacuation of casualties.

Finally, this thesis highlights two lessons that remain valid today. The first is that
interoperability of air evacuation systems with other nations is a force multiplier
when resources are scarce or limited. Second, the pre-flight assessment of patients
was essential and ensured that there were no deaths in-flight.


v

KEYWORDS

-

history
medical air evacuation
nursing
military
Royal Australian Air Force
women in war


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vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. III 
KEYWORDS .............................................................................................................. V 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ VII 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS .................................................... X 
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... XII 
LIST OF SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL ....................................................... XIII 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................ XIV 
RANKS .................................................................................................................. xv 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LIST .......................................................................... XVII 
STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP ................................................. XIX 

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 21 
BACKGROUND ................................................................................................... 21 
THE RESEARCH STUDY .................................................................................... 26 
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 32 
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................... 34 
AIR EVACUATION OF CASUALTIES .............................................................. 34 
The Beginnings .................................................................................................. 34 
Air Evacuation in WW II ................................................................................... 39 
Inter-war Years................................................................................................... 47 
The Korean War ................................................................................................. 48 
RAAF NURSES IN AIR EVACUATION ............................................................ 50 
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 51 
CHAPTER THREE STUDY METHOD ................................................................ 53 
HISTORICAL METHOD ...................................................................................... 53 
History as a Method ........................................................................................... 53 
Related Issues in Writing History ...................................................................... 59 
THE RESEARCH STUDY .................................................................................... 62 
Data Collection .................................................................................................. 62 
Sampling for Interviews ..................................................................................... 63 

Limitations in Data Collection ........................................................................... 64 
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 65 
Ethical Considerations ....................................................................................... 67 
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 68 
CHAPTER FOUR WOMEN, NURSES AND WAR ............................................. 70 
Army Origins ..................................................................................................... 71 
Australian Military Nursing Between the Wars ................................................. 74 
WWII Nursing.................................................................................................... 76 
Australian Army Nursing ............................................................................... 76 
RAN Nursing ................................................................................................. 79 
RAAF Nursing ............................................................................................... 81 
Post WWII Military Nursing.............................................................................. 87 
COMMON FEATURES OF WOMEN IN THE AUSTRALIAN MILITARY .... 89 


viii
ENTERING THE WOMEN’S SERVICES ........................................................... 93 
Employment During WW II ............................................................................... 93 
Opportunities for Women Post-WW II .............................................................. 98 
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 102 
CHAPTER FIVE A RAAF MEDICAL AIR EVACUATION SYSTEM ........... 104 
Background ...................................................................................................... 104 
FORMING THE MEDICAL AIR EVACUATION SYSTEM............................ 107 
The Decision .................................................................................................... 107 
Initial Training.................................................................................................. 113 
ESTABLISHING NO. 1 MAETU ....................................................................... 118 
Forming the Unit .............................................................................................. 118 
Equipment for Flights....................................................................................... 120 
THE WORK BEGINS ......................................................................................... 123 
Routine for a Forward Flight ............................................................................ 126 

The Reality of Forward Evacuation ................................................................. 129 
Evacuation Flights to Australia ........................................................................ 137 
Life in an Operational Unit .............................................................................. 139 
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 142 
CHAPTER SIX EXPANSION AND NEVER-ENDING WORK ....................... 144 
EXPANSION OF AIR EVACUATION SYSTEM ............................................. 144 
Background ...................................................................................................... 144 
More Training .................................................................................................. 146 
Relocation......................................................................................................... 149 
RE-ORGANISATION AND EXPANSION OF MAETUS ................................ 154 
AIR EVACUATION ACTIVITIES ..................................................................... 157 
No. 1 MAETU .................................................................................................. 157 
No. 2 MAETU .................................................................................................. 159 
Air Evacuation Section - Garbutt ..................................................................... 161 
Evacuation Sections – Brisbane Medical Unit ................................................. 164 
Cessation of Hostilities..................................................................................... 165 
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 166 
CHAPTER SEVEN BRINGING HOME THE BOYS ........................................ 169 
AIR EVACUATION PLAN ................................................................................ 171 
Advance Parties ................................................................................................ 173 
BRINGING THE BOYS HOME ......................................................................... 177 
Singapore-based activities ................................................................................ 177 
Flying Activities from Morotai ........................................................................ 182 
Flying Activities From Lae .............................................................................. 189 
Mainland Air Evacuation Activities ................................................................. 190 
CLOSING OF THE TWO MEDICAL AIR EVACUATION UNITS ................ 192 
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 195 
CHAPTER EIGHT POST-WAR DEVELOPMENTS ........................................ 198 
POST-WAR RAAF NURSING SERVICE ......................................................... 199 
Demobilization and Recognition ...................................................................... 199 

British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) ......................................... 202 
Establishing the Peace-time Permanent Nursing Service ................................ 206 


ix
AIR EVACUATION TRAINING RECOMMENCES ........................................ 207 
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 211 
CHAPTER NINE AIR EVACUATION NEEDED FOR WAR .......................... 213 
WAR AGAIN....................................................................................................... 215 
The Beginning of the war................................................................................. 215 
Re-organising for the War ................................................................................ 219 
MEDICAL AIR EVACUATION ........................................................................ 223 
Routine ............................................................................................................. 223 
CHANGES TO AIR EVACUATION SYSTEM................................................. 232 
Flights to Australia ........................................................................................... 238 
Flights to Changi .............................................................................................. 240 
Other Air Evacuation Experiences ................................................................... 241 
ISSUES FOR THE NURSES .............................................................................. 244 
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 245 
CHAPTER TEN REFLECTION ON THE FLIGHT NURSE’S ROLE............ 248 
SHAPING NURSING IN AUSTRALIA ............................................................. 249 
Virtue – Women and Nurses ............................................................................ 249 
WOMEN IN NURSING ...................................................................................... 251 
Origins .............................................................................................................. 251 
Early 20th Century Nursing in Australia .......................................................... 253 
WOMEN IN WAR............................................................................................... 256 
Women in the RAAF ....................................................................................... 260 
DEVELOPING RAAF FLIGHT NURSES ......................................................... 261 
Recruiting RAAF Nurses ................................................................................. 261 
Being a RAAF Nurse ....................................................................................... 262 

Being a RAAF Flight Nurse............................................................................. 265 
Remaining Feminine ........................................................................................ 270 
Gender Differences .......................................................................................... 273 
RECOGNITION FOR FLIGHT NURSES .......................................................... 275 
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 279 
CHAPTER ELEVEN CONCLUSION ................................................................. 282 
WHAT WAS FOUND ......................................................................................... 283 
REFLECTION ON WHAT OCCURRED ........................................................... 284 
Air Evacuation System..................................................................................... 284 
The Flight Nurse’s Role ................................................................................... 287 
SIGNIFICANCE OF FINDINGS ........................................................................ 289 
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 293 
BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS OF RAAF FLIGHT
NURSES INTERVIEWED .................................................................................... 316
 
 


x

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS
Figure 4.1 Staff and patients in No 2 RAAF General Hospital in 1944 ................. 86
Figure 4.2 Surgical ward in the Northern Territory– RAAF nurse 1944 ................ 87
Figure 4.3 Melbourne, Vic. 16 November 1942. Leaders of the
Womens Services. .................................................................................. 91
Figure 5.1 S/Ldr Winston Kiel and F/Lt Graeme Salter at Nadzab 1944 ............. 110
Figure 5.2 No. 1 MAETU Course in lecture room – 1944.................................... 115
Figure 5.3 Waiting to go on parade ....................................................................... 117
Figure 5.4 Marching on Graduation Parade April 1944........................................ 117
Figure 5.5 No. 1 MAETU Course being inspected by AVM V. Hurley, DGMS

and Miss M. Lang, Matron-in-Chief ................................................... 118
Figure 5.6 Original drawings of nurse’s kit for air evacuation duties................... 122
Figure 5.7 Diagram of Air Evacuation Nurses’ kit 1944 ...................................... 122
Figure 5.8 No. 1 MAETU thermos belonging to Lucy Lane (nee Mackenzie) .... 123
Figure 5.9 Map of Areas covered by MAETU teams ........................................... 124
Figure 5.10 S/Sr Bray loading patients 1944 .......................................................... 127
Figure 5.11 S/Sr Bray in-flight 1944 ....................................................................... 128
Figure 5.12 Photograph of Nora Heysen painting of Sr Lucy Mackenzie .............. 130
Figure 5.13 Drawing of patient restraints used in air evacuation............................ 134
Figure 5.14 Priority Travel Card used by Sr M. Wroe ............................................ 139
Figure 5.15 Sterilizing supplies – Nadzab 1944 ..................................................... 139
Figure 5.16 No. I MAETU sisters collecting sterlized items – Nadzab 1944 ......... 140
Figure 5.17 Laundry Day, No. 1 MAETU, Nadzab 1944. ...................................... 141
Figure 6.1 Nurses of No. 2 MAETU Course......................................................... 148
Figure 6.2 Sr Jean Menzies standing beside the No. 1 MAETU sign Lae 1945 ... 152
Figure 6.3 Nurses’ tents at No. 1 MAETU in Lae 1945 ....................................... 152
Figure 6.4 Tess Du Moulin outside her tent at No. 1 MAETU, Lae. .................... 153
Figure 6.5 Nurses’ Recreation Hut, No. 1 MAETU, Lae 1945............................. 153
Figures 6.6 & 6.7 Photographs of sketches by Nora Heysen of
S/Sr Connie Cook and Sr Verdun Sheah ............................................. 164
Figure 7.1 Map of Japanese Prison camps 1941-1945 .......................................... 170
Figure 7.2 Huts in Morotai 1945 ........................................................................... 183
Figure 7.3 S/Sr Nan McBean, Sr Nancy Read and Sr Audrey Gilbert
arriving in Labuan 1945 ....................................................................... 184
Figure 7.4 Copy of drawing of nurses’ accommodation – Labuan 1945 .............. 185
Figure 7.5 Loading of patients at Garbutt into Dakota aircraft for evacuation. .... 191
Figure 8.1 Map of Japan and BCOF Region ......................................................... 203
Figure 8.2 Sr Eunice Fiel in decompression chamber as part of air evacuation
course ................................................................................................... 209
Figure 8.3 Sisters undertaking crash survival in Melbourne City Baths

September 1950 .................................................................................... 210
Figure 8.4 Sisters on crash launch in Port Phillip Bay - September 1950 ............ 210
Figure 9.1 The Korean Peninsula and the four stages of the war. ........................ 214
Figure 9.2 Hospital at Iwakuni, Japan ................................................................... 216
Figure 9.3 S/Sr Lucy Rule playing table tennis at Iwakuni 1951 ......................... 219
Figure 9.4 Wedding picture of F/Lt Dave Hitchins and Sr Joan Mills ................. 221
Figure 9.5 Medication Box of Sr Cathie Thompson (nee Daniels) in the
Coolamon RSL Museum ...................................................................... 223


xi
Figure 9.6 Open Medication Box of Sr Nathalie Oldham in Australian War
Memorial Exhibition 2008 ................................................................... 224
Figure 9.7 Flight pannier with canvas lid.............................................................. 225
Figure 9.8 Flight pannier opened showing sections .............................................. 225
Figure 9.9 A recently arrived load of patients at Iwakuni from Korea 1952 ........ 230
Figure 9.10 Sr M. Larsen, Australian Army Nursing Service, at 91 Wing Sick
Quarters, Iwakuni ................................................................................. 230
Figure 9.11 Holding ward at Iwakuni for patients arriving by air from Korea ....... 231
Figure 9.12 Casualty Air Evacuation Flight –BCCZMU ....................................... 234
Figure 9.13 Diagram of the Air Evacuation Routes for BCFK
during Korean War............................................................................... 236
Figure 9.14 Srs Mabel Wilson and Eunice Feil posing with
77 Sqn Engineer Officer S/Ldr Ernie Kulacy ...................................... 242
Figure 9.15 Sr Cathie Daniels with one of the first group of POWs
to be exchanged. .................................................................................. 243
Figure 9.16 Tea at the SSQs Iwakuni ..................................................................... 244
Figure 10.1 Unofficial WWII flight nurse brevet ................................................... 277

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 5.1
Table 6.1
Table 6.2

Casualties transported by air by Royal Air Force ..................................... 40 
AANS Regulations and Associated Requirements ................................... 77 
RAAFNS Regulations and Associated Requirements .............................. 83 
WAAAF Criteria and Associated Requirements ...................................... 97 
Selection Criteria for Nurses for Air Evacuation Service ....................... 108 
MAETU Training Courses in 1945 ......................................................... 147 
Nurses of No. 1 and No 2. MAETUs 22 May 1945 ................................ 156 


xiii

LIST OF SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

Appendix 5.1
Appendix 5.2
Appendix 6.1
Appendix 6.2
Appendix 7.1
Appendix 7.2

Appendix 8.1
Appendix 8.2
Appendix 9.1
Appendix 9.2
Appendix 9.3
Appendix 9.4
Appendix 9.5
Appendix 9.6

The First Fifteen RAAF Flight Nurses
Casualty Evacuation Policy
Air Evacuation of Patients by No. 1 MAETU
Air Evacuation of Patients by No. 2 MAETU – May-August
1945
Air Evacuation of Patients by No. 2 MAETU – September 1945
Air Evacuation of Patients by No. 2 MAETU – October 1945
Women Serving in BCOF
Copy of Air Evacuation Syllabus 1950
Medical Evacuation Summary: No 91 (Composite) Wing 19511953
Medical Air Evacuation – Flight Pannier
Medical Air Evacuation – Other Equipment
Copy of RAAF Medical Air Evacuation Manifest Part 1
Copy of RAAF Medical Air Evacuation Manifest Part 2
Copy of RAF Form No Stats 53 – Report on Condition of
Patients Arriving by Air


xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAMC
AAMWS
AANS
AAU
ATNA
APOs
AWAS
AWM
BCAIR
BCCAEF
BCFK
BCOF
BCZMU
BMU
CAEU
CO
DC-3
DGMS
ETA
LST
MAES
MAETU
MASHs
MCS
MRS
MTU
NAA
NSW
NSWANSR
POWs

QARNNS
QUT
RAF
RAAF
RANNS
RAN
RCAF
RFDS
RNSBAS
RNMAEU
SSQ
SWPA
UHREC
UN
US
USA
U.S.A.A.F

- Australian Army Medical Corps
- Australian Army Medical Women’s Service
-Australian Army Nursing Service
-Air Ambulance Unit
- Australian Trained Nurses Association
- Air Priority Officers
- Australian Women’s Army Service
- Australian War Memorial
- British Commonwealth Air Group
- British Commonwealth Air Evacuation Flight
- British Commonwealth Forces Korea
- British Commonwealth Occupation Force

- British Commonwealth Z Medical Unit
- Brisbane Medical Unit
- Casualty Air Evacuation Unit
- Commanding Officer
- Dakota
- Director General of Medical Services
- Estimated Time of Arrival
- Light Surface Transport
- Medical Air Evacuation Squadron
- Medical Air Evacuation Transport Unit
- Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals
- Medical Clearing Station
- Medical Receiving Station
- Medical Training Unit
- National Archives of Australia
- New South Wales
- NSW Army Nursing Service Reserve
- Prisoners of War
- Queen Alexandra’s Royal Naval Nursing Service
- Queensland University of Technology
- Royal Air Force
- Royal Australian Air Force
- Royal Australian Naval Nursing Service
- Royal Australian Navy
- Royal Canadian Air Force
- Royal Flying Doctor Service
- Royal Navy Sick Berth Attendants
- Royal Navy Medical Air Evacuation Unit
- Station Sick Quarters
- South West Pacific Area

- University Human Research Ethical Committee
- United Nations
- United States [of America]
- United States of America
- United States Army Air Force


xv
VAD
WAAAF
WRANS
WRAAC
WSQ
WWI
WW II
1 MAETU
2 MAETU
3 MAETU

- Voluntary Aid Detachment
- Women’s Australian Auxiliary Air Force
- Women’s Royal Australian Naval Service
- Women’s Royal Australian Army Corps
- Wing Sick Quarters
- World War I
- World War II
- No. 1 Medical Air Evacuation Transport Unit
- No. 2 Medical Air Evacuation Transport Unit
- No. 3 Medical Air Evacuation Transport Unit

RANKS
AVM
W/Cdr
S/Ldr
F/Lt
F/O
P/O
S/Sr
Sr
F/Sgt
Sgt

- Air Vice-Marshal
- Wing Commander
- Squadron Leader
- Flight Lieutenant
- Flight Officer
- Pilot Officer
- Senior Sister
- Sister
- Flight Sergeant
- Sergeant


xvi


xvii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LIST

My interest in nursing history was stimulated during my Master of Nursing Studies
Program in the 1990s. Both nursing and military colleagues have nurtured that
interest and a special acknowledgement should go to Professor John McCarthy,
while an air historian, his knowledge and advice has been invaluable to me
throughout this research thesis. Additionally, I thank all of my supervisors, Dr Alan
Barnard and Carol Windsor for their enthusiasm for this nursing project and for
continuing to challenge me to view the world in a different way. I especially wish to
thank Carol for being inspirational and supportive through, at times, a difficult and
long journey.

The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the continued
support of my husband, Len. His support and understanding throughout the long time
it has taken to complete this project has been never-ending. My heartfelt thanks go to
Len for this support and making my dream of completing this thesis come true.

My special friend, Pat Peel has been very supportive during this research project. Her
assistance has ranged from words of wisdom, encouragement and to having me stay
each time I visited Brisbane for my studies. Again, this support had been neverending and I wish to thank her and her family for sharing in this experience.

There are also several other friends and colleagues who have made the journey and
its completion occur. I have really appreciated having nursing friends with whom I
can discuss ideas and issues. I especially wish to acknowledge the support and
friendship of nursing friends and work colleagues.


xviii
The support I received from several staff members of the RAAF Air Power
Development Centre when I commenced my studies while working there and then
throughout the years has not waivered. Thank you to Sandra Di Guglielmo for her
friendship and encouragement to continue and finish this thesis.

I wish to thank the inspirational group of ex-RAAF nurses who agreed to be
interviewed. The ex-nurses from both WWII and the Korean War willing gave their
time and shared their memories and memorabilia to make this project possible.
Meeting them and listening to their stories was inspirational. Together with their
endless enthusiasm for this project motivated me to complete the thesis.

Finally, I would like to dedicate this thesis to these special women, Audrey Redmond
(Dahl), my mother and to those ex-nurses who passed away while I was doing this
project. Their influence and impact on me was immense.


xix

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet the requirements
for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my
knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written
by any other person except where due reference is made.

Signature: ………………………………………………

Date: ……………………


xx


21

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
Evacuating patients by air to medical facilities began soon after powered flight by the
Wright Brothers in the United States in 1903.1 Although the military forces of Allied
nations used the aeroplane for evacuating casualties during World War I to a limited
extent, they did not accept the concept generally until World War II (WWII).
Initially, especially marked air ambulances with medical escorts were used to
transport patients. But the increase in the numbers of battle casualties in WWII that
needed to be moved over long distances from areas of combat to field or general
hospitals resulted in an organised system of air evacuation with trained flight teams
being developed by individual Allied nations. Australia established such a formal
system. One member of the Australian flight team accompanying all air evacuation
patients was the registered nurse.

The concept of a specifically trained ‘flight nurse’ is accredited to a Mrs Lauretta
Schimmoler from the United States (US) who advocated such a role as early as
1930.2 The concept however was not accepted in the US military until well into
WWII. The official history of the US Army Air Force Medical Service in WWII
notes that the first mass evacuation of casualties occurred in 1942 with
accompanying medical personnel largely untrained.3 The US subsequently
established a formal training and air evacuation organisation where the nurse led the
1

Link, M.M. and Coleman, H.A., 1955, Medical Support: Army Air Forces in World War II,
Office of the Surgeon General, USAF, Washington DC, p. 352.
2
Skinner, R.E., 1984, ‘The Roots of Flight Nursing: Lauretta M. Schimmoler and The Aerial Nurse
Corps of America’ in Aviation , Space and Environmental Medicine, Vol. 55, No. 1, p. 73.

3
Link and Coleman, op. cit, p. 361.


22
flight team because of a shortage of doctors. But it was not until January 1943 that
the US conducted a formal training course for flight nurses.4

In Australia, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) proposed in late 1943 the
establishment of a similar air evacuation unit to that of the US and agreed to establish
No. 1 Medical Air Evacuation Transport Unit (MAETU) in February 1944. Selected
RAAF registered nurses and medical orderlies undertook separate initial training
courses to become the first members of the unit.5 No. 1 MAETU was established at
Nadzab in New Guinea which was an operational area of the war.

As the need arose more training courses were conducted and a second unit, No. 2
MAETU, was established in Morotai with the MAETU nurses arriving in May 1945.
Despite the fact that this unit was somewhat ill-prepared for their arrival, it started
air-evacuating patients from that time.6 Additionally, air evacuations were staged
through medical sections in places such as Garbutt in Townsville. Details of the
establishment of air evacuation in the RAAF from its inception through the period of
WWII to the Korean War are covered in Gay Halstead’s book on the RAAF Nursing
Service (RAAFNS).7 Unfortunately, sources are not always acknowledged and the
work does not allow for a reader to find original sources to clarify issues. It does
provide some names of the nurses involved and their stories are included.

4

op. cit.
Halstead, G., 1994, Story of the RAAF Nursing Service 1940-1990, Nungurner Press Pty Ltd,

Metung, Victoria, p. 207.
66
National Archives of Australia: Series No; A1986; Control 429; RAAF Unit History Sheets (Form
A500 Medical Air Evacuation Transport Unit 1 and 2 March 1944- October 1945. Daily report dated
1 Aug 45 is a précis of events from unit forming until that date.
7
Halstead, op. cit.

5


23
Another source of information on air evacuation and the nurses’ involvement in
WWII is Allan Walker’s official medical series history Medical Services of the
R.A.N. and R.A.A.F.8 Here he notes that the section on evacuation of casualties by air
was based on an original article by Squadron Leader (S/Ldr) Winston Kiel in The
Medical Journal of Australia in 1947.9 The author of this latter article wrote from
first hand knowledge of the establishment and development of the air evacuation in
Australia.

Following cessation of hostilities in WWII and the repatriation of the prisoners of
war (POWs) held by the Japanese in Asia, both specialised MAETU units were
disbanded. There were also to be changes for the RAAFNS that originally had only
been established to meet the wartime need as well as for the other Women’s
Services. The history of the Women’s Auxiliary Australian Air Force (WAAAF)
from its inception until December 1947 is well documented by Joyce Thomson.10 Yet
there is a lack of information about women in the RAAF between this time and the
Korean War and this includes nurses undertaking air evacuation. Darryl McIntyre, in
writing the official history of Australian participation in the Korean War noted that
most of the RAAF medical records were destroyed and as such no information was

available.11

8

Walker, A.S., 1961, Medical Services of the R.A.N. and R.A.A.F.: Australia in the War of 19391945 Medical Series, Vol. IV, Australian War Memorial, Canberra.
9
Kiel, F.W., 1947, ‘Air Evacuation of Casualties’, in The Medical Journal of Australia, Vol. 1, No.
4, pp. 94-104.
10
Thomson, J.A., 1991, The WAAAF in Wartime Australia, Melbourne University Press, Carlton,
Victoria.
11
McIntrye, D., 1985, ‘Australian Army Medical Services in Korea’, in R. O’Neill (ed.) Australia in
the Korean War 1950-53: Vol. II Combat Operations, The Australian War Memorial and the
Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, p. 570.


24
Post-WWII RAAF nurses were sent to Japan as part of the British Commonwealth
Occupation Force (BCOF), initially to Bofu then Iwakuni.12 Whether these nurses
were air evacuation trained is not known. The members of BCOF were due to depart
Japan for Australia when the Korean War was declared on 25 June 1950. Under the
terms of the agreement for the participation of the British Commonwealth forces in
the United Nations action in Korea, the US Eighth Army accepted responsibility for
the evacuation of casualties. However, in response to requests from the British
Commonwealth Forces Korea (BCFK), the RAAF gradually assumed responsibility
for the air evacuation of British Commonwealth casualties from Korea to Japan.13
The newly formed No. 91 (Composite) Wing of the RAAF assumed this
responsibility.

Until 1952, the patients in Korea were brought down to Kimpo airfield in Seoul
awaiting transportation with little pre-flight care being given at the airfield. The
casualties had already progressed through a formal evacuation system from the front
lines to the rear at Seoul. This meant that patients were brought down to the airfield
and were then assessed by the air evacuation team for suitability to fly. If unsuitable
to fly, the patients were returned to the hospitals from which they came. The patients
waited often in freezing conditions and were at risk of little evaluation, preparation
or stabilization for flight.

By November 1952, the situation had changed. A RAAF holding ward was
established within the precincts of the British Commonwealth Z Medical Unit
12

Halstead, op. cit., p. 270.
National Archives of Australia, A12124; 3/8Air Pt 1 – Formation of Air Evacuation Team at K16,
‘British Commonwealth Casualty Evacuation Flight Proposed Formation – Information’, written by
Officer Commanding No 91 (Composite) Wing, Iwakuni; dated 2 April 1953, p. 1.

13


25
(BCZMU) to be used as a casualty staging facility where patients would be prepared
and waited for air evacuation out of Korea.14 Initially, one nurse was sent to establish
the facility and then two nurses were deployed from Iwakuni for two-month periods
to cover the management of the flight and occasionally undertake evacuation flights
to Japan. Halstead15 suggests that this short deployment for the RAAF nurses was
because of the harsh living and working conditions experienced in Korea. The
temperatures ranged from 15-44 degrees Fahrenheit and surface water was turbid,
contaminated and mineralised. Additionally, plague, typhus, diphtheria, dysentery,

mosquito borne diseases and venereal disease were prevalent.16

The initial air evacuation for patients was from Korea to Iwakuni in Japan. From here
they were transferred either by ambulance-train or launch to Kure. For this stage of
their journey, their care became the responsibility of the Australian Army. When the
patients were well enough, they either went back to their unit in Korea or they were
air evacuated home. Those patients being returned home were transferred back to
Iwakuni for an air evacuation flight. For Australians, this usually meant a flight home
on a QANTAS aircraft. Later a separate system from Iwakuni was established by the
Royal Air Force (RAF) which used Hastings aircraft to fly to the UK via Changi in
Singapore.17

A preliminary review of published literature found that a RAAFNS was established
during WWII for the duration of the war. Some of these nurses were then selected to
undertake specialty training in air evacuation and then to lead a team in the air

14

Halstead, op. cit., p. 288.
ibid.
16
Australian War Memorial, AWM 113 – Notes on Korea 1950-1952.
17
ibid.
15