(EBOOK) DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING INSTRUMEN FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH

DESIGNING AND
CONSTRUCTING
INSTRUMENTS FOR
SOCIAL RESEARCH AND
EVALUATION
David Colton and
Robert W. Covert

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING
INSTRUMENTS FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH
AND EVALUATION

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DESIGNING AND
CONSTRUCTING
INSTRUMENTS FOR
SOCIAL RESEARCH AND
EVALUATION
David Colton and
Robert W. Covert

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Copyright © 2007 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Colton, David, 1948Designing and constructing instruments for social research and evaluation/David Colton
and Robert W. Covert.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7879-8784-8 (cloth)
1. Social sciences—Research—Methodology. 2. Evaluation—Methodology. I. Covert, Robert W.,
1943- II. Title.
H62.C583 2007
300.72—dc22
2007026748
Printed in the United States of America
FIRST EDITION

HB Printing

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CONTENTS

Figures, Exhibits, Tables, and Instruments vii
Preface: Asking and Answering ix
The Authors xv
PART ONE: CONCEPTS 1
1 Introduction

3

2 Instruments and Social Inquiry
3 Measurement

28

52

4 Instrument Construction, Validity, and Reliability 64
PART TWO: APPLICATION

95

5 Purposeful Creativity: First Steps in the Development of an
Instrument 97

v

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vi

Contents

6 Pretesting

128

7 The Structure and Format of Selection Items 148
8 Guidelines for Writing Selection Items 173
9 Selection Items: Alternative Formats 208
10 Supply Items: Open-Ended Questions 227
11 Guidelines for Constructing Multi-Item Scales 247
PART THREE: ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION

279

12 Organizing the Instrument 281
13 Administering the Instrument 313
14 Computers and Instrument Construction 337
15 Managing the Data and Reporting the Results 350
References

Index

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374

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FIGURES, EXHIBITS, TABLES, AND
INSTRUMENTS

Figures
1.1
1.2
8.1
8.2
8.3

Categories of Social Science Instruments 8
Steps in the Instrument Construction Process 18
Examples of Response Sets Written in the Same Direction
Matrix Layout for a Rating Scale 192
Difficulties Associated with Using Abstract Terms
for Response Choices 193
15.1 Examples of Data Entry Errors by Respondents 355

191

Exhibits
5.1
6.1
7.1
7.2
12.1

Statement of Purpose 108
Questions to Address When Pilot-Testing the Questionnaire
Response Set Alternatives for Rating Scales 152
Juster Purchase Probability Scale 157
Organizing and Formatting Checklist 302

140

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viii

Figures, Exhibits, Tables, and Instruments

Tables
2.1
3.1

5.1
5.2
5.3
11.1
11.2

Study Planning Grid 35
Levels of Measurement 54
Processes and Outcomes 102
Q-Sort Distribution 116
Table of Specifications 118
Goal Attainment Scale 258
Goal Attainment Scale Conversion Table: Converts GAS
Scores to Standard Scores 261
11.3 Item Analysis 266

Instruments
1.A
1.B
1.C
2.A
2.B
3.A
4.A
4.B
5.A
6.A
7.A
7.B
8.A

8.B
9.A
9.B
10.A
10.B
11.A
12.A
12.B
12.C
13.A
14.A

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Workshop Evaluation 22
Sample Medical History 23
Research Evaluation Checklist 25
Political Opinion Poll 45
Mental Health Screening Form-III 48
Data Extraction Form 61
Samples of Employee Evaluation Form Items 89
Instructor Evaluation 91
Employee Questionnaire 123
Checklist for a Medical Record Audit 146
Large-Scale Employee Satisfaction Survey 163
Brief Situational Confidence Questionnaire 169
Youth Risk Behavior Survey (Sample Items) 202
Results of the 1998 Congressional Questionnaire 205
Medical Record Audit Checklist 223
Marketing Survey 225

Open-Ended Item Examples and Commentary 242
Behavioral Assessment 245
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale 275
Course Survey 304
Training Needs Assessment 307
Conflict Resolution Skills Assessment 310
Behavioral Rating Scale 331
Web Questionnaire 348

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PREFACE: ASKING AND ANSWERING

W

hen word of the people’s discontent reached the grand vizier, he had trouble sleeping, for, you see, he was a conscientious ruler who had the welfare
of his people at heart. He called upon the captain of guards and directed him to
question members of the populace.
Dutifully, the captain of the guards rounded up one hundred people, men and
women, and asked them a series of questions to discover the cause of their discontent.
Now the captain was an imposing fellow, some six feet four inches tall and muscular.
He wore a scimitar in a scabbard, and the medals he had won for his bravery in battle
adorned his waistcoat. When he addressed the citizens, his voice had a hard and commanding tone, and he looked at them with the steely glare of a man ready for combat,
which of course was how he approached all tasks.
“The grand vizier has commanded that you provide information about the
quality of life in our kingdom. First, I want to know if you believe that taxes are
too high?”
In unison all one hundred citizens responded, “No,” although records of this
session suggest that some citizens responded less enthusiastically than others.

“Ah yes, good.” replied the captain of the guards. “Now tell me, do you think
that the laws of the land are administered fairly?”
In unison all one hundred citizens responded, “Yes,” although it was noted
that one citizen had recently lost property in a dispute with the vizier’s second
cousin’s nephew.
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Preface: Asking and Answering

“Splendid,” said the captain of the guards, and he exhaled a sigh of relief,
for he did not relish bringing bad news to the grand vizier. “And do you citizens
agree with the new law prohibiting mules in the marketplace?”
In unison all one hundred citizens responded, “Yes,” although several were
merchants whose businesses were hurt by the new law.
And so the questioning went, and the captain of the guard was pleased that
each time the citizens replied in unison and each time there was complete agreement to his question. Armed with this information (for the captain of the guards
never went anywhere without being fully armed), he returned to the grand vizier.
“Good news, my ruler,” he declared. “Although there is some grumbling among
the populace, the people I spoke to, who were a diverse lot, all had good things to
say about you and your administration. Sleep soundly now, for truly the kingdom
is in good hands.”
The grand vizier did indeed sleep soundly, at least for a day or two, until word
again reached him of the people’s discontent. Now this sorely vexed the vizier,

for he had the best interests of his people at heart. But he was also confused,
because what the people had told the captain of the guards was clearly at odds
with what he continued to hear. For that reason he sent for Halcolm, a teacher
and counselor, and asked him to go forth among the people to determine the
source of their displeasure. Halcolm agreed to this task with the understanding
that he would speak to the people in confidence, so that they could speak freely
without fear of reprisal.
Now Halcolm was a man of simple and plain means, very undiscerning in
appearance. His voice was calm and reassuring, and people tended to feel comfortable in his presence. While buying some fruit in the marketplace, he asked the
vendor, “I’ve been thinking of opening a stand in the marketplace to sell candlesticks and other brass goods. Do you think I could make a profit at that?” The
vendor smiled and replied, “Yes and no. Surely you should have a good market
for your wares. But as to making a profit, it will be hard given the current tax rate.
When the vizier decided to build an addition to the palace, he upped our taxes by
20 percent! I’ll be happy when that project is over, and the taxes are reduced.”
Further down the marketplace, Halcolm spoke with a rug vendor and asked
the same question. “Yes,” the rug vendor replied, “you will certainly have a market for brass goods. However, the laws of the land are often applied unevenly, and
they create a lot of headaches for us. For example, you might be fined if your cart
is too close to the street. Also, since the vizier passed the rule outlawing mules in
the marketplace, it is becoming increasingly difficult to carry our wares into town
to sell. If changes aren’t soon made, many of us will go out of business. In the
end, we, the vizier, and ultimately the entire kingdom will suffer under these rules.
Now don’t get me wrong. I have great respect for the grand vizier. He has been

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Preface: Asking and Answering

xi

a good and just ruler in the past. It is just that recently I think he has lost touch
with the people.”
Halcolm continued his project and met with a number of people in the marketplace, at religious shrines, and at the theater. After several days of asking his
questions he returned to the grand vizier and shared his findings. “Perhaps I
have been out of touch,” sighed the vizier. “I will immediately revise my plans for
constructing and financing the palace addition. Also, I will establish a committee
to examine our laws and rewrite them so that they are fair and just. Thank you,
Halcolm, for finding out what really troubled our citizens. I am pleased that the
people were so honest in their responses. If I had depended on what people told
the captain of the guards, my kingdom might have gone down in ruin,” and as he
spoke those words, he glared at the captain of the guards, who was also present
at this meeting.
“Thank you for your kind words,” responded Halcolm, “but I would like to
add that as a teacher and counselor, it is my job to know how to ask the right questions and how to ask questions right. You would not, however, want me to lead
your army into battle. For that, you would want your captain of the guards, who
is an excellent tactician and great warrior.” With that, the grand vizier smiled,
the captain of the guards smiled, and Halcolm smiled, for in addition to knowing
how to ask a good question, Halcolm knew how to phrase a good answer.
(With special thanks to Michael Quinn Patton, for providing the evaluation
profession a role model in the guise of Halcolm.)
Increasingly, individuals and organizations are being asked to collect, manage, and use information for decision making, particularly to improve the quality
of services and products. Rather than being based on intuition or hunches, decision making is viewed as being a data-driven process, one that is systematic and
produces trustworthy information.
The purpose of this book is to provide the reader with a systematic, nontechnical and commonsense approach to developing instruments for data collection
and analysis. We have written the book as a guide for both those who are using
or developing instruments for the first time and those with experience who want
to hone their skills, people ranging from students to agency personnel to program
managers to researchers. The book does not require any technical expertise and

is written for all levels of readers.
Throughout the text we use the term instrument generically to describe any
format for collecting data, such as attitudinal questionnaires, checklists, and political polls. And as we note in the text, the process for developing an instrument is
the same whether that instrument will be used for self-rating (by a respondent) or
whether another person (an observer) will fill it out.

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Preface: Asking and Answering

There are literally thousands of instruments that have been developed and
marketed to fulfill distinct needs for information. However, we have found that
informational needs are often unique to a particular person, organization, situation, time, or event. Consequently, these needs can be met only by designing and
developing a questionnaire for that specific purpose and situation. Additionally,
finding a previously developed instrument may be time consuming, and the cost
of purchasing the instrument may prove to be greater than the cost of developing
a new instrument that uniquely fits your needs.
The approach presented here is based on the underlying assumption that the
process of constructing an instrument is both a creative and a technical venture.
It involves not only being very familiar with the content or substance of the topic
of interest but also developing good questions or items and presenting them in a
format accessible to the people who will have to complete the instrument. Consequently, this book is designed to help you create an instrument that will obtain
the information you seek.
Throughout we emphasize the need to ensure that an instrument will produce
trustworthy and accurate data. To that end, we provide guidelines for reviewing

and revising to enhance data validity and reliability. Additionally, we stress the
importance of involving, throughout the process of instrument construction,
the different groups of people who will be affected by the data generated. These
groups, referred to as stakeholders, include the instrument designer(s), decision makers (such as administrators, policymakers, and funding agencies), agency personnel, clients, and raters or respondents.
The ideas in this book are based on the authors’ experience in several hundred evaluation projects over the past twenty-five years. In addition, they have
been presented in a variety of settings, from the university classroom to workshops
on questionnaire construction. Moreover, in writing this text, we have addressed
you, the reader, directly, as if we were present to advise you through this process.
We hope this familiarity will make you more comfortable and less intimidated as
you undertake the challenge of designing an instrument.
This book is organized around the process of instrument construction and
takes the reader through each of the steps. The chapters in Part One present the
conceptual basis for designing and constructing instruments for data collection
and analysis. We describe how instruments fit into the process of social inquiry and
how different types support specific informational needs. Before you decide on
the type of instrument to construct, it is important to understand the variety of
approaches available for gathering information about a particular research or
evaluation question. These chapters describe the various types of instruments as
well as the components of an effective instrument. We also introduce such concepts as validity and reliability.

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xiii

The chapters in Part Two offer guidance in constructing questionnaires and

other forms of instrumentation, helping you to define the purpose of your study,
to understand and choose among the different ways to format items, and to pretest and construct items that will meet your informational needs.
Part Three provides guidelines for organizing the instrument, administering it, and reporting the results to stakeholders and decision makers. This is to
ensure that the effort you put into obtaining reliable data, through a well-designed
instrument, is not compromised when you actually carry out the measurement
process.
To give you opportunities for applying the information presented in this text,
the chapters conclude with examples of instruments. These instruments have
been developed to meet different informational needs, and many come from the
public domain. Each one is discussed and critiqued, and reviewing these samples
can help you hone your skills both as a user of instruments and as a developer
and designer of your own questionnaires.

Feedback
A central theme of this book is that instrument construction is a process of continual development and refinement. We welcome feedback and the sharing of
information that can improve both the substance and presentation of our material. Please contact us through the publisher.

Acknowledgments
Our view that instrument construction involves constant revision has certainly
held true during the development of this book. We want to express our appreciation to Daniel M. Stuhlsatz, of Mary Baldwin College, Staunton, Virginia, who
reviewed an early version of the manuscript, and to Gary Skolits, of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, who reviewed a revised version. Their
feedback at both stages of development was incorporated into successive drafts.
We also want to acknowledge the students who have taken the instrument
construction class we teach at the Curry School of Education, University of
Virginia, as this book was in part written to address the topics and questions
that typically arise there. Student projects have also provided useful resources,
and one group in particular, the class of 2003, also reviewed and provided
feedback for an early version of the manuscript. We offer special thanks to
Tracey Armstrong, Ronda Bryant, Dan Bublitz, Holly Conti, Antoinette Ewell,

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Preface: Asking and Answering

Alan Fortescure, Jeanne Hineline, Sa Rah Ho, Amelia Hunt, Catherine Johnson,
Jae Hyun Jun, Jennifer Mabry, Ana Paula Loucao Martins, Shizuka Modica,
Yi Ni, Ana Palla, Margaret Peak. Nikkia Sheppard, Doug Toti, Dave Wolcott,
Trimika Yates, Hyunsil Yoo, and Yubo Zhang. The multicultural makeup of this
class led to very interesting discussions on translating instruments into different
languages.
We also offer a special thank-you to our families for their support and encouragement during this drawn-out but fulfilling writing project. Finally, we
thank the editorial staff at Jossey-Bass, in particular Elspeth MacHattie and
Rachel Anderson, for their assistance in helping us through the publication
process.
June 2007

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David Colton
Waynesboro, Virginia
Robert W. Covert
Faber, Virginia

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THE AUTHORS

David Colton comes to the area of instrument construction as both a practitioner in the field and an educator and evaluator. He received his BA degree in
secondary education and MEd degree in reading education from Salisbury University, in Salisbury, Maryland, an MPA degree from James Madison University,
in Harrisonburg, Virginia, and an PhD degree, with a major in evaluation, from
the University of Virginia at Charlottesville. Over the past thirty years he has
worked in a variety of management and program development positions with
the Maryland and Virginia public mental health systems. His current position
involves evaluation, performance measurement, and quality improvement for an
inpatient treatment facility serving children and adolescents. He has published a
number of articles on quality improvement and cultural change in human service
agencies, and his Checklist for Assessing Organizational Readiness for Reducing
Seclusion and Restraint is used by mental health organizations throughout the
United States, Canada, and Europe. For the past seventeen years, Colton has
served as an adjunct instructor with the health care administration program at
Mary Baldwin College, in Staunton, Virginia, and for the past five years he has
taught the course on instrument construction at the Curry School of Education,
University of Virginia.
Robert W. Covert is associate professor in the program area of research,
statistics and evaluation at the Curry School of Education, University of Virginia.
xv

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xvi
The Authors

He received his BS degree in math from Grove City College, in Grove City,
Pennsylvania, his MEd degree in math education, and his PhD degree in educational psychology, with a specialization in research and statistics, from Temple
University, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. An active member of the evaluation
community, he served as the second president of the American Evaluation Association and was responsible for that group’s membership services for over ten years.
He is a recipient of the Robert Ingle Service Award, presented by the American
Evaluation Association for continuous contribution to its leadership and mission.
He has conducted over 500 evaluations, primarily in the education and social
services sectors. As a faculty member at the University of Virginia he has designed
and taught a variety of methodological courses, including instrument construction, computer statistics lab, and introduction to qualitative research methods. In
addition he has designed and currently teaches a popular course in multicultural
education, and he has conducted AEA presessions in instrument construction and
multicultural issues for evaluators.

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DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING
INSTRUMENTS FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH
AND EVALUATION

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Y
PART ONE

CONCEPTS

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Y
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter we will
•
•
•
•

Explain the purpose and function of a social science instrument.

Describe nomenclature used to describe instruments.
List and describe the components of an instrument.
Outline the steps in the instrument construction process.

We are living in a time characterized as the information age, and we encounter
data-gathering instruments in all facets of our lives. For example, we are familiar
with polls that gather information about political preferences and voting behaviors. Surveys of potential voters try to predict who will be elected or what proposition will pass. Media commentators remind us of the margin of error associated
with a survey or note that an election is still too close to call.
The proliferation of instruments to provide data and information for
decision making is not unique to political polls. Survey questionnaires can be
used to obtain factual information and to assess attitudes and beliefs across
a variety of topics and groups. For example, surveys can assess consumer
behaviors, client satisfaction with services, employee attitudes, and the general public’s values and beliefs. The federal government is perhaps the greatest
consumer and user of survey questionnaires, as these instruments are used to
collect data about such topics as criminal activity, educational needs, services
3

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4

Designing and Constructing Instruments for Social Research and Evaluation

to the mentally ill, and health care utilization, not to mention the data for the
U.S. Census.
You may be familiar with other forms of measurement instruments as well.
For example, many organizations conduct annual evaluations of employee work

performance. Often these evaluation instruments use scales to rate job performance on a number of attributes, such as attendance, ability to work with others,
or the ability to complete work tasks in a timely manner. Although the intended
purpose of a checklist or rating instrument such as an employee evaluation is different from the purpose of a survey questionnaire, the same principles are used
in constructing these instruments.
As you read this introduction, you are likely thinking of instruments that
you have personally used or have been asked to complete, including instruments
related to your work or study. And as a reader of this text, you are also interested
in creating an instrument, perhaps in conjunction with a research project or
job-related activity.
Social science instruments are tools for the collection and measurement of
data, and the purpose of this book is to describe how good instruments are constructed. We use the adjective good because there are indeed standards and guidelines that can produce an efficient and effective instrument rather than a mediocre
one. Our goal is to help you identify the components that make for a “good”
instrument, one that provides trustworthy information. As you will see, no instrument is perfect, as there are many ways to pose a question. However, by being
aware of the conditions that affect your results, you can create an instrument that
effectively meets your need for information.
We believe that instrument construction is as much an art as it is a science.
Research has demonstrated that some approaches to instrument development
can increase the accuracy and dependability of responses. And statistical tests can
be used to measure the consistency of people’s responses. Nevertheless, much of
what you will do involves common sense, interpersonal skills, and to a degree even
creativity. You should not shy away from developing your own instrument because
you believe the process is too technical.
We compare instrument construction to the activities of a painter creating a
work of art. The first stage involves conceptualizing the project, a purely mental
process in which the artist begins to visualize the subject and what it should look
like when completed. The designer of a questionnaire goes through a similar
process as he or she defines the purpose of the study, obtains information about
the subject to be studied, and contemplates the items that might be included.
The next step is preparatory. The artist may develop a number of sketches to define the
subject, conceptualize the composition of the painting, and experiment with

the use of color. Similarly, through an iterative and interactive process, the creator

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Introduction

5

of a questionnaire will draft the instrument, test the items, and revise and modify
both individual items and the instrument format.
An artist may set the canvas aside from time to time to evaluate its progress.
During such periods, the artist may experiment with subtle changes in composition, colors, or techniques for applying the paint. The questionnaire designer will
also fine-tune the instrument, often in response to feedback from content experts
or potential users. Items may be reworded, different item types may be tried, and
the layout of items within the instrument may be reorganized. In the end both
painter and questionnaire designer must reach a point where they are comfortable
that their goals have been attained and the product is ready to be unveiled.

Instrumentation
An instrument is a mechanism for measuring phenomena, which is used to
gather and record information for assessment, decision making, and ultimately
understanding. An instrument such as a questionnaire is typically used to obtain
factual information, support observations, or assess attitudes and opinions. For
example, a survey may ask respondents to list the type of soap they purchase
(factual information), recall how often they purchased the item in the past year
(an observation), and consider the factors that influenced their purchase, such as
smell, touch, or appearance (attitudes toward the product). The term subjective

describes information that originates within an individual and is reflected by items
that measure attitudes, feelings, opinions, values, and beliefs. Information that is
objective attempts to be free of personal interpretation and is typified by data that
are observable.1
Some instruments consist of all objective items, like the medical history questionnaire at the end of this chapter. Respondents are asked to provide demographic information such as their weight, height, and age as well as information
about their physical health, such as allergies and previous illnesses. Conversely,
some instruments are designed to obtain primarily subjective responses, such as
information about political preferences. Although political polls include objective
demographic questions, the body of the instrument consists of items that require
the respondent to express an opinion or attitude.
In the social sciences most instruments are of the paper-and-pencil variety, meaning that the individual completing the instrument is expected to record
information on a form. Even when other media are to be used, a paper-and-pencil
instrument will probably need to be developed initially. For example, a marriage
counselor might use videotape to record the interactions between a husband and
wife. However, a written instrument might then be applied to count the number

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