(EBOOK) research methods a modular approach

SECOND EDITION

Research Methods
A Modular Approach
Sherri L. Jackson
Jacksonville University

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Research Methods: A Modular Approach,
Second Edition
Sherri L. Jackson

© 2011, 2008 Wadsworth/Cengage Learning

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To my parents, Kenneth and Eleanor,
for all they have done

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


ABOUT THE AUTHOR

SHERRI L. JACKSON is Professor of Psychology at
Jacksonville University, where she has taught since
1988. At JU she has won the Excellence in Scholarship
(2003), University Service (2004), and Teaching
Awards (2009), the university-wide Professor of the
Year Award (2004), the Woman of the Year Award
(2005), and the Institutional Excellence Award (2007).
She received her M.S. and Ph.D. in cognitive/experimental
psychology from the University of Florida. Her research interests include human reasoning and the teaching of psychology. She has published numerous articles
in both areas. In 1997 she received a research grant
from the Office of Teaching Resources in Psychology
(APA Division 2) to develop A Compendium of
Introductory Psychology Textbooks 1997–2000. She is
also the author of Research Methods and Statistics:

A Critical Thinking Approach, 3rd edition (Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth/Cengage, 2009) and Statistics Plain
and Simple, 2nd edition (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/
Cengage, 2010).

iv
Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


BRIEF CONTENTS

PREF AC E

CHAPTER

xxi

1 Thinking Like a Scientist

1

Module

1

Science and Psychology 3

Module

2

An Introduction to Research Methods 19

CHAPTER

2 Getting Started

33

Module

3

Research Ideas 35

Module

4

Ethical Research 46

CHAPTER

3 Variables

67

Module

5

Defining, Measuring, and Manipulating Variables 69

Module

6

Reliability and Validity 80

v
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vi

BRIEF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

4 Descriptive Methods

93

Module

7

Observational and Qualitative Methods 95

Module

8

Survey Methods 109

CHAPTER
Module

5 Predictive (Relational) Methods
9

127

Conducting Correlational Research 130

Module

10

Quasi-Experimental Designs 143

Module

11

Conducting Single-Case Research 155

CHAPTER

6 Explanatory Methods

169

Module

12

Between-Participants Experimental Designs 172

Module

13

Correlated-Groups and Developmental Designs 186

Module

14

Advanced Experimental Designs 195

CHAPTER

7 Descriptive Statistics

213

Module

15

Data Organization, Central Tendency, and Variance 215

Module

16

Transformation Scores and Correlation Coefficients 233

CHAPTER

8 Inferential Statistics I

259

Module

17

Hypothesis Testing 261

Module

18

The t Test for Independent Groups 270

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

BRIEF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

9 Inferential Statistics II

285

Module

19

t Test for Correlated Groups (Samples) 287

Module

20

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 296

CHAPTER

10 APA Communication Guidelines

319

Module

21

Communicating Research Findings 321

Module

22

APA Sample Manuscript 337

APPENDIX

A Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 355

APPENDIX

B Statistical Tables 371

APPENDIX

C Excel, SPSS, and TI84 Exercises 386

APPENDIX

D Computational Formulas for ANOVAs 426
REFERENCES 427
GLOSSARY 429
INDEX 435

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

vii

CONTENTS

PREF ACE

CHAPTER
Module

xxi

1 Thinking Like a Scientist
1

1

Science and Psychology 3
Areas of Psychological Research
Psychobiology 6
Cognition 6
Human Development 6
Social Psychology 6
Psychotherapy 8

Sources of Knowledge 8
Superstition and Intuition
Authority 9
Tenacity 9
Rationalism 10
Empiricism 10

Science 11

6

8

The Scientific (Critical Thinking) Approach and Psychology
Systematic Empiricism 12
Public Verification 13
Empirically Solvable Problems

Basic and Applied Research
Goals of Science 16

12

13

15

Description 16
Prediction 16
Explanation 16

Summary

17

viii
Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

CONTENTS

Review of Key Terms 17
Module Exercises 17
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 18

Module

2

18

An Introduction to Research Methods 19
Descriptive Methods 20
Predictive (Relational) Methods 21
Explanatory Method 22
Doing Science 25
Proof and Disproof 26
The Research Process 27
Summary 27
Review of Key Terms 27
Module Exercises 28
Critical Thinking Check Answers 29
Web Resources 29

CHAPTER ONE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: THINKING LIKE
A SCIENTIST 30

CHAPTER
Module

2 Getting Started
3

33

Research Ideas 35
Reviewing the Literature
Library Research 37

37

Journals 37
Psychological Abstracts 38
PsycINFO and PsycLIT 38
Social Science Citation Index and Science Citation Index
Other Resources 42

42

Reading a Journal Article: What to Expect 44
Abstract 44
Introduction 44
Method 45
Results 45
Discussion 45

Summary 45

Module Exercise 45
Web Resources 45

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ix


x

CONTENTS

Module

4

Ethical Research 46
Ethical Standards in Research with Human Participants
Institutional Review Boards
Informed Consent 54
Risk 55
Deception 57
Debriefing 57

54

Ethical Standards in Research with Children
Ethical Standards in Research with Animals

Summary 63

Review of Key Terms 63
Module Exercises 63
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 64

47

57

58

63

CHAPTER TWO SUMMARY AND REVIEW: GETTING STARTED 65
CHAPTER
Module

3 Variables
5

67

Defining, Measuring, and Manipulating Variables 69
Defining Variables 70
Properties of Measurement 71
Scales of Measurement 71
Nominal Scale 72
Ordinal Scale 72
Interval Scale 72
Ratio Scale 73

Discrete and Continuous Variables 74
Types of Measures 74
Self-Report Measures 74
Tests 75
Behavioral Measures 75
Physical Measures 76

Summary 77
Review of Key Terms 78
Module Exercises 78
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 79

78

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CONTENTS

Module

6

Reliability and Validity 80
Reliability

81

Error in Measurement 81
How to Measure Reliability: Correlation Coefficients
Types of Reliability 83
Test/Retest Reliability 83
Alternate-Forms Reliability 83
Split-Half Reliability 84
Interrater Reliability 84

Validity

82

85

Content Validity 85
Criterion Validity 86
Construct Validity 86
The Relationship between Reliability and Validity

Summary 88
Review of Key Terms 88
Module Exercises 88
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 89

87

89

CHAPTER THREE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: VARIABLES 90

CHAPTER
Module

4 Descriptive Methods
7

93

Observational and Qualitative Methods 95
Naturalistic Observation 96
Options When Using Observation 96
Laboratory Observation 98
Data Collection 99
Narrative Records
Checklists 100

99

Qualitative Methods 101

Case Study Method 102
Archival Method 102
Interviews and Focus Group Interviews
Field Studies 104
Action Research 105
Qualitative Data Analysis 106

103

Summary 106

Review of Key Terms 107

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xi


xii

CONTENTS

Module Exercises 107
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 108
Lab Resources 108

Module

8

107

Survey Methods 109
Survey Construction

110

Writing the Questions 110
Arranging the Questions 113

Administering the Survey

Mail Surveys 113
Telephone Surveys 115
Personal Interviews 116

113

Sampling Techniques 117

Probability Sampling 117
Nonprobability Sampling 119

Summary 121
Review of Key Terms 121
Module Exercises 121
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 122
Lab Resources 122

121

CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY AND REVIEW: DESCRIPTIVE
METHODS 123
CHAPTER
Module

5 Predictive (Relational) Methods
9

127

Conducting Correlational Research 130
Magnitude, Scatterplots, and Types of Relationships
Magnitude 132
Scatterplots 132
Positive Relationships 133
Negative Relationships 134
No Relationship 134
Curvilinear Relationships 134

Misinterpreting Correlations

136

The Assumptions of Causality and Directionality
The Third-Variable Problem 137
Restrictive Range 138
Curvilinear Relationships 139
Prediction and Correlation 139

Summary

131

136

140

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xiii

CONTENTS

Review of Key Terms 141
Module Exercises 141
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 142
Lab Resources 142

Module

10

141

Quasi-Experimental Designs 143
Nonmanipulated Independent Variables 144
An Example: Snow and Cholera 145
Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs 146

Single-Group Posttest-Only Design 147
Single-Group Pretest/Posttest Design 147
Single-Group Time-Series Design 148
Nonequivalent Control Group Posttest-Only Design 149
Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest/Posttest Design 150
Multiple-Group Time-Series Design 150

Internal Validity and Confounds in Quasi-Experimental Designs
Summary 152
Review of Key Terms 153
Module Exercises 153
Critical Thinking Check Answers 153
Web Resources 154
Lab Resources 154

Module

11

151

Conducting Single-Case Research 155
Types of Single-Case Designs

157

Reversal Designs 157
ABA Reversal Designs 158
ABAB Reversal Designs 158
Multiple-Baseline Designs 159
Multiple Baselines across Participants 160
Multiple Baselines across Behaviors 161
Multiple Baselines across Situations 161

Summary 163
Review of Key Terms 163
Module Exercises 163

Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 164
Lab Resources 164

163

CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: PREDICTIVE (RELATIONAL)
METHODS 165
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xiv

CONTENTS

CHAPTER
Module

6 Explanatory Methods

12

169

Between-Participants Experimental Designs 172
Control and Confounds 176
Threats to Internal Validity 177

Nonequivalent Control Group 177
History 177

Maturation 178
Testing 178
Regression to the Mean 178
Instrumentation 178
Mortality or Attrition 179
Diffusion of Treatment 179
Experimenter and Subject (Participant) Effects
Floor and Ceiling Effects 181

Threats to External Validity

183

Generalization to Populations 183
Generalization from Laboratory Settings

Summary 184
Review of Key Terms 184
Module Exercises 185
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 185
Lab Resources 185

Module

13

179

183

185

Correlated-Groups and Developmental Designs 186
Within-Participants Experimental Designs 187
Matched-Participants Experimental Designs 190
Developmental Designs 192
Cross-Sectional Designs 192
Longitudinal Designs 192
Sequential Designs 193

Summary 193
Review of Key Terms 193
Module Exercises 194
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 194
Lab Resources 194

194

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CONTENTS

Module

14

xv

Advanced Experimental Designs 195
Using Designs with More Than Two Levels of an Independent
Variable 196

Comparing More Than Two Kinds of Treatment in One Study 196
Comparing Two or More Kinds of Treatment with the Control Group
(No Treatment) 197
Comparing a Placebo Group with the Control and Experimental
Groups 199

Using Designs with More Than One Independent Variable 199
Factorial Notation and Factorial Designs 200
Main Effects and Interaction Effects 201
Possible Outcomes of a 2 × 2 Factorial Design 204

Summary 207
Review of Key Terms 207
Module Exercises 207
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 208
Lab Resources 208

208

CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY AND REVIEW: EXPLANATORY
METHODS 209
CHAPTER
Module

7 Descriptive Statistics

15

213

Data Organization, Central Tendency, and Variance 215
Organizing Data 216

Frequency Distributions 216
Graphs 216
Bar Graphs and Histograms
Frequency Polygons 219

Descriptive Statistics

221

Measures of Central Tendency
Mean 221
Median 223
Mode 224

217

221

Measures of Variation 225
Range 226
Standard Deviation 226

Summary

230

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


xvi

CONTENTS

Review of Key Terms 230
Module Exercises 230
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 232

Module

16

231

Transformation Scores and Correlation Coefficients 233
Types of Distributions

234

Normal Distributions 234
Kurtosis 234

Positively Skewed Distributions 235
Negatively Skewed Distributions 236

z-Scores 236
z-Scores, the Standard Normal Distribution, Probability, and Percentile
Ranks 239

Correlation Coefficients 247
Advanced Correlational Techniques: Regression Analysis
Summary 251
Review of Key Terms 252
Module Exercises 252
Critical Thinking Check Answers 253
Web Resources 253

250

CHAPTER SEVEN SUMMARY AND REVIEW: DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS 254
CHAPTER
Module

8 Inferential Statistics I

17

259

Hypothesis Testing 261
Null and Alternative Hypotheses 262

One- and Two-Tailed Hypothesis Tests 263
Type I and Type II Errors in Hypothesis Testing 264
Statistical Significance and Errors 265
Parametric Statistics for Two-Group Designs 267
Summary 268
Review of Key Terms 268
Module Exercises 268
Critical Thinking Check Answers 269
Web Resources 269

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CONTENTS xvii

Module

18

The t Test for Independent Groups 270
t Test for Independent Groups: What It Is and What It Does
Calculations for the Independent-Groups t Test 273
Interpreting the Independent-Groups t Test 274
Graphing the Means 276
Effect Size: Cohen s d 276
Assumptions of the Independent-Groups t Test 277

271

Summary 278

Review of Key Terms 278
Module Exercises 278
Critical Thinking Check Answers 279
Web Resources 280
Statistical Software Resources 280

CHAPTER EIGHT SUMMARY AND REVIEW: INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS I 281
CHAPTER
Module

9 Inferential Statistics II

19

285

t Test for Correlated Groups (Samples) 287
t Test for Correlated Groups: What It Is and What It Does 288
Calculations for the Correlated-Groups t Test 290
Interpreting the Correlated-Groups t Test and Graphing the Means
Effect Size: Cohen s d 292
Assumptions of the Correlated-Groups t Test 293

Summary 293
Review of Key Terms 294
Module Exercises 294
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 295

Module

20

291

295

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 296
Comparing More Than Two Kinds of Treatment in One Study 297
Analyzing the Multiple-Group Experiment 298
Between-Participants Designs: One-Way Randomized ANOVA 298
One-Way Randomized ANOVA: What It Is and What It Does
Calculations for the One-Way Randomized ANOVA 302
Interpreting the One-Way Randomized ANOVA 306
Graphing the Means and Effect Size 307
Assumptions of the One-Way Randomized ANOVA 308
Tukey s Post Hoc Test 308

299

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xviii CONTENTS

One-Way Repeated Measures and Two-Way ANOVAs
Summary 311
Review of Key Terms 311
Module Exercises 312

Critical Thinking Check Answers 313
Web Resources 314
Lab Resources 314
Statistical Software Resources 314

311

CHAPTER NINE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS II 315
CHAPTER
Module

10 APA Communication Guidelines
21

319

Communicating Research Findings 321
Writing Clearly 322
Avoiding Grammatical Problems 322
Reporting Numbers 324
Citing and Referencing 326
Citation Style: One Author 326
Citation Style: Multiple Authors 326
Reference Style 326

Typing and Word Processing
Organizing the Paper 329

328

Title Page 329
Abstract 330
Introduction 330
Method 330
Results 331
Discussion 331
References 331
Appendices 331
Tables and Figures 331
The Use of Headings 332

APA-Formatting Checklist 333
Conference Presentations 333
Oral Presentations 333
Poster Presentations 335
Summary 335

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


CONTENTS

Module Exercises 336
Critical Thinking Check Answers
Web Resources 336

336

Module 22 APA Sample Manuscript 337

CHAPTER TEN SUMMARY AND REVIEW: APA COMMUNICATION
GUIDELINES 354
APPENDIX

A Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 355

APPENDIX

B Statistical Tables 371

APPENDIX

C Excel, SPSS, and TI84 Exercises 386

APPENDIX

D Computational Formulas for ANOVAs 426
REFERENCES 427
GLOSSARY 429
INDEX 435

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

xix


Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


PREFACE

This text was written to provide students and instructors with a simple
approach to learning and teaching research methods. One of my writing goals
was to be concise yet comprehensive. The text is organized into ten chapters,
each divided into modules. The modular format allows students to digest
smaller chunks and allows teachers to enjoy greater flexibility in reading assignments and class coverage. Most modules are brief: 7 to 15 pages in
length. However, even using a modular presentation, most of the text is comprehensive in its coverage of research methods and some statistics. Each module is divided into subsections, which further serve to break the material
down into even smaller digestible chunks for ease of understanding and
assimilation.
In addition, I have made every attempt to use a straightforward, easy-tounderstand writing style, presenting information in a simple and direct fashion. Because the research methods course is often one of the more difficult
ones for many students, I also try to write in an engaging, conversational
style, much as if the reader were a student seated in front of me in my classroom. Through this writing style, I hope to help students better understand
some of the more troublesome concepts without losing their interest and
attention.

PEDAGOGICAL AIDS
The text utilizes several pedagogical aids at the chapter and modular levels.
Each chapter begins with a chapter outline. Within the modules are:
A running glossary in the book margin
Learning objectives at the beginning of each module
xxi
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xxii PREFACE

In Review summary matrices, which are at the end of major subsections
and which provide a review of the subsection s main concepts in a tabular format
Critical Thinking Checks, which vary in length and format, with most
involving a series of application questions concerning the module subsection information, that are designed to foster analytical/critical thinking

skills in students in addition to reviewing the module subsection information (students can thus use the In Review summary after reading a module subsection and then engage in the Critical Thinking Check on that
information)
Module Exercises, which are at the end of each module and which enable
students to further review and apply the knowledge in the module.
At the end of each chapter, there is a chapter summary and review
essentially a built-in study guide consisting of a chapter review, Fill-In SelfTest, Multiple-Choice Self-Test, and Key Terms review. Answers to the Critical Thinking Checks are provided at the end of each module. Answers to the
odd-numbered Module Exercises and all Chapter Review Exercises are included in Appendix A.
Additional study resources, including practice quizzes, chapter-by-chapter
flashcards, research methods workshops, and more, can be found on the companion website at www.cengage.com/psychology/jackson.

NEW TO THIS EDITION
In this second edition, the APA manuscript style guidelines have been updated
to bring them in line with the newest edition of the APA style guide (2009).
In addition, learning objectives have been added to each module, the coverage
of the qualitative methods and the survey methods has been expanded and
updated, and the text has been reorganized from seven sections to ten chapters. Further, there is an additional appendix which shows students how to
use Excel, SPSS, or the TI84 calculator to compute the statistics that are covered in the text.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I must acknowledge several people for their help with this project. I thank my
husband for his careful proofreading and insightful comments as well as
Henry for the encouragement of his ever-present wagging tail. Additionally,
I would like to thank those who reviewed the text in its various stages. The
reviewers include Dr. Ibtihaj Arafat, City College of the City University of
New York; Dr. Eric Bressler, Westfield State College; Dr. Bruce J. Diamond,
William Paterson University and UMDNJ-NJ Medical School; Dr. HyunJeong Kim, Rhodes College; Dr. Gary McCullough, the University of Texas
of the Permian Basin; Dr. Anne Moyer, Stony Brook University; Dr. Todd
Nelson, California State University, Stanislaus; and Dr. Frances M. Sessa,
Penn State Abington.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


PREFACE xxiii

Special thanks to the team at Wadsworth: Tim Matray, Acquisitions
Editor; Alicia McLaughlin, Editorial Assistant; Sini Sivaraman, Content Project
Manager; Jessica Egbert, Senior Marketing Manager; Talia Wise, Senior
Marketing Communications Manager; Vernon Boes, Senior Art Director; and
Roberta Broyer, Permissions Editor. Finally, thanks to James A. Corrick for his
excellent copyediting skills.
Sherri L. Jackson

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.