INFLUENCE OF POWER DISTANCE ON CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY AT A PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOL IN HANOI

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
****************************

NGUYỄN THỊ DUNG

INFLUENCE OF POWER DISTANCE ON CLASSROOM
INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY AT A PRIVATE
HIGH SCHOOL IN HANOI
(ẢNH HƢỞNG CỦA KHOẢNG CÁCH QUYỀN LỰC ĐẾN
TƢƠNG TÁC TRONG LỚP HỌC: NGHIÊN CỨU TÌNH HUỐNG
Ở MỘT TRƢỜNG TRUNG HỌC PHỔ THÔNG DÂN LẬP TẠI HÀ NỘI)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

HA NOI, 2017


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
****************************

NGUYỄN THỊ DUNG

INFLUENCE OF POWER DISTANCE ON CLASSROOM
INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY AT A PRIVATE

HIGH SCHOOL IN HANOI
(ẢNH HƢỞNG CỦA KHOẢNG CÁCH QUYỀN LỰC ĐẾN
TƢƠNG TÁC TRONG LỚP HỌC: NGHIÊN CỨU TÌNH HUỐNG
Ở MỘT TRƢỜNG TRUNG HỌC PHỔ THÔNG DÂN LẬP TẠI HÀ NỘI)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Hoàng Văn Vân

HA NOI, 2017


DECLARATION
I hereby state that I: Nguyen Thi Dung, from QH2015.E3, being a candidate for
the degree of Master of Arts (MA), accept the requirements of the university relating to
the retention and use of Master‟s Graduation Paper deposited in the library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in the
library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with
the normal conditions established by the librarian for the care, loan and reproduction of
the paper.

Hanoi, May 5th, 2017

Nguyễn Thi Dung
̣

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is an honor for me to express my deep and sincere thanks to those who made
this thesis possible.
First of all, I would like to pay my great gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Dr.
Hoang Van Van, for his continuous support, careful guidance and valuable advice
throughout my thesis-writing period. With his comprehensive instruction, his
inspiration, enthusiasm and immense knowledge, he helped me step by step write up
my thesis to the best of my ability and opened my knowledge of literature. It was very
lucky for me to be under his guidance.
My heartfelt thanks and blessings also go to my family, especially my parents
who are always beside and support me during the time I did my thesis. Their wellbeing is of great spiritual motivation for me all the time.
Last but not least, I want to offer special thanks to all of my friends, my sweet
lover, who always supported and stood by me during the completion of the graduation
paper.
To them all I dedicate this thesis.

ii


ABSTRACT
Power distance illustrates how people in a society accept the inequality of power
(Hofstede, 2011). Its traits have been proved to appear in almost every aspect of daily
life (Hofstede, 1991; cited in Bassett, 2004).

Specifically, in classroom

communication, certain traits of power distance are found to affect the teacher-student
interaction and the student-student one (Hofstede, 1986, p 313). There have been
quantitative studies finding out the manifestations of this cutural dimension within the

classroom interactions. However, sole reliance on quantitative techniques could be
problematic, since they conceal more than they reveal of the intricacies of classroom
interaction (Sadeghi, 2012). Moving away from the quantitative view above, this paper
examines the classroom interactions from the discourse analysis perspective called
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), proposed by Norman Fairclough (1989, 1993,
1995, 1997, 2013), which sees discourse as a form of „social practice‟ with three stages
of analysis namely description, interpretation and explanation, to understand
classroom practice and interactions under the influence of power distance.
This case study aims at using CDA as a tool to investigate the manifestations and
the influences of power distance in Hofstede‟s theory on the classroom interactions in a
private high school. Since this environment is also important in the education system, it
gets too little attention from researchers and scholars (Glewwe & Patrinos, 1998). The
discussion, based on a case study conducted at a private high school classroom in
Hanoi, aims at understanding the unseen social processes. Transcription of classroom
interactions was put into a qualitative analysis of CDA with three typical stages:
description, interpretation and explanation. The research findings suggest that power
of the teacher seems less than the students in terms of personal pronouns analysis,
meanwhile, the teacher exerts power when calling or motivating students involving in
the classroom activities. In this case study, the power distance motivates and promotes
the classroom interaction between teacher and students.

iii


TABLE OF CONTENT

ACCEPTANCE …………………………………………………………..…...

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………...

ii

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………...

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………..………....

iv

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES……………………………..……..…...

vii

LIST OF APPENDICES ………………………………………….….……...

vii

PART A: INTRODUCTION
I. Statement of research problem and the rationale for the study…….……

1

II. Purpose of the study …………………………………………….……..…..

2

III. Significance of the study………………………………………….………...

2

IV. Research methodology …………………………………………….…..…

3

1. Research participants ……………………………………………..….…....

3

2. Data collection methods and procedure ……………………………..……

3

2.1. Data collection instruments………………………………………..………

3

2.2. Data collection procedure………………………………………….……….

4

3. Data analysis methods and procedure ………………………….….……,,,

4

V. Design of the study ………………………………………….…….….…....

5

PART B: LITERATURE REVIEW
I. Definition of key terms ……………………………………………..………

6

1. Power distance ……………………………………………………..……..

6

1.1. Definition of power distance……………………………………….………

6

1.2. Classification of power distance…………………………………….….…..

6

1.3. Power distance in Vietnam …………………………………………..……..

8

1.4. Power distance in classroom environment ……………………….………

9

2. Classroom interactions …………………………………………….……..

iv

10


2.1. Definition of classroom interactions……………………………………..

10

2.2. Teacher-Student interaction……………………………………………….

11

2.3. Student-Student interaction………………………………………………..

13

II. Related studies and research gap ………………………………………..

14

1. Related studies on power distance and classroom interactions ……….….,

14

2. Research gap ……………………………………………………….….….

16

PART C: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: Theoretical background
1. An overview of CDA ………………………………………………….….

17

1.1. Definition …………………………………………………………………

17

1.2. Critical, Discourse, Analysis………………………………………………

18

1.3. Key concepts ………………………………………………………….…..

20

1.4. Principles and Aims of CDA………………………………………………

21

1.5. Methodology in CDA ……………………………………………………..

22

2.

Systematic Functional Linguistics in CDA ……………………………..

23

CHAPTER 2: A critical discourse analysis of the influence of power distance on

classroom interaction at a private high school in Hanoi
2.1. Texual description and analysis………………….…………………….....

26

2.1.1. Analysis in terms of vocabulary used…………………………………

26

2.1.2. Analysis in terms of grammar features ……………………………….

27

2.1.2.1. The use of personal pronoun …………………………………...…

27

2.1.2.2. The use of voice …………………………....…………….…………

32

2.1.2.3. Modes of the sentences………………….………………….………

33

2.1.2.4. Modality ……………………………………………….……………

34

2.1.2.5. Connective values of the discourse ………………………………..

36

2.1.3. Analysis in terms of transitivity ………………………………………

39

2.1.4. Analysis in terms of thematization ……………………………………

39

v


2.1.5. Analysis in terms of macrostructure of the discourse ………………...

40

2.2. Interpretation of the relationship between productive and interpretative
process …………………………………………………………………….…...

42

2.2.1. Interpretation of situational context ……………………………….….

42

2.2.2. Intertextual context and presupposition ……………………………….

43

2.3. Explanation of the relationship between discourse processes and social
processes………………………………………………………………………...

44

PART D: CONCLUSION
1. A summary of finding ……………………………………………..……

46

2. Conclusion …………………………………………………………..…..

47

3. Implications to English teaching and learning …………………….….

48

4. Reccomendations …………………………………………………..…...

49

REFERENCES ………………………………………………….……………..

50

APPENDIX I …………………………………………………………………..

I

vi


LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Hofstede‟s cultural dimension index in Vietnam (My Anh, 2013)
Figure 2. Fairclough's dimension of discourse and discourse analysis (Fairclough,
1989, 1995a, cited in Janks (1997, p.330))

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Ten Differences Between Small- and Large- Power Distance Societies
Table 2. Power distance differences in general norms, family, school and workplace
issue
Table 3. Power distance in classroom environment
Table 4. Differences in Teacher/Student Interaction in Relation to Power Distance
Table 5. Differences in Student/Student Interaction in Relation to Power Distance
Table 6. Instance of the use I and me in the lesson
Table 7. Instance of the use we in the lesson
Table 8. Instance of the use you in the lesson
Table 9. Instance of the proper personal pronouns in the lesson
Table 10. Time appeared and percentage of the active and passive sentences used in the
lesson
Table 11. Time appeared and percentage of the declarative, imperative and questions in
the lesson
Table 12. Summary of transitivity analysis data
Table 13. Summary of thematic analysis data

vii

PART A: INTRODUCTION
I. Statement of research problem and the rationale for the study
Culture is one of the factors reflecting people‟s behavior within a community or a
society. It makes people understand each other better (Coelho, n.d.). Hofstede did a lot
of studies (Hofstede, 1986; Hofstede, 1991; Hofstede, 2011) to investigate cultural
factors affecting the communication of human being. Among his cutural dimensions,
power distance seems to get much concern from scholars as it brings a comprehensive
view of how people in a society accept the inequality of power (Hofstede, 2011).
Power distance‟s traits have been proved to appear in almost every aspect of daily
life (Hofstede, 1991; cited in Bassett, 2004). In classroom communication, certain traits
of power distance are also found influence on the teacher- student interaction and the
student-student one (Hofstede, 1986, p 313). As a result, various models of classroom
interaction/discourse analysis such as speech act theory, interactional sociolinguistics,
conversation

analysis,

variation

analysis,

pragmatics,

and

ethnography

of

communication (Schiffrin, 1994, cited in Sadeghi et al, 2012) have been investigated

up to now. Although each approach emphasizes different aspects of language use, they
all view language as a social interaction which is shaped by social contexts.
Additionally, since most studies conducted investigated the power distance on the
university context (Li and Guo, 2012; Yoo, 2014) or public high school environment
(Kasuya‟s, n.d.), very little attention was paid to the private school environment which
is also an important part in the education system of Vietnam (Glewwe & Patrinos,
1998), especially in terms of critical discourse analysis.
This paves the way for the author to conduct current research to examine the
presence and influence of power distance on the classroom interactions between
teacher and student and student and student within the context of Vietnamese private

1


high school. Especially, the study will be conducted under the investigation of critical
discourse analysis. The researcher hopes to coin a different perspective of power
distance via critical discourse analysis and also partly provide more reference to the
literature in this field.
II. Purpose of the study
This research aims at seeking and investigating the manifestations and the
influences of power distance on the classroom interactions in a private high school
environment. Especially, those manifestations and influences will be seen under the
critical discourse analysis. In brief, these objectives can be achieved through finding
tentative answers to the following research questions:
1. In what ways are the manifestations of power reflected in the classroom
interactions under the critical discourse analysis?
2. How does the power distance affect the classroom interactions?
III. Significance of the study
The study focuses on exploring how power distance manifests and influences the
teacher-student and student-student interactions in a private high school. Hence, once

this thesis is completed, it can be beneficial for both theoretical and practical
contributions. In terms of theoretical contributions, the research is expected to provide
more cognition of the manifestations and influences of the power distance on the
foreign language classroom interaction, especially in the private school environment in
Vietnam. More interstingly, those manifestations and influences will be investigated
under critical discourse analysis and carefully examined in terms of features related to
vocabulary, grammar, transitivity and thematization. In addition, this thesis is hoped to
serve as a reliable and useful reference material about power distance in Vietnamese
pedagogical environment for other readers and researchers in their further studies on
related subjects. For the practical contributions, the findings and conclusion of the
research are anticipated to provide an overall consideration for the Vietnamese English

2


teachers as well as the foreign ones about the presence and influence of one cultural
dimension on their English language classroom interactions. From this consideration,
the author hopes they can take it as a reference to improve or to promote the classroom
interactions in their English lessons.
IV. Research methodology
1. Research participants
This study is conducted in an EFL classroom. There are 36 students at grade 10 and
one English teacher in a private high school recruited to participate in the research. The
author observes two English lessons in this class.
There are some reasons urging the researcher to choose these participants as the
research sample. Firstly, the research focuses on the private high school environment,
hence, the author chooses Nguyen Binh Khiem High School - one of top prominent
private high schools in Hanoi which was founded for more than 20 years (as mentioned
in the school‟s website ) and well-known for its learning and teaching
quality. Secondly, only grade 10 students are recruited in the study because they are the

new comers with little or no exposure to power distance from the high school teacher
which probably makes the research results more objective. Furthermore, since this
thesis is a case study rather than a wide ranged one, the author only take randomly one
class to investigate. With this small sample, the researcher hopes to take a deep and
detailed exploration of the power distance impact.
2. Data collection methods and procedure
2.1.

Data collection instruments

The study recruits qualitative approach with the aim to see how power distance is
manifested and affects the classroom interactions under the critical investigation in
terms of analyzing the vocabulary and grammar used as well as the transitivity and
thematization of the classroom discourse.

3


The author will get the allowance to observe the English classroom, take note and
videotape the lessons to get the data for analyzing. According to Marshall (2006),
observation is a fundamental and highly important method in all qualitative inquiry.
The researcher chooses classroom observation thanks to its outstanding advantages. It
is used not only to discover complex interactions in natural social settings, but it can
also obtains large amounts of data quickly and it is good for obtaining data on
nonverbal behavior and communication (Marshall, 2006). With classroom observation,
the author probably gets an overall view of the classroom situations and also has
opportunity to directly reach the investigating source of data which will be easier for
her in the process of analyzing.
2.2.

Data collection procedure

The procedure of data collection in this research goes through three main phases:
preparation, getting allowance, classroom observation.
At the first stage, all the necessary documents and instruments for the study are
designed and synthesized including classroom observation note and the classroom
observation consent form (Appendix I).
In the second phase, the researcher will contact to get permission from the principal
and the English teachers from the investigated private high school and have them sign
in the classroom observation consent form.
At the last phase, the author will conduct observation within the target class. The
observation will last for two lessons, each lesson is forty-five minutes. The videotaping
will be used to make sure getting all details and situations occurring within the
observing time in case the notetaking of the researcher is not enough.
3. Data analysis methods and procedure
The data gained from the classroom observation will be analyzed qualitatively. The
data will be in terms of field notes from the observation and transcriptions of the
videotape. The data will then be investigated according to the critical discourse

4


analysis framework of Norman Fairclough with three typical phases: textual analysis,
processing analysis and social analysis. After analyzing, the author will conclude
whether the power distance exists in classroom interactions and if there is any, in terms
of what this power manifests and affects under the criteria of critical discourse
analysis: vocabulary, grammar structure, transitivity, thematization. In addition, the
researcher will also interpret the situational context and intertextual context as well as
explain the relationship between discourse processes and social processes to get a
deeper and more thorough understanding of the power within the classroom

environment.
V. Design of the study
The paper consists of four main parts. Part one (Introduction) presents the rationale,
the objectives, significance and methodology of the study with the elaboration on the
participants, data collection and analysis instruments as well as the procedure.
Definition of key terms and constructs together with a critical literature review of
related studies are provided in part two. Part three illustrates the theoretical background
for the study, the analysis and discussion of the results findings from the data to get the
answer for the research questions. Finally, chapter four will summarize and synthesize
the main issues discussed in the thesis, point out some limitations of the research and
some impications for teahcing and learning English together with suggestions for
further studies.

5


PART B: LITERATURE REVIEW
I. Definition of key terms
1. Power distance
1.1. Definition of power distance
According to Hofstede (2011) there exist six cultural dimensions namely Power
Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism versus Collectivism, Masculinity
versus Femininity, Long Term versus Short Term Orientation, Indulgence versus
Restraint. Power Distance refers to the different solutions to the basic problem of
human inequality. Uncertainty Avoidance relates to the level of stress in a society in
the face of an unknown future. Individualism versus Collectivism discuss about the
integration of individuals into primary groups. Masculinity versus Femininity mentions
the division of emotional roles between women and men. Long Term versus Short
Term Orientation defines the choice of 3 focus for people's efforts: the future or the
present and past. Indulgence versus Restraint relates to the gratification versus control

of basic human desires related to enjoying life. The first dimension – Power Distance
was defined by Hofstede (1986) as “the extent to which the less powerful persons in a
society accept inequality in power and consider it as normal”. Remarkably, the term
Power Distance was first introduced by the Dutch social psychologist Mauk Mulder
(1977, cited in Li & Guo, 2012) as the “the degree of inequality in power between a
less powerful Individual (I) and a more powerful Other (O), in which I and O belong to
the same (loosely or tightly knit) social system”.
1.2. Classification of power distance
Hofstede (2011) classified Power Distance into Large Power Distance and Small
Power Distance. The manifestation of these two types is relatively different in society.
It shows how power is distributed within a society and how inequality is accepted (see
Table 1).

6


Table 1. Ten Differences Between Small- and Large- Power Distance Societies
Small Power Distance

Large Power Distance

Use of power should be legitimate and is

Power is a basic fact of society antedating
good or evil: its legitimacy is irrelevant

subject to criteria of good and evil

Parents treat children as equals. Parents Older people are neither respected nor
teach children obedience

feared Older people are both respected
and feared
Student-centered education

Teacher-centered education

Hierarchy means inequality of roles,

Hierarchy means existential inequality

established for convenience
Subordinates expect to be consulted

Subordinates expect to be told what to do

Pluralist governments based on majority
vote and changed peacefully

Autocratic governments based on cooptation and changed by revolution

Corruption rare; scandals end political
careers

Corruption frequent; scandals are covered
up

Income distribution in society rather even Income distribution in society very
uneven
Religions stressing equality of believers

Religions with a hierarchy of priests

In another article Hofstede (1991, cited in Bassett, 2004) points out the difference
between Large Power Distance and Small Power Distance in general norms, family,
school and workplace (See Table 2).

7


Table 2. Power distance differences in general norms, family, school and
workplace issue
Small power distance
Inequalities among people should be
minimized.
There should be, and there is to some
extent, interdependence between less and
more powerful people.

Large power distance
Inequalities among people are both
expected and desired.
Less powerful people should be dependent
on the more powerful; in practice, less
powerful people are polarized between
dependence and counter dependence.
Parents teach children obedience.
Children treat parents with respect.
Teachers are expected to take all
initiatives in class.
Teachers are gurus who transfer personal

wisdom.
Students treat teachers with respect.
Both more and less educated persons
show almost equally authoritarian values.

Parents treat children as equals.
Children treat parents as equals.
Teachers expect initiatives from students
in class.
Teachers are experts who transfer
impersonal truths.
Students treat teachers as equals.
More educated persons hold less
authoritarian values than less educated
persons.
Hierarchy in organizations means an
inequality of roles, established for
convenience.
Decentralization is popular.
Subordinates expect to be consulted.

Hierarchy in organizations reflects the
existential inequality between higher-ups
and lower-downs.
Centralization is popular.
Subordinates expect to be told what to do.

The ideal boss is a resourceful democrat.

The ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat or

good father.
Privileges and status symbols for
managers are both expected and popular.

Privileges and status symbols are frowned
upon.
1.3. Power distance in Vietnam

Hofstede‟s creation (1980, cited in Li & Guo, 2012) is the use of Power Distance
Index (PDI) to measure power distance quantitatively. According to his index,
Vietnam‟s PDI is 70 – a relatively high score. This index places Vietnam into the
group of high power distance countries (see Figure 1).

8


Figure 1. Hofstede’s cultural dimension index in Vietnam (My Anh, 2013)
Abbreviation
PDI
IDV
MAS
UAI
LTO

Meaning
Power distance
Individualism
Masculinity vs Femininity
Uncertainty Avoidance
Long-termed vs Short-termed Orientation

1.4. Power distance in classroom environment
Hofstede (2008, cited in Li & Guo, 2012) claimed that in high power distance
environment, teachers are treated with respect and students may have to stand up when
a teacher enters the room. The educational process is teacher-centered. Students in
class speak up only when invited. Meanwhile, in low power distance situations,
teachers are supposed to treat their students as basically equal and expect to be treated
as equal by the students. The educational process is student-centered. Students make
uninvited interventions in class and are supposed to ask questions when they do not
understand something. Discuss about the power distance in classroom environment,
Tananuraksakul (2009) also point out a number of effects of this cultural dimension on
students. Accidentally, her discussion shares the same result with Hofstede‟s. These
results can be summarized in the table below (see Table 3).

9


Table 3. Power distance in classroom environment
Small power distance
Teachers are as equal as students.
Teachers treat students as equal and they
expect to receive the same treatment from
students.
Student initiation is “premium”.

Large power distance
Teachers are treated with respect (Older
teachers more than younger ones).

A strict order is established, as teacher

always initiate first.
Uninvited interventions in class are
Students are supposed to speak only if
expected and questions can be raised at
they are allowed and invited. In other
any time.
words, “students were required to listen to
the teacher quietly and wait until they
were allowed to raise their hands
politely.”
Teachers are supposed to cope with
Teachers are never publicly contradicted
disagreement and criticism from students. or criticized.
The aforementioned manifestation leads to The aforementioned manifestation leads to
“informality”.
“formality”.
The education process is student-centered. The education process is teacher-centered.
Therefore, the learners are subject to “find In other words, teachers “outline the
their own intellectual path”.
intellectual paths to be followed.”
Teachers expect their students to engage
In some lessons, students are selected to
themselves in an active participatoryask questions which are very structured.
interactive environment.
Students never call teachers by first name. Teachers encourage a first-name basis.
2. Classroom interactions
2.1. Definition of classroom interactions
According to Biddle (1967), the term "interaction" implies an action-reaction or a
two-way influence which may be between individuals (e.g. pupil-pupil, or teachertarget) or between an individual and a group (e.g. teacher-audience) or between
materials and individuals. In other word, interaction occurs between A and B if the two

things have an effect on each other. Also, interaction can be understood as the
reciprocal action or influence between two or more things in which they affect each
other. In the classroom environment, interaction means the communication between

10


teacher and student or among the students themselves. We briefly call these relation
Teacher-Student interaction and Student-Student interaction.
2.2. Teacher-Student interaction
Inside the classroom the teacher not only facilitates language learning, but he/she
must also initiate dialogue between the students. According to Hofstede (1997, p.34
cited in Hadley, 2001), in high power distance (HPD) societies, the authoritative parent
role is transferred to the teacher. The image of the ideal teacher is that of a good parent.
There is considerable dependence of students on the teacher, yet the emotional distance
between the two parties is large. In low power distance (LPD) societies, in contrast,
student independence is encouraged. Students are treated as more or less equals to the
teacher. The ideal teacher is somewhat like a resourceful friend. The teacher facilitates
the students‟ independent pursuit of truths and knowledge. Since there are differences
presented in the HPD cultures and LPD ones, the interaction between teachers and
students inside the classroom is also clearly differentiated (see Table 4).
Table 4. Differences in Teacher/Student Interaction in Relation to Power Distance
Criteria
Ideal teacher
Ideal student
Educational
process
Teacher power
base

HPD Cultures
Authoritative and caring parent
Well-disciplined
Teacher-centered

LPD Cultures
Resourceful friend
Creative and independent
Student-centered

Respected because of his/her
position; older teachers are more
respected

Class
management
Turn-taking

Class is managed tightly by the
teacher
Students ask/ answer questions
when called upon by the teacher
The teacher directs and students
respond
Students rarely doubt the
teacher‟s view

Respected because of his/her
expertise, personality, and
rewards; younger teachers are

more appreciated
Student autonomy is emphasized

Flow of
interaction
Asking teacher
to validate his

11

Students ask/answer questions
whenever they want to
Interaction between students
takes place.
Students ask the teacher to
clarify or justify his points


points
Disagreements/
confrontations

Giving
assignments

Public display of disagreements
with the teacher, let alone
confrontations, is to be avoided at
all cost
Students are expected to obey

the teacher‟s instructions
Failure to follow instructions is
immediately followed by
disciplinary action, including
corporal punishment
Themes, procedures and
deadlines are set by the teacher

Preferred
exercises

Rote learning through such
exercises as drills

Completing
tasks

Students conform to the teachers
explicit/implicit preferences of
going about tasks
Conformity to the teacher‟s view
is highly expected
Recognition by the teacher

Following
instructions
Discipline

Testing
Extrinsic

motivation
Teacher
expectations
Feedback from
teacher to
students
Feedback from
students to
teacher

Disagreements/confrontations
supported by solid reasoning are
encouraged
Students can negotiate with the
teacher
Listening to the student‟s
reasons for her action, the
teacher guides her to accept
responsibility
Each student chooses a topic of
his choice; procedures and
deadlines can be negotiated
Meaningful learning through
such exercises as problem
solving
Students‟ originality and
creativity are encouraged
Creativity and originality are
highly valued
Advancement

The teacher sets expectations for
students and students internalize
them
Teacher feedback is focused on
correctness

The teacher and students have
their own expectations; students
independence is encouraged
Teacher feedback is focused on
students‟ development

Student feedback is seldom, or
only if asked by the teacher

Student feedback is constant
(Source: Hadley, 2001)

12


2.3. Student-Student interaction
It is essential for students to interact with each other in the “Second Language”
(L2) classroom because it can promote language acquisition through oral practice.
Hence, student-student relationships possess a great importance in L2 acquisition
(Jambor, 2005). Within the power distance culture, the interaction between student and
student inside the classroom is affected by many factors and also varies from the HPD
environment to the LPD one. Table 5 synthesized these differences which is adapted
from Hadley (2001).

Table 5. Differences in Student/Student Interaction in Relation to Power Distance
Criteria
Group identity

HPD Cultures
Students identify themselves
as a social class
Students seeking help
Students seek help from other
students first, and then from
the teacher
Degree of cooperation on Superior students dominate
the task
the pair/group
Students solidarity/
Hierarchical solidarity:
hierarchy among students senior/junior students,
superior/inferior students,
male/female students
Student treatment of
Weak students are assisted by
weak students
superior students
Student treatment of
gifted students
Interpersonal politics

Gifted students are placed on
the pedestal
Each student knows her

position in class

13

LPD Cultures
Students identify
themselves as individuals
Students seek help both
from the teacher and from
students
Each student participates
fairly equally
Solidarity as co-learners
regardless of age, abilities,
or gender
Weak students are
encouraged to develop
their talents in other fields
Gifted students are treated
just like anybody else
Students can be potential
allies or competitors


II. Related studies on power distance and classroom interactions and research
gap
1. Related studies on power distance and classroom interactions
The topic “power distance” has intrigued many researchers in recent years. The
scholars have conducted large number of studies about power distance in various fields
of the social daily life.

In a research entitled “Management Styles and Organizational Effectiveness in
Vietnam”, Truong Quang and Nguyen Tai Vuong (2002) explore the management
styles and the organization of private enterprises in the northern part of Vietnam. Their
findings show that it is the power distance that become an important factor affecting
the management and organization of the private companies in particular, and also get a
huge impact on the business of Vietnam in general.
In terms of education, there are also a large number of studies investigating the
power distance in teaching and learning, especially in the classroom interaction.
Firstly, Jamieson and Thomas (1974) conducted a study to examine power and conflict
in the student-teacher relationship in the classroom. The research results emphasized
the imbalance power between students and teachers and the prevalent use of coercion
by the teachers at the high school and undergraduate level. Also, the study pointed out
the coercion power negatively affected the student‟s satisfaction, learning and the
teacher‟s excessive level of influence inside the classroom. In addition, power distance
in classroom is also demonstrated in the context of four Asian countries - Japan
(Hadley, 2001; Ishizaki, 2007; Kasuya, n.d.; Govea, 2007) South Korea (Yoo, 2014;
Jambor, 2005), China (Li & Guo, 2012) and Vietnam (Dao Thi Phuong, 2014). These
studies, accidentally, share a similarity which reflects the Eastern cultural context.
However, under the common denominator of Eastern culture, the manifestation of
power distance is not always the same.

14


Among the studies on power distance in Japanese‟s classroom context, Hadley‟s
(2001) provides some implications for teaching English. Sharing the same approach,
Đào Thị Phƣơng (2014) also suggests some pedagogical implications but the difference
is before that she illustrates the manifestation of teacher-student relationship at school.
Ishizaki‟s (2007) accompanies the power distance with the collectivism and
individualism, while Govea‟s (2007) makes a comparison about the influence of power

distance on Japan‟s classroom interactions with the Western ones. Significantly,
Kasuya‟s (n.d.) does deeper to examine the influence in the Japanese public high
school with two typical types of classrooms: the relatively high-level but silent class
and the relatively low-level but active one.
There are two papers illustrating the power distance in South Korea. However, the
approach of these studies is relatively different. In Yoo‟s (2014) research, she
investigates the role of Hofstede‟s cultural dimensions in the university classroom
setting in general and power distance is only one part examined. Nevertheless, in
Jambor‟s (2005) paper, he acknowledges that South Korea is a HPD country, so he
focuses his work on the teaching methods and suggests some appropriate ways applied
in the LPD classroom setting.
In a study on power distance in Chinese classroom context, Li and Guo‟s (2012)
come to find the influence of second language (L2) learning and use on the learners‟
change of values by quantitatively measuring the power distance orientation of Chinese
college English teachers and non-English teachers in classroom interaction. The two
scholars focus their research on the university environment. Obviously, Li and Guo
(2012) test the learner‟s change of values under the impact of L2 learning and using,
power distance is only taken as a mean for measuring and is not got the major focus.

15


In short, most of the above studies have explored the manifestation, the influence of
power distance inside the classroom environment in HPD countries and their results
almost reflect the characteristics of power distance pointed in Hofstede‟s theory.
2. Research gap
Taking a careful consideration about the literature on power distance and classroom
interactions, there is no doubt that most of the studies examined the manifestation and
impact of power distance within the public high school context (Kasuya, n.d.) or
university environment (Yoo, 2014; Li and Guo, 2012) with the omission of the private

school which is also a major sector in the education system of Vietnam (Glewwe &
Patrinos, 1998). Moreover, the mentioned studies investigated the power distance with
little relevance to critical discourse analysis. In other word, most of the studies
conducted on power distance in general and power distance in classroom interactions
in particular have not really considered it in terms of critical discourse analysis. In the
light of the previous studies related to power distance in the classroom interactions, the
author would like to do a research on the influence of power distance within the
classroom interaction under a critical discourse analysis of the classroom interactions
with the hope to fulfill the gap and contribute a new aspect to the general picture of
power distance.

16