THEORY OF TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION FOR INTERNAL CIRCULATION

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC QUẢNG BÌNH
KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ
-----    -----

THEORY OF TRANSLATION AND
INTERPRETATION
FOR INTERNAL CIRCULATION
Tran Thi Phuong Tu

Quảng Bình, 2015


INTRODUCTION
This translation theory course is designed to meet students’ needs of English in
their training course at the Department of Foreign Languages,

Quang Binh

University. The purpose of this course is to help students in understanding of
translation and interpretation. Those are definitely important notions in using a
language.
It is hoped that learners will find the course useful and practical. The material
presented here borrows heavily from Peter Newmark's Approaches to Translation
and A Textbook of Translation, and is compiled on the basis of the handout
“Translation Theory” by the Department of English, Da Nang College of Education.

Quang Binh, 2015

CONTENTS
UNIT 1- CURRENT VIEWS ON TRANSLATION
2

1. What is Translation ?
2. Interpretation
3. Difference between Translation and Interpretation
4. Problems of Equivalence
5. Loss and Gain
6. Untranslatability
UNIT 2 – TRANSLATION METHODS
1. Translation Procedures
2. Semantic and Communicative Translation
UNIT 3 –TRANSLATION OF METAPHOR AND SIMILE
1. The translation of Metaphors
2. Translation of Similes
3. Practice

UNIT 4 – TRANSLATION OF PASSIVE VOICE
1. Voice in Translation
2. Passive Voice in English
3. Passive Voice in Vietnamese
UNIT 5 – TRANSLATION OF PROPER NAMES AND CULTURAL
TERMS
1

Proper names

2

Cultural names

3

Geographical names

4

Newspaper, Journal, Periodical names

UNIT 6 – THE ANALYSIS OF A TEXT IN TRANSLATION
1. Grammar Analysis in Translation
2. Contextual Analysis in Translation
3. Cohesion Analysis in Translation

UNIT 7. SOME PROBLEMS RELATED TO TRANSLATION
REFERENCE

UNIT 1- CURRENT VIEWS ON TRANSLATION

3


I.

What is Translation?

Translation, by dictionary definition consists of changing from one form to
another, to turn into one’s own or anther language
( The Merriam- Webster Dictionary . 1974). Some authors have given the following
different definitions of translation :
- Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source

language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).
(JC Catford)
- Translation is the process of conveying messages across linguistic and cultural
barriers. (Ian Tudor).
- Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way
that the author intended the text. (Peter Newmark)
As implied in the definitions above, translation is basically a change of form
(which is usually referred to as the actual words, phrases, clauses, sentences,
paragraphs etc., which are spoken or written).
In translation, the form of the source language (the language of the text that is to be
translated) is replaced by the form of the target language (the language of the
translated text). The purpose of translation is to transfer the meaning of the source
language (SL) into the target language (TL). This is done by going from the form of
the first language to the form of a second language by way of semantic structure. It is
meaning which is being transferred and must remain unchanged. Only the form
changes. Moreover, translation not only involves understanding the general meaning
of the communication, but calls upon the ability to understand the culture of the
communication.
Types of Translation:
Because a given text has both form and meaning, as discussed in the previous lesson,
there are two main kinds of translation. One is form-based and other is meaningbased. Form-based translation attempt to follow the form of source language and are
known as literal translation. Meaning-based translation make every effort to
communicate the meaning of the source language text in natural forms of receptor
language. Such translations are called idiomatic translation
Form- based translation (literal translation): a literal translation sounds like nonsense
and has little communication value. For example,
Vietnamese: Mời bạn về nhà tôi chơi
Literal translation: Invite friend about house me play

4

This literal translation makes little sense in English. The appropriate translation
would be: Would you like to come to my home?
Meaning – based translation(idiomatic translation): use the natural forms of the
receptor language, both in the grammatical construction and in the choice of lexical
items. A truly idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation. It sounds like it
was written originally in the receptor language. Therefore, a good translator will try
to translate idiomatically. In one translation, the source text said: “nhiều du khách đã
giới thiệu cho chúng tôi về khách sạn Hương Giang. It was translated: “Many foreign
tourists have introduced us about Huong Giang Hotel” It would have been translated
idiomatically “Huong Giang Hotel has been recommended to us by a number of
foreign tourists”
The translator can re-read his translation, compare it to the original, make the
necessary corrections or start his work all over again. He can come back to the
preceding part of the original or get the information he needs from the subsequent
messages. These are most favourable conditions and here we can expect the best
performance and the highest level of equivalence. That is why in theoretical
discussions we have usually examples from written translations where the translating
process can be observed in all its aspects.
2. INTERPRETATION
2.1 What is interpreting?
Interpreting is rendering information and ideas from one language into another
language by means of speaking. Interpreters are concerned with the spoken word.
They convey orally whether to an individual or a group the meaning of the spoken
word, from one language to another.
2.2 Modes of interpreting
There are two main modes of interpreting: Consecutive and simultaneous
interpreting. All of these types will be deal with in this session.
Consecutive Interpretation

“(Consecutive interpretation) is the process of listening to a speech or lecture in
one language and then at a certain moment, transcribing and summarizing it orally,
in another language. The time lapse between the speech and your interpretation
varies.”
Consecutive interpretation is open used the following situations:
Escorting a non-English speaking group within a larger gathering of English
speakers at a trade fair or exposition.
Conferences where smaller working parties meet in rooms which lack telephonic
interpreting facilities. In this case, interpreters often sit alongside speakers and
interpret at intervals.
The training for developing the skills of consecutive interpretation includes:

5


1. Learning to repeat what a speaker has said, first in one’s dominant
language,
2. Learning a summarize,
3. Memory training, e.g. practice in increasing retention of clusters of words
and numbers,
4. Learning to take accurate notes.
Simultaneous Interpretation
“By now you must be wondering what simultaneous is. Picture yourself in a 2’x4’
booth, a pair of headphones on, and without prior notice, a voice comes through.
Immediately you have to simultaneously render what is said into another language.
Sounds impossible, doesn’t it? As a matter of fact, the first time you try it, your
natural impulse may be to tear off the headsets and walk out. However, in no time at
all, the process somehow becomes automatic, you pick up momentum, and your
interpretation takes on a smoother quality. Believe it or not, it is fascinating, and,
also very rewarding.”

Simultaneous interpreting do not wait for a speaker to finish a segment and pause
before beginning to interpret but follow the speaker and interpret what the speaker is
saying. Advantages of simultaneous interpreting are that is saves a great deal of time
and is less disruptive than other forms of interpreting. It is commonly practiced at
international conferences and forums. However, it is expensive to pay for electronic
equipment and simultaneous interpreters.
Simultaneous interpretation involves the immediate, simultaneous interpretation of
what is being said. The training for developing this skill includes all of the
aforementioned strategies, and specifically calls upon the ability to paraphrase. If a
specific word is not known, another must instantly be supplied. Hence, training
includes:
1. A study of synonyms,
2. Exercises in paraphrasing,
3. Exercises which expose the student to different voices, accents, and
speeds.
2.3 Translation and Interpretation
The field of translation and interpretation is especially demanding because of the
variety of complex tasks that are involved in terms of:
1. general knowledge.
2. cultural knowledge.
3. specific translative and interpretive skills.

6


All of these tasks are in addition to proficiency in the language to be used,
which is clearly a prerequisite for study in translation and interpretation.
In the first instance, translation and interpretation involve an enormous amount of
knowledge in a variety of areas.
“A good translator / interpreter has to be a veritable mine of information no

matter what subject he is dealing with. If you are interpreting a lecture on genetics
and you don’t know what a chromosome is, you are in deep trouble! Or, if you have
to translate a paper on the effects of increased taxation on aggregate demand, you
are up the proverbial creek without a paddle if you have never had a course in
economics. Besides, vocabulary is not enough - in order to make any sense out of a
text or a speech, you have to understand what the author is really saying.
Translation and interpretation involve ideas, not words.”
For this reason, the course of translation and interpretation will need to
involve studies of subject areas such as international economics, political science
and international studies which are frequently called upon for translation.
“Becoming an accomplished translator / interpreter means you will have to be
constantly expanding your awareness of the world around you.”
Before we can translate or interpret a message, we must understand the total
meaning of the message within its own cultural context.
“You must first understand the ideas behind the words and, going one step further,
you should have clear knowledge of the culture which formulated those ideas. This
step is usually the most exciting. A growing awareness of different life styles brings
home the idea that rendering accurate translations is really not that simple. Not
only must you lend a sympathetic ear to two separate cultures, you must also enjoy
working with words. And, one of the main purposes of the institute’s course in
Translation Theory is to make you aware of the possible meanings of a word in
different contexts. We study the semantic and morphological aspects of
communication in an attempt to better understand language usage.”
For example, translator and interpreter will need to study how words
communicate, what “bias words” are, i.e. words that communicate positive
meanings and negative meanings, such as “underdeveloped country” vs. “backward
country” vs. “developing country”.
As well as understanding the meanings of the words, we will need to understand the
meaning conveyed through the style. Is it formal? informal? personal? impersonal?
Is the author or speaker humorous? serious? sarcastic? emphatic? Is his expression

subtle? overt?
The hardest part is yet to come in bridging the conceptual gap between two
cultures when we try to convey the total massage by way of the concepts and

7


symbols (i.e. thoughts and words) of a different language. Cultural sensitivity and
creativity will be called upon maintaining the style of the total communication.
Different language often communicate similar meanings via different number of
words, different kinds of words, different intonation and pitch, different gestures,
etc. If we translate / interpret literally, our version may result in a loss of the
message.
In addition to a wealth of general knowledge in relevant subject - areas, the
ability to switch cultural contexts and to solve problems of inter - cultural
communication, translation and interpretation are specific and complex skills which
require the development of particular psycholinguistic strategies.
While some of these strategies overlap, others differ according to the type of
translation or interpretation involved. It will be important to distinguish between
translation and interpretation, and to be able to identify the particular strategies
involved.
3. The Difference between Translation and Interpreting
Interpreting and translation are two closely related linguistic disciplines. Yet
they are rarely performed by the same people. The difference in skills, training,
aptitude and even language knowledge are so substantial that few people can do both
successfully on a professional level.
On the surface, the difference between interpreting and translation is only the
difference in the medium: the interpreter translates orally, while a translator interprets
written text. Both interpreting and translation presuppose a certain love of language
and deep knowledge of more than one language. In the other words,

an interpreter works with spoken words in a particular context, conveying a
message from one language to another, while translation refers to the activity of
transferring a written text from one language to another.

FIVE KEY DIFFERENCES
1. Spoken versus written: Interpretation is the transference of meaning between
spoken languages, white translation is the transference of meaning between written
languages.
2. Real time versus delayed: Interpreting occurs in real time. It happens in person,
on the phone, or through a television/ video service. Because translation involves the
written word, it typically takes place long after a text is created, which gives the
translator time to access resources (dictionaries, glossaries, subject matter experts,
etc.) to produce an accurate and effective end document (or website, help file, etc.).
3. Level of accuracy: Interpretation and translation demand different levels of
accuracy. While interpreters aim to be completely accurate, it's difficult to achieve in
a live conversation. They may omit some details of the original speech as they
interpret into the target language. Conversely, translators have time to evaluate and

8


revise each word and sentence before delivering their product, so they can achieve a
greater level of accuracy and greater fidelity to the original.
4. Direction and fluency: An interpreter must be fluent enough in both the original
language and the target language to be able to translate in both directions, on the
spot, without any reference material. Interpreters are highly qualified people, and the
work is quite demanding! It's so demanding that interpreters work in pairs and must
switch off every 20 minutes or so to prevent mental fatigue.
Typically, professional translators only work in one direction-translating into their
native language. As such, translators do not have to be as fluent in the source

language as an interpreter must be. The key skills of a translator are to understand the
source language and to use their knowledge of the target country's cultural and
language norms to create an effective translated product.
5. Intangibles: Both translators and interpreters are faced with the challenge of
making metaphors, analogies, and idioms understandable to the audience in the target
language. However, interpreters must also capture tone, inflection, voice quality, and
the other intangible elements of the spoken word and convey those meaningfully to
the audience.
Despite the differences in the skills of translators and interpreters, both are bilingual
professionals who share a passion for conveying meaning to people who would
otherwise be unable to understand the information at hand.
The Skill Profile of Technical Translators
The differences in skills are arguably greater than their similarities. The key
skills of the translator are the ability to understand the source language and the
culture of the country where the text originated, then using a good library of
dictionaries and reference materials, to render that material clearly and accurately
into the target language. In other words, while linguistic and cultural skills are still
critical, the most important mark of a good translator is the ability to write well in the
target language.
Even bilingual individuals can rarely express themselves in a given subject
equally well in both languages, and many excellent translators are not fully bilingual
to begin with. Knowing this limitation, a good translator will only translate
documents into his or her native language.
An interpreter, on the other hand, must be able to translate in both directions
on the spot, without using dictionaries or other supplemental reference materials.
Interpreters must have extraordinary listening abilities, especially for simultaneous
interpreting. Simultaneous interpreters need to process and memorize the words that
the source-language speaker is saying now, while simultaneously outputting in the
target language the translation of words the speaker said 5-10 seconds ago.
Interpreters must also posess excellent public speaking skills and the intellectual

capacity to instantly transform idioms, colloquialisms and other culturally-specific
references into analogous statements the target audience will understand.

9


Interpreter Qualifications
Interpreting, just like translation, is fundamentally the art of paraphrasing—the
interpreter listens to a speaker in one language, grasps the content of what is being
said, and then paraphrases his or her understanding of the meaning using the tools of
the target language. However, just as you can not explain a thought to someone if
you did not fully understand that thought, neither can you translate or interpret
something without mastery of the subject matter being relayed.
It simply cannot be overstated: when choosing an interpreter, his or her
expert knowledge of the subject matter is equally as important as their
interpreting experience.
QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE INTERPRETER
+ Familiar with the general subject of the spoken language that is to be interpreted.
+ Intimately familiar with the cultures of both the original language and the target
language.
+ Extensive vocabulary in the original language and the target language.
+ Expresses thoughts clearly and accurately in the target language.
+ Excellent note-taking skills (when consecutive interpreting).
+ Quick decision making skills (generally there is no time to assess which variant is
best).
3. Problems of Equivalence.
What is problems of equivalence?
It is important to establish equivalence between the source text and the target
text on different linguistic levels. The definitions of translation suggested above
imply that producing the same meaning or message in the target language text as

intended by the original author is the main objective of a translator. This notion of
'sameness' is often understood as an equivalence relation between the source and
target texts. This equivalence relation is generally considered the most salient
feature of a quality translation.
The principle that a translation should have an equivalence relation with the
source language text is problematic. There are three main reasons why an exact
equivalence or effect is difficult to achieve. Firstly, it is impossible for a text to have
constant interpretations even for the same person on two occasions (Hervey,
Higgins and Haywood (1995: 14). According to these translation scholars: Before
one could objectively assess textual effects, one would need to have recourse to a
fairly detailed and exact theory of psychological effect, a theory capable, among
other things, of giving an account of the aesthetic sensations that are often
paramount in response to a text (Hervey, Higgins and Haywood (1995: 14).
Secondly, translation is a matter of subjective interpretation of translators of the
source language text. Thus, producing an objective effect on the target text readers,
which is the same as that on the source text readers is an unrealistic expectation.
10


Thirdly, it may not be possible for translators to determine how audiences responded
to the source text when it was first produced (ibid, p. 14). Miao (2000) gives a
specific example of the impossibility of the equivalence relation:
If an original was written centuries ago and the language of the original is
difficult to comprehend for modern readers, then a simplified translation may well
have greater impact on its readers that the original had on the readers in the source
culture. No translator would hinder the reader's comprehension by using absolute
expressions in order to achieve equivalent effect (Miao, 2000: 202)
Because the target text can never be equivalent to the source text at all levels,
researchers have distinguished different types of equivalence (Lauscher, 2000: 151).
Nida (1964) suggests formal and dynamic or functional equivalence. Formal

equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content. It
requires that the message in the target language should match as closely as possible
the different elements in the source language (p.159). Dynamic equivalence is based
on the principle of equivalent effect, where the relationship between the receptor
and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the
original receptors and the message (p. 159). Newmark (1981) makes a distinction
between communicative and semantic translation. Like Nida's dynamic equivalence,
communicative translation also tries to create the effect on the target text reader
which is the same as that received by readers of the source language text. Popovie
distinguishes four types of equivalence:
(1) Linguistic equivalence, where there is homogeneity on the linguistic level of both
SL and TL texts, i.e. word for word translation. Equivalence that can appear at
word level and above word level, when translating from one language into
another. In fact, when the translator starts analyzing the ST s/he looks at the
words as single units in order to find a direct 'equivalent' term in the TL. He gives
a definition of the term word since it should be remembered that a single word
can sometimes be assigned different meanings in different languages and might
be regarded as being a more complex unit or morpheme. This means that the
translator should pay attention to a number of factors when considering a single
word, such as number, gender and tense (ibid.:11-12).
(2) Pragmatic equivalence, refers to words in both languages having the same effect
on the readers in both languages. Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to
implicatures and strategies of avoidance during the translation process.
Implicature is not about what is explicitly said but what is implied. Therefore, the
translator needs to work out implied meanings in translation in order to get the ST
message across. The role of the translator is to recreate the author's intention in
another culture in such a way that enables the TC reader to understand it clearly.
(3) Stylistic (translational) equivalence, where there is “functional equivalence of
elements in both original and translation aiming at corresponding word or

expression in another language.

11


(4) Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence, where there is equivalence of form and
shape. Textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a SL text
and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion. Texture is a very important
feature in translation since it provides useful guidelines for the comprehension
and analysis of the ST which can help the translator in his or her attempt to
produce a cohesive and coherent text for the TC audience in a specific context. It
is up to the translator to decide whether or not to maintain the cohesive ties as
well as the coherence of the SL text. His or her decision will be guided by three
main factors, that is, the target audience, the purpose of the translation and the
text type.
Equivalence in translation, then, should not be approached as a search for sameness,
since sameness cannot even exist between two TL versions of the same texts, let
alone between the SL and the TL version. Popovie’s four types offer a useful starting
point .

4. Loss and Gain in Translation
Once the principle is accepted that sameness cannot exist between two
languages, it becomes possible to approach the question of loss and gain in the
translation process. It is again an indication of the low status of translation that so
much time should have been spent on discussing what is lost in the transfer of a text
from SL to TL whilst ignoring what can also be gained, for the translator can at
times enrich or clarify the SL text as a direct result of the translation process.
Moreover, what is often seen as “lost” from the SL context may be replaced in
the TL context.
Loss is defined by Bassnett Mcguire as a situation in which terms or concepts

in the SL text do not find their substitutes in the TL text and gain can exist for the
translator can at times enrich or clarify the ST as a direct result of the translation
process. Moreover what is often seen as “lost” from the ST may be replaced
in the target language text. The problem of loss in translation were mentioned by
Eugene Nida, who indicates the difficulties encountered by the translator when
facing with terms or concepts in the SL that do not exist in the TL. So far, Loss
and Gain have long been a topic in translation studies, but the researches
which have been done were basically carried out in the context of Indo-European
languages and across cultures which are mostly in the western parts. However, it is
possible that loss and gain also occur in the process of translation from
English into Vietnamese with a higher density than that from English into
other European languages. In term of lexical feature, due to the fact that the
feature is widely different between English and Vietnamese and there are also
geographical and cultural distances between Vietnam and other western countries,
investigating in Loss and Gain in translation is of great importance.
12


It is not that the sameness between two languages always exists
because “meaning is a property of a language. A source language has a source
language meaning, and a target language has a target language meaning” [16,
p35]. Therefore Vietnamese has Vietnamese meaning and English also has
English meaning. Because of this feature, the appearance of loss or gain of
meaning in translation can be avoided. There are some main reasons why an
exact equivalence is difficult to achieve. Firstly, it is impossible for a text to have
constant interpretations even for the same person on two occasions [21, p.14].
According to these translation scholars: before one could objectively assess textual
effects, one would need to have recourse to a fairly detailed and exact theory
of psychological effect, a theory capable, among other things, of giving an
account of the aesthetic sensations that are often paramount in response to a text

[21,p.14] Secondly, “translation is a process of subjective interpretation of
translators from the source language text”. Thus, producing an objective effect
on the target text readers, which is the same as that on the source text readers is an
unrealistic expectation. Thirdly, it may not be possible for translators to determine
how audience responded to the resource text when it is first produced.
Therefore, a simplified translation may well have greater impact on its readers than
the original had on the readers in the source culture. When something is
translated into another language and sometimes translated back into the original
language, and because of differences of the languages, some of original meaning is
lost or gained. Clearly, loss and gain in meaning is a quite vast category
because it relates to many factors from lexical to structure. When both make a
change in content, it leads to loss or gain in meaning. During the translation,
meaning can be lost or gained because of linguistic features or non-linguistic
features or others.
The problems of loss and gain in translation, in particular about the
difficulties encountered by the translator when faced with terms or concepts in the
SL that do not exist in the TL can be seen in vocabulary, grammar, rhythm,
meaning …
No
1
2

English Language

Vietnamese Equivalents

[55B, p.100] “…lost their
shirts and pants and
underwear…”
[55H, p.255]….”Younger

people, especially, want to
work for companies with a
mission that goes beyond the

[54B, p.115] “…mất cả chì
lẫn chài…
[54H, p.302]…“Những người trẻ rất
muốn làm việc cho các công ty với
một sứ mạng vượt quá lợi nhuận.”…

13


3

[55I, p.268]… The rich and
the well connected just buy
or hustle their way around
onerous regulations…

[54I, p.321]…Những người
giàu và có quan hệ tốt chỉ cần
bỏ tiền mua hoặc chạy chọt
qua các quy tắc nặng nề

4

[55D, p.190] melt away into the
air …

[54D, p.222] cho tan thành mây
khói…

5

[55B, p.354] on top of things….

[54B, p.426] tình hình nước sôi
lửa bỏng…

5. Untranslatability
When difficulties are encountered by the translator, the whole issue of the
translatability of the text is raised. Catford distinguishes two types of
untranslatability, which he terms linguistic and cultural. On the linguistic level,
untranslatability occurs when there is no lexical or syntactical substitute in the TL
for an SL item.
Catford’s category of linguistic untranslatability, which is also proposed by
Popovie, is straightforward, but his second category is more problematic. Linguistic
untranslatability, he argues, is due to differences in the SL and the TL, whereas
cultural untranslatability is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant
situational feature for the SL text

1. What is untranslatability?
“The degree of difficulty of translation depends on their nature, as well as on the
translator's abilities.”
“Untranslatability is a property of a text, or of any utterance, in SL, for which no
equivalent text or utterance can be found in TL”

2. Types of untranslatability.

14


15


16


UNIT 2- TRANSLATION METHODS
1. Word-for-word translation
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately
below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated
singly by their most common out of context.
2. Literal translation
Hb The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL
equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a
pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.
3. Faithful translation
A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the
original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It ‘transfers’
cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical
‘abnormality’ (deviation from SL norms) in the translation.
4. Semantic translation
Semantic translation differs ‘faithful translation’ only in as far as it must take
more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of
the SL text, compromising on ‘meaning’ where appropriate so that no assonance,
word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less
important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not
by cultural equivalents. The distinction between ‘faithful’ and ‘semantic’

translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is
more flexible, admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the
translator’s intuitive empathy with the original.
5. Adaptation
This is the ‘freest’ form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies) and
poetry: the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture
converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten by an established dramatist or
poet.

17


6. Free translation
Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without
the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original,
a so-called ‘intralingual translation’.
7. Idiomatic translation
Idiomatic translation reproduces the ‘message’ of the original but tends to distort
nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not
exist in the original
8. Communicative translation
Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of
the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable
and comprehensible to the readership.
COMMUNICATIVE AND SEMANTIC TRANSLATION

SOURCE LANGUAGE BIAS

TARGET LANGUAGE
BIAS

LITERAL

FREE

FAITHFUL

IDIOMATIC

SEMANTIC / COMMUNICATIVE
Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as
close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic
translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of
the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.
Communicative and semantic translation may well coincide - in particular,
where the text conveys a general rather than a culturally (temporally and spatially)
bound message and where the matter is as important as the manner notably then in

18


the translation of the most important religions, philosophical, artistic and scientific
texts, assuming second readers as informed and interested as the first. Further, there
are often sections in one text that must be translated communicatively and others
semantically (e. g. a quotation from speech). There is no one communicative not one
semantic method of translating a text - these are in fact widely overlapping bands of
methods. A translation can be more, or less, semantic - more, or less,
communicative - even a particular section or sentence can be treated more
communicatively or less semantically.
Since the overriding factor in deciding how to translate is the intrinsic

importance of every semantic unit in the text, it follows that the vast majority of
texts require communicative rather than semantic translation. Most non - literary
writing, journalism, informative articles and books, textbooks, reports, scientific and
technological writing, non - personal correspondence, propaganda, public notices,
standardized writing, popular fiction which have to be translated today but were not
translated and in most cases did not exist a hundred years ago - comprise typical
material suitable for communicative translation. On the other hand, original
expression, where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as
the content, whether it is philosophical, religious political, scientific, technical or
literary, needs to be translated semantically.
From Approaches to Translation by Peter Newmark

19


UNIT 3. THE TRANSLATION OF METAPHORS AND SIMILES
In discussing the translation of stock metaphors The seven main procedures
for translating metaphor are listed. Obviously, many stock metaphors are cliches,
but I am now assuming that the translator is attempting to render them as accurately
as possible, not to pare them down. “She wears the trousers and he plays second
fiddle” may be absurd, but both metaphors still seem to do a good job. Further, in
each case I distinguish between one - word and complex metaphors. Stock
metaphors may have cultural (cultural distance or cultural overlap), universal (or at
least widely spread) and subjective aspects.
The following are, I think, the procedures for translating metaphor, in order of
preference:
1. Reproducing the same image in the TL provided the image has comparable
frequency and currency in the appropriate register. This procedure is common
for one - word metaphors: “ray of hope”, rayon d’espoir; whilst in many cases
(for “field”, “province”, “area”, “side”, for instance) the metaphor is hardly

perceptible. Transfer of complex metaphors or idioms is much rarer, and
depends on cultural overlap, e.g. “His life hangs on a thread”, or on a universal
experience, e.g. cast a shadow over.
2. The translator may replace the image in the SL with a standard TL.
Image which does not clash with the TL culture, but which, like most stocks
metaphors, proverbs, etc., are presumably coined by one person and diffused
through popular speech, writing and later media. Obvious examples for oneword metaphors are: “table”, “pillar”...
3. Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image. This is the obvious way
of modifying the shock of a metaphor, particularly if the TL text is not emotive
in character. This procedure can be used to modify any type of word, as well as
original complex metaphors.
4. Translation of metaphor (or simile) by simile plus sense (or occasionally a
metaphor plus sense). While this is always a compromise procedure, it has the
advantage of combining communicative and semantic translation in addressing
itself both to the layman and the expert if there is a risk that the simple transfer
of the metaphor will not be understood by most readers. Paradoxically, only the
informed reader has a chance of experiencing equivalent - effect through a
semantic translation.

20


5. Conversion of metaphor to sense. Depending on the type of text, this procedure
is common, and is to be preferred to any replacement of an SL by a TL image
which is too wide of the sense .
6. Deletion. If the metaphor is redundant , there is a case for its deletion, together
with its sense component provided the SL text is not authoritative on
“expressive” (that is, primarily an expression of the writer’s personality? A
decision of this nature can be made only after the translator has weighed up what
he thinks more important and what less important in the text in relation to its

intention. Such criteria can only be set up specifically for each translation and to
determine a hierarchy of requirements. A deletion of metaphor can be justified
empirically only on the ground that the metaphor’s function is being fulfilled
elsewhere in the text.
7. Same metaphor combined with sense. Occasionally, the translators who
transfers an image may wish to ensure that it will be understood by adding a
gloss .
From Approaches to Translation by Peter Newmark

21


UNIT 4. TRANSLATION OF PASSIVE SENTENCES
1 Definition
Voice, in terms of grammar, is the form of a verb that shows whether the subject
of a sentence performs an action (the active voice) or is affected by it (passive
voice) (Hornby, 2005).
More specifically, passive voice is the voice used to indicate that the
grammatical subject of the verb is the recipient (not the source) of the action
denoted by the verb (Farlex, Inc., 2010).
A passive sentence is one that reflects the above-mentioned feature of passive
voice.

2 Passive voice in English language
Structure
It can be said that passive voice is one of the most popular grammatical
points in English. Thus, there are structures corresponding to the twelve tenses in
English.
Basic structure:
A to be done by B

Be + past participle ( p.p) (+ by + agent)
Passive voice in the twelve tenses:
1. Simple present: am/is/are + p.p (+by + agent)
EX: The door is locked.
2. Present progressive: am/is/are + being + p.p (+by +agent)
EX: The door is being locked.
3. Present perfect: have/has +been + p.p (+by + agent)
EX: The door has been locked.
4. Present perfect progressive: have/has + been + being + p.p (+ by +agent)
EX: The door has been being locked.
5. Simple past: was/were + p.p (+by +agent)
EX: The door was locked.
6. Past progressive: was/were + being + p.p (+by +agent)
EX: The door was being locked.
7. Past perfect: had + been + p.p (+by + agent)
EX: The door had been locked.
8. Past perfect progressive: had +been + being + p.p (+by +agent)
EX: The door had been being locked.
9. Simple future: will + be + p.p (+by + agent)
EX: The door will be locked.
10. Future progressive: will + be + being + p.p (+ by + agent)
22


EX: The door will be being locked.
11. Future perfect: will + have + been + p.p (+ by + agent)
EX: The door will have been locked.
12. Future perfect progressive: will + have + been + being + p.p (+ by + agent)
EX: The door will have been being locked.
In addition to basic structures mentioned above, native English speakers also

manipulate some special passive constructions to convey their ideas in daily life:

Usage
In English, the popularity of passive voice can be explained by its functional
usage, emphasizing the recipient. In other words, passive constructions are mainly
employed so as to underscore the significance of the goal of the actions or the result
of the events mentioned. For instance, the home team was defeated by the away
team in a friendly match last Sunday (passive construction is used in this sentence in
order to put emphasis on the defeat of the home team).
There are, furthermore, other reasons for using passive voice in English:
* In fact, only about 20% of passive sentences mention the agent (Richard &
Guy, 1999, p. 34). In fact in many cases the performer of the action is not important,
not known or it is so obvious, widely known in that it is so popular. For instance,
English is spoken all over the world, in this sentence; it goes without saying that the
agents are the people from around the world. Another instance is he was killed in his
room, the doer of the action kill in this sentence not stated because no one knows
who the killer is.
* The speaker wants to stress the information provided in the sentence.
Moreover, we use passive in order not to start with too long phases as subjects in
sentences so that the naturalness of the sentences are lucidly expressed. Take We
were surprised by the number of people trying to leave the city for the long
weekend. as an example. The naturalness of this sentence is undoubtedly better than
The number of people trying to leave the city for the long weekend surprises us.
* Passive construction is also used to produce a formal style. For instance,
the sentence All the guests are required to show their invitation cards to the
bodyguards.

3. Passive voice in Vietnamese language
Much controversy has still existed as to whether there is passive voice as a
grammatical point in Vietnamese language or not. Up till now Vietnamese linguists have

not come to any agreement upon this issue. As Nguyễn. H. C (2009, September) said:

23


There exist different views on passive sentences in Vietnamese. Some researchers
claim that the Vietnamese language does not have passive voice, so does not have passive
sentences. Other researchers argue that Vietnamese may not have passive voice as a
morphological category, it still have passive sentences as syntactic constructions. (p. 107)
Passive voice in Vietnamese is really an extensive linguistic phenomenon, which is
more than the use of bị and được and several basic structures to convey ideas. Thus, in my
paper, I don’t dig deep into whether passive voice in Vietnamese language is practically
existent or not. I just present some fundamental knowledge of passive voice in Vietnamese,
mainly on the basis of syntactic sides.

Structure
In Vietnamese, passive constructions are mainly marked with two words được and bị .

Basic structure: được/bị + verb ( in its original form)

EX: Hôm qua Peter bị khiển trách. (Yesterday Peter was reprimanded.)
Tôi được tặng một cuốn từ điển. (I was given a dictionary.)
Được and bị, however, have different meanings in terms of semantics – that is – they
are used with different intentions in different situations.
Passive sentences with được give us a positive impression on the situation. Let’s take
‘Tôi được tặng một cuốn từ điển.’ as an example, which means that the dictionary was
quite a wonderful gift I was given. In contrast, bị often poses a negative meaning upon a
passive sentence. It seems that the recipient was forced to do something they disliked or
confronted with unpleasant situations. For instance, ‘Hôm qua Peter bị khiển trách’. It’s
clearly seen that being reprimanded was his unpleasant experience yesterday.

24


However, not all the passive sentences in Vietnamese language are marked with bị and
được. Some cases are also considered as passive sentences with the absence of these two
words. Take these following sentences as examples. ‘Giày của bạn chà bóng quá.’ (Your
shoes are well-polished.), or ‘Cô ta sinh ở đâu?’ (Where were she born?).

Usage
Passive voice in Vietnamese has quite limited scope in daily lives. It is only
employed when the speaker or the writer really wants to place emphasis on the
outcomes or consequences, usually bad ones, of the happenings. For example, Hàng
nghìn gia cầm nhiễm bệnh đã bị tiêu hủy sau đợt bùng phát cúm gia
cầm.(Thousands of infected poultries have been killed after the outbreak of bird
flu.). Clearly enough, the emphasis is put on the bad consequence hàng nghìn gia
cầm nhiễm bệnh. Moreover, passive sentences are also used when the identity of the
agent is unknown to us. In the sentence the dictionary was torn down, no one really
knows who caused this.

25