Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation

Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation

Blood Flow and Blood
Pressure Regulation
Bởi:
OpenStaxCollege
Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure exerted by blood on the walls of a blood vessel that
helps to push blood through the body. Systolic blood pressure measures the amount of
pressure that blood exerts on vessels while the heart is beating. The optimal systolic
blood pressure is 120 mmHg. Diastolic blood pressure measures the pressure in the
vessels between heartbeats. The optimal diastolic blood pressure is 80 mmHg. Many
factors can affect blood pressure, such as hormones, stress, exercise, eating, sitting, and
standing. Blood flow through the body is regulated by the size of blood vessels, by the
action of smooth muscle, by one-way valves, and by the fluid pressure of the blood
itself.

How Blood Flows Through the Body
Blood is pushed through the body by the action of the pumping heart. With each
rhythmic pump, blood is pushed under high pressure and velocity away from the heart,
initially along the main artery, the aorta. In the aorta, the blood travels at 30 cm/sec.
As blood moves into the arteries, arterioles, and ultimately to the capillary beds, the
rate of movement slows dramatically to about 0.026 cm/sec, one-thousand times slower
than the rate of movement in the aorta. While the diameter of each individual arteriole
and capillary is far narrower than the diameter of the aorta, and according to the law
of continuity, fluid should travel faster through a narrower diameter tube, the rate is
actually slower due to the overall diameter of all the combined capillaries being far
greater than the diameter of the individual aorta.
The slow rate of travel through the capillary beds, which reach almost every cell in the
body, assists with gas and nutrient exchange and also promotes the diffusion of fluid
into the interstitial space. After the blood has passed through the capillary beds to the
venules, veins, and finally to the main venae cavae, the rate of flow increases again but

is still much slower than the initial rate in the aorta. Blood primarily moves in the veins
by the rhythmic movement of smooth muscle in the vessel wall and by the action of
the skeletal muscle as the body moves. Because most veins must move blood against
the pull of gravity, blood is prevented from flowing backward in the veins by one-way
1/6


Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation

valves. Because skeletal muscle contraction aids in venous blood flow, it is important to
get up and move frequently after long periods of sitting so that blood will not pool in the
extremities.
Blood flow through the capillary beds is regulated depending on the body’s needs and
is directed by nerve and hormone signals. For example, after a large meal, most of
the blood is diverted to the stomach by vasodilation of vessels of the digestive system
and vasoconstriction of other vessels. During exercise, blood is diverted to the skeletal
muscles through vasodilation while blood to the digestive system would be lessened
through vasoconstriction. The blood entering some capillary beds is controlled by small
muscles, called precapillary sphincters, illustrated in [link]. If the sphincters are open,
the blood will flow into the associated branches of the capillary blood. If all of the
sphincters are closed, then the blood will flow directly from the arteriole to the venule
through the thoroughfare channel (see [link]). These muscles allow the body to precisely
control when capillary beds receive blood flow. At any given moment only about 5-10%
of our capillary beds actually have blood flowing through them.
Art Connection

(a) Precapillary sphincters are rings of smooth muscle that regulate the flow of blood through
capillaries; they help control the location of blood flow to where it is needed. (b) Valves in the
veins prevent blood from moving backward. (credit a: modification of work by NCI)

Varicose veins are veins that become enlarged because the valves no longer close
properly, allowing blood to flow backward. Varicose veins are often most prominent on
the legs. Why do you think this is the case?
Link to Learning

Visit this site to see the circulatory system’s blood flow.
2/6


Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation

Proteins and other large solutes cannot leave the capillaries. The loss of the watery
plasma creates a hyperosmotic solution within the capillaries, especially near the
venules. This causes about 85% of the plasma that leaves the capillaries to eventually
diffuses back into the capillaries near the venules. The remaining 15% of blood plasma
drains out from the interstitial fluid into nearby lymphatic vessels ([link]). The fluid
in the lymph is similar in composition to the interstitial fluid. The lymph fluid passes
through lymph nodes before it returns to the heart via the vena cava. Lymph nodes are
specialized organs that filter the lymph by percolation through a maze of connective
tissue filled with white blood cells. The white blood cells remove infectious agents, such
as bacteria and viruses, to clean the lymph before it returns to the bloodstream. After
it is cleaned, the lymph returns to the heart by the action of smooth muscle pumping,
skeletal muscle action, and one-way valves joining the returning blood near the junction
of the venae cavae entering the right atrium of the heart.

Fluid from the capillaries moves into the interstitial space and lymph capillaries by diffusion
down a pressure gradient and also by osmosis. Out of 7,200 liters of fluid pumped by the
average heart in a day, over 1,500 liters is filtered. (credit: modification of work by NCI, NIH)

Evolution Connection

Vertebrate Diversity in Blood Circulation Blood circulation has evolved differently in
vertebrates and may show variation in different animals for the required amount of
pressure, organ and vessel location, and organ size. Animals with longs necks and those
that live in cold environments have distinct blood pressure adaptations.
Long necked animals, such as giraffes, need to pump blood upward from the heart
against gravity. The blood pressure required from the pumping of the left ventricle
would be equivalent to 250 mm Hg (mm Hg = millimeters of mercury, a unit of
pressure) to reach the height of a giraffe’s head, which is 2.5 meters higher than the
heart. However, if checks and balances were not in place, this blood pressure would
damage the giraffe’s brain, particularly if it was bending down to drink. These checks
and balances include valves and feedback mechanisms that reduce the rate of cardiac
output. Long-necked dinosaurs such as the sauropods had to pump blood even higher,
3/6


Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation

up to ten meters above the heart. This would have required a blood pressure of more
than 600 mm Hg, which could only have been achieved by an enormous heart. Evidence
for such an enormous heart does not exist and mechanisms to reduce the blood pressure
required include the slowing of metabolism as these animals grew larger. It is likely that
they did not routinely feed on tree tops but grazed on the ground.
Living in cold water, whales need to maintain the temperature in their blood. This is
achieved by the veins and arteries being close together so that heat exchange can occur.
This mechanism is called a countercurrent heat exchanger. The blood vessels and the
whole body are also protected by thick layers of blubber to prevent heat loss. In land
animals that live in cold environments, thick fur and hibernation are used to retain heat
and slow metabolism.

Blood Pressure

The pressure of the blood flow in the body is produced by the hydrostatic pressure of
the fluid (blood) against the walls of the blood vessels. Fluid will move from areas
of high to low hydrostatic pressures. In the arteries, the hydrostatic pressure near the
heart is very high and blood flows to the arterioles where the rate of flow is slowed by
the narrow openings of the arterioles. During systole, when new blood is entering the
arteries, the artery walls stretch to accommodate the increase of pressure of the extra
blood; during diastole, the walls return to normal because of their elastic properties. The
blood pressure of the systole phase and the diastole phase, graphed in [link], gives the
two pressure readings for blood pressure. For example, 120/80 indicates a reading of
120 mm Hg during the systole and 80 mm Hg during diastole. Throughout the cardiac
cycle, the blood continues to empty into the arterioles at a relatively even rate. This
resistance to blood flow is called peripheral resistance.

4/6


Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation
Blood pressure is related to the blood velocity in the arteries and arterioles. In the capillaries
and veins, the blood pressure continues to decease but velocity increases.

Blood Pressure Regulation
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by the heart in one minute. It is calculated
by multiplying the number of heart contractions that occur per minute (heart rate) times
the stroke volume (the volume of blood pumped into the aorta per contraction of the
left ventricle). Therefore, cardiac output can be increased by increasing heart rate, as
when exercising. However, cardiac output can also be increased by increasing stroke
volume, such as if the heart contracts with greater strength. Stroke volume can also be
increased by speeding blood circulation through the body so that more blood enters the
heart between contractions. During heavy exertion, the blood vessels relax and increase
in diameter, offsetting the increased heart rate and ensuring adequate oxygenated blood

gets to the muscles. Stress triggers a decrease in the diameter of the blood vessels,
consequently increasing blood pressure. These changes can also be caused by nerve
signals or hormones, and even standing up or lying down can have a great effect on
blood pressure.

Section Summary
Blood primarily moves through the body by the rhythmic movement of smooth muscle
in the vessel wall and by the action of the skeletal muscle as the body moves. Blood is
prevented from flowing backward in the veins by one-way valves. Blood flow through
the capillary beds is controlled by precapillary sphincters to increase and decrease flow
depending on the body’s needs and is directed by nerve and hormone signals. Lymph
vessels take fluid that has leaked out of the blood to the lymph nodes where it is cleaned
before returning to the heart. During systole, blood enters the arteries, and the artery
walls stretch to accommodate the extra blood. During diastole, the artery walls return
to normal. The blood pressure of the systole phase and the diastole phase gives the two
pressure readings for blood pressure.

Art Connections
[link] Varicose veins are veins that become enlarged because the valves no longer close
properly, allowing blood to flow backward. Varicose veins are often most prominent on
the legs. Why do you think this is the case?
[link] Blood in the legs is farthest away from the heart and has to flow up to reach it.

Review Questions
High blood pressure would be a result of ________.
5/6


Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation

1.
2.
3.
4.

a high cardiac output and high peripheral resistance
a high cardiac output and low peripheral resistance
a low cardiac output and high peripheral resistance
a low cardiac output and low peripheral resistance

A

Free Response
How does blood pressure change during heavy exercise?
The heart rate increases, which increases the hydrostatic pressure against the artery
walls. At the same time, the arterioles dilate in response to the increased exercise, which
reduces peripheral resistance.

6/6