DSpace at VNU: Settling the past, building a better future: reconciliation in history teaching in Germany and France

VNU Journal of Science, Social Sciences and Hum anities 23, No. 5E (2007) 31-38

Settling the past, building a better future: reconciliation in
history teaching in Germany and France
Pham Hong Tung*
Vietnam National University, Hanoi
R eceiv ed 7 N o v em b er 2007

A b stract. In th is article th e a u th o r p ro v id es an o v erv iew of th e reconciliation in teach in g national
h isto ry b etw e en G e rm a n y an d France. T he process w as started w ell before the Second W orld W ar.
H ow ever, it b ecam e fru itfu l only after th e en d of the C old W ar th a n k s to th e in itiativ es of the
French an d G e rm an Y outh P arliam en t. T he a u th o r h ig h tlig h ts th e role of bo th F rench a n d G erm an
ed u c ato rs a n d h isto ria n s as w ell as th e su p p o rt of G e rm an a n d F rench G o v ern m en ts, p articu larly
th e G erm an P rim e M inister G e rh a rd Schoeder an d the F rench P resid en t Jacque C hirac.
N ev ertheless, th e a u th o r also po in tes o u t th e G erm an an d F rench h isto rian s a n d ed u c ato rs try to
settle th e d is p u tin g issues co ncerning their o w n national histories, b u t fully forget th e reconciliation
in teach in g E u ro p e an h isto ry an d colonial p ast of the form er colonial em pires.

than one people or concerning the past OÍ
m any g ro u p s or parties. So far there have
been m any kinds of conflicts concerning the
different w ays of teaching and interpreting of
history aro u n d the w orld. The new est one
w as the "history textbook conflicts" betw een
Japan and Korea. But that w as surely not the
first and the last ones. The "history textbook
conflicts" is not only the problem of the Eastand Southeast A sian countries. It is also not
only the problem s betw een the form er
"m otherlands" and form er colonies. In fact it
has been a problem am ong m any countries
aro u n d the w orld. Hence, each conflict has its

ow n n atu re and characteristics, consequence
an d solutions.
G erm any and France are the tw o biggest
and m ost im p o rtan t countries in central
Europe. D ue to the strategic im p o rtan t role of
the tw o countries, there w ere m any conflicts,

There is no d o u b t th at the teaching of
w orld history and n ational history plays a
very im portant role in the b u ild in g of the
im agination of y o u n g er generations about the
w orld and about their ow n nation. The w ays
in w hich they conceive an d u n d erstan d the
past will certainly im pact the w ays in w hich
they un d erstan d the p resen t an d expect of
and im agine about their future. The historical
consciousness is therefore an im p o rtan t part
of the national consciousness.
H ow ever, history is teaching in different
countries in very different w ays. A nd these
differences alw ays d ev elo p into conflicts,
w hen the history of the sam e historical events
or historical processes th a t involved the
participation of m ore th an one country, m ore
’ C o rre sp o n d in g a u th o r. Tel.: 84-4-8587590.
E-mail: tu n g p h @ v n u .ed u .v m n

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Pham Hong Tung / V N U Journal of Science, Social Sciences and Humanities 23, No. 5E (2007) 31-38

even bloody w ars betw een the tw o peoples in
the history. Therefore, w orld
history,
European history and national histories had
been teaching in very different w ays in the
tw o countries. In its turn, the difference in
history teaching had also becom e a source of
hostilities betw een the tw o people for a long
tim e in the past. H ow ever, m any generations
of French and G erm an historians and
educators have been aw are of these and tried
their best to find o u t the w ays for
reconciliation in teaching history in the tw o
countries, so that to contribute to the
reconciliation betw een the tw o peoples.
Finally, a com m on history textbook w as
published in 2006 for using in both countries.
This textbook is on the one han d a result of a
long lasted reconciliation process. O n the
other hand it m ay be considered as a good
exam ple for reconciliation in history teaching
in other countries and region. That is the
reason for this study.
Like in any other social science, the
existence of m any different m ethods,
approaches, interpretations, explanations,

presentations, theories, ideas and opinions
am ong historians is a quite norm al and
healthy fact. To ask the historians in different
countries, of different tim es and of different
cultures to think, w rite and speak sim ilarly is
really to require an im possible thing. This is
the idea of the fam ous Polish historian Johann
M artin C hladenius(1). But this does not m ean
that it is absolutely im possible to find o ut the
right w ays to reconcile conflicts, to reduce the

(1)
In
his
famous
work
"Allgemeine
Geschichtswissenschaft", Schladenius wrote in 1752: "It is a
big mistake of the ones, who required, that the historians
should express their attitude like a man without religion,
fatherland, family. Those people do not know, that they are
requiring the impossible things" [1, p.15-16].

differences and to overcom e the gaps amorig
historians. Certainly, th at is nevertheless no
sim ple task.
E uropean historians, governm ent and
various social and cultural organizations as
w ell as educators have been aw are of this task
quite early. A ccording to Prof. Phillipe

A lexandre, the first initiatives in revising and
reconciling the difference in teaching of
history in schools in E uropean countries w ere
started already in 1849 by the Peace Congress
in Frankfurt, G erm any. The Congress called
u p o n its m em bers in different European
countries for com m on efforts to erase
prejudices and hostilities by education of the
y oung generation, particularly by history
teaching, so that prevent the outbreak of w ars
in the future. A lthough this initiative was
unsuccessfully, b u t for the first Lime, it
launched out the question of reconciliation in
education in E urope [2, p.2].
In 1900 the Peace M ovem ent held a W orld
Peace C onference in Pest (Bulgaria) w hich
issued a fam ous call for revision and
reconciliation in history teaching in European
countries. The Conference considered this as
one of m ost im p o rtan t w ays to keep the peace
in Europe. Thus, it event m ade a step further
by giving four "suggestions" w hich can be
considered as m ain principles for revision
and reconciliation of history teaching [2, p.34]. H ow ever, before the First W orld W ar the
initiatives and engagem ents for reconciliation
of history teaching w ere m ainly approached
as a p a rt of the peace m ovem ent. The
participation of E uropean educators and
historians in these efforts w as still really w eak
and no governm ent seem ed to be really

engaged w ith the m ovem ent.
A fter
the
First
W orld
W ar
the
reconciliation effort w as restarted - this tim e


Pham Hong Tung / V N U Journal of Science, Social Sciences and Humanities 23, No. 5E (2007) 31-38

by the League of N ations and therefore w ith
the participation of m any E uropean states. It
w as in this tim e th at the revision of history
textbooks becam e the focal p oint of all
reconciliation discussions. An international
conference w as o rg an ized in 1924 in Lyon
(France) by the L eague of N ation, in o rder to
discuss about the w ays to set up regulations
for revision of history textbooks and to
im prove the history teaching in European
countries. After that, there w ere som e m ore
conferences and initiatives trying to solve the
conflicting
ideas,
p resentations
and
interpretations in history textbooks using in
different E uropean countries.

The French an d G erm an historians and
educato rs played in these efforts the m ost
im p o rtan t role, because am ong all European
countries there existed betw een France and
G erm any large g ap s in teaching history.
D espite of all efforts of the League of N ations
and

of

m any

h is to ria n s

fro m

d iffe re n t

countries the reconciliation w as finally ended
w ith o u t any success. The G erm an delegates
argued
th at
the
G erm an
federation
g overnm ent has no control p ow er over the
history teaching in different G erm an states,
w hile the French delegates said th at the
French G overnm ent w an ted to g u aran tee the
teacher w ith th eir right of free choices for

textbooks. A dditionally, G erm an professors
and
p oliticians
p o in te d
o u t th a t the
regulations for revisions of history textbooks
laid dow n by the Lyon Conference w ere
u n ju st and conflicting w ith the G erm an
constitution. In fact, all this originated from
the Versailles A g reem en t of 1919, in w hich
only G erm any, as a defeated country, was
accused for the o u tb reak of the First W orld
W ar and w as p u n ish e d for that. T hat was
exactly w h at the G erm an educators and

33

historian considered as historical distortion
by the League of N ations and could not
accept in their teaching.
P e r h a p s t h e o n l y p o s i t i v e o u t c o m e OỶ all

reconciliation efforts in Europe before the
Second W orld W ar w as the beginning of the
cooperation betw een French and Germ an
educators
and
historian.
A lready
in

D ecem ber 1925 the SNI (Syndicat National des
Institutrices et lnstituteurs de France et des
Colonies) organized a m eeting betw een French
and G erm an educators in Paris to discuss
about the reconciling issues in history
teaching in the tw o countries. Some
principles w ere suggested
for further
reconciliation[2,p.9-10].
In
1928
French
historians and G erm an historians m et
together again in Oslo (N orw ay) by the Sixth
International Conference of the Historians.
A lthough they did not go in concrete
conflicting issues concerning the First W orld
W ar, b u t they discussed about the w ays of
reconciling in history teaching, in order to
elim inate the hostilities betw een the tw o
countries in history teaching [3,p.3]. Seven
years later, in N ovem ber 1935, tw o Germ an
professors, H erre and Reim an, w ent to Paris
to discuss w ith French historians about the
possible w ays to settle the conflicting issues
concerning the history of relations betw een
the tw o countries. At the end, they p u t
forw ards '*40 advises" that w ere to send to all
history teachers and authors of history
textbooks in the tw o countries to help them

by reconciling of conflicting issues. But their
"advises" w ere delivered w idely only in
France. In G erm any, the situation became
m ore and m ore extrem ely difficult for any
reconciling effort, because the H itler regim e
w as calling for a "total w ar" to extend the
"Lebensraum" (Living Room) of the arias[3,p.l0].


34

Pham Hong Tung / V N U journal of Science, Social Sciences and Humanities 23, No. 5E (2007) 3Ĩ-38

After the Second W orld W ar, the
reconciliation efforts w ere restarted in 1950s
in Europe w ith the su p p o rt of UNESCO. Six
conferences of E uropean historians w ere held
in G erm any and other E uropean countries to
discuss about the revision of history
textbooks and reconciliation of history
teaching.
At the central p oint of these conferences
was the reconciliation of history teaching
betw een G erm any and France, the tw o
biggest countries in E uropean continent w ith
so m any unsolved conflicts in the history. In a
conference
in
Freiburg
(in

Breigaus,
Germ any) in 1951 G erm an an d French
historians decided to accept again the "40
advises" of the m eeting in Paris in 1935 as
principles for revision of the history
textbooks and for the presentation of the
history of the relations betw een the two
countries [13,p.l2]. In the follow ing years, 14
other m eetings betw een French and G erm an
historians w ere held, until they decided to
break the conference series in 1967. In 1981,
on the suggestion of the G erm an GeorgEckert Institute, the m eeting series was
restarted and seven conferences of G erm an
and French w ere organized until the end of
the Cold W ar (1989).
In those tw o conference series the G erm an
and French historians had tried their best to
settle
m any
conflicting
issues
and
interpretations in teaching of the history of
Europe, history of the G erm an-French
relation and the geographical changes of the
tw o countries in the history. Of course there
had been certain issues th at they could found
no
possible
w ay

for
reconciliation,
particularly the issues concerning the G erm an
occupation of France and the collaboration of
the Vichy regim e d u rin g the Second W orld

War. But in general, these efforts of the
French and G erm an historians and educators
after the Second W orld W ar w ere really
fruitful. They had discussed very frankly and
thoroughly about the w o rk in g principles, the
organization of French - G erm an history
textbook com m ission, the topics to be
exam ined and revised and then about the
concrete "advises" for settling the conflicting
issues. Step by step they p u t forw ards their
efforts, issued m any valuable "advises" for
history teachers and school textbook authors
in the
tw o countries,
and
therefore
contributed greatly to reconciliation of
history teaching in France and in G erm any.
Surely, u p to now the state relation betw een
France and G erm any has not developed
w ithout conflicts. H ow ever the reconciliation
of the relation betw een the tw o biggest
countries in E urope has been really one of the
key factors for the strengthening of the

E uropean C om m unity.
As a result of this long reconciliation
process, in 2003, on the occasion of the 40th
celebration of the Elysée A greem ent, the
G erm an - French Y outh Parliam ent, w hich
consists of 550 U pper-S econdary pupils,
voted for the idea of publishing a G erm an French com m on history textbook w ith
identical contents for using in schools in the
tw o countries. This w as a very good im petus
for the reconciliation process of the two
countries, concerning history teaching issues.
The suggestion of the French an d G erm an
"young senators" w as strongly su p p o rted by
the governm ents of the tw o countries and
particularly by the French P resident Jacque
Chirac and the G erm an C hancellor G erhard
Schroeder.
Based on such strong su p p o rt of the two
governm ents, a G erm an - French project


Pham Hong Tung / V N U journal o f Science, Social Sciences and Humanities 23, No. 5E (20U7) 31-38

g ro u p w as established in June 2003 to discuss
about the principles and conception of a
com m on history textbook. They also set up an
au th o r g ro u p consisting of 8 historians (four
G erm ans and four French) u n d er the
leadership of tw o Chief-Editors, Prof.
G uillaum e Le Q uintrec and Prof. Peter Geiss,

w hich w as responsible for com piling of the
com m on history textbook*2). In M arch 2005
the G erm an school textbook publishers Ernst
Klett and the French edition publishers
N ath an
announced
officially
their
cooperation in publish in g the G erm an French com m on history textbook. It was also
planned th at this com m on textbooks consists
of three volum es: the first one is entitled
"Europe and the World since 1945" and will be
follow ed by tw o others, "From the Hellenic
Democracy until the Revolution of 1789" and
"From the Changes o f the 19th Century to the
Second World War". W hile the first volum e
will be used for the 12th class of G erm an
schools an d the Terminal (final class) of the
French schools, the second volum e will be
used for the Tenth and Eleventh of G erm an
schools an d the Seconde class of French
schools. The third volum e will then be used
for the 11th and 12th class of G erm an schools
and the Premiere class of French schools.
Three years after the m eeting of the
"Youth P arliam ent" the first volum e of
G erm an - French com m on history textbook
cam e to life on the 10th July 2006 u n d e r the

title: "Histoire/Geschichte. Europa und die Welt

seit 1945". Im m ediately, the textbook was
allow ed to use in French and G erm an schools
in the school year 2006-2007. Until now there
still no survey on the response of the pupils
and history teachers in the tw o countries
tow ards the textbooks, b u t on international
m edia it has been com m ented very
differently. W hile som e G erm an praised it as
"a textbook that goes beyond the borders'' [4],
other au th o r considers it "apparently is not just
Euro-centric, but also teaches a pro-European
sentiment on the expense of the United States", or
even describes it as "anti-American" [5].
D espites
of
different
tem poral
evaluations, the first Franco-G erm an com m on
history textbook is really a great success in
the long reconciling process taken place in
Europe since the second half of the 19th
century. It is also a handsom e result of the
continuous reconciling efforts of French and
G erm an . historians
and
educators,
particularly d u rin g the tim e after the
The com m on textbook is also resulted from
the large su p p o rt given by the French and the
G erm an governm ents, on the other hand it

reflect the reconciling atm osphere, the
globalized w ays of thinking an a liberal
political cultural orientation of the young
generations of the tw o nations.
The Project leaders and the authors of this
history textbook m ade a very clever decision,
as they chose to the period from the end
to the end of the Cold W ar for the first
published volum e. That w as in fact the period
w ith few conflicting issues in the history of
Franco-G erm an relations. T hat m eans, that is
the sim plest period to be reconciled.
C oncerning
the
Franco-G erm an
or
European issues the authors of this com m on
history textbook seem have been doing well

sww.

sww

(2) The authors of the German - French common history
textbook "Histoire/Geschichte Europa und die Welt seit
1945" are: Guillaume Le Quintrec and Peter Geiss (Chief
Editor), and other 4 German co-authors: Ludwig
Bemlochner (Munich), Lars Boesenberg (Ibbenbueren),
Michaela Braun (Bendorf), Claus Gigl (Landshut); 4 other
French co-authors: Daniel Henri (Paris), Enrique Leon

(Paris), Msthicu Lepetit (Buc) and Benedicte Toucheboeuf
(Nanterre).

35


36

Pham Hong Tung / VN U Journal o f Science, Social Sciences and Humanities 23, No. 5E (2007) 31-38

their reconciling job. H ow ever, concerning
the colonial q u estio n they could in fact do
no th in g b etter th an other history textbooks
u sin g in France. Hence, decolonization was
one of m o st im p o rtan t historical processes in
the w o rld histo ry after 1945. Particularly, this
process w as really a significant p art of history
of som e E u ro p ean form er m otherlands, like
France, Britain, the N eth erlan d s an d Portugal.
H ow ever, ihe au th o rs of the Franco-G erm an
com m on h istory textbook do not pay m uch
attentio n to this process. A m ong 17 chapters
of the textbook they reserve only one chapter
(chapter 5 of the Second Part) u n d er the title
"Das Ende der Kolonialreiche" (The End of
Colonial E m pires) for the topic. The chapter is
also relative short: only 13 pages (pp. 82 - 95),
m akes ab o u t 0.36% of the total coverage of
the book (335 pages) [6,p.82-95]. The
decolonization is also dealt w ith in the

chapter
14 "Die politische Entwicklung
Frankreichs von 1945 bis heute" (The Political
D evelo p m en t of France from 1945 to Today),
b u t only as one p o in t of a p a rt of the chapter
u n d e r the su b title "Der Algerienkrieg as
Bedrohung fuer die Vierte Republik” (The
A lgerian W ar as a T hreat to the Fourth
R epublic) [6,p.240].
It is clearly th a t the au th o rs of the FrancoG erm an com m on history textbook do noi.
consider the h isto ry of the decolonization
after the
an d the relations betw een the
form er E u ro p ean "m o th erlan d s" and their
form er colonies in the post- colonial period as
an im p o rta n t topic. T hat also m eans th at in
their p resen tatio n of the history of the
"E u ro p e a n d the W orld", they do no t take the
reconciliation b etw een theses p artn ers as an
im p o rta n t issue in the w o rld order. This is
surely n o t a rig h t w ay to presen t and
in terp ret the W orld history since 1945.

sww

It seem s in the first sight, that the authors
of this new history textbook look at the
history of W estern colonization from the
perspective of reconciliation, because of the
m ost im p o rtan t reason for the birth of such

com m on history textbook like this is
reconciliation, and try to p resen t the history
of
colonization
and
decolonization
objectively. It is also to em phasize here, that
this text w as published in July 2006, directly
after the crisis caused by the French "LO/ n°
2005-158 du 23 fDvrier 2 0 0 5 D ealing w ith the
W estern colonization in general and the
French colonization in particular, the authors
of this textbook avoid giving any open
evaluation. They neither talk about the
" mission civilisatrice", nor ab o u t the colonial
"exploitation" and "su p p ressio n ". That is also
not the central topic of this volum e. D ealing
w ith the history of decolonization, they on
the one hand acknow ledge the in d ep en d en t
will of the colonized peoples in Indochina,
India and Africa and described the successes
and im pacts of the in d ep e n d e n t m ovem ents
as positive transform ations in the m odern
w orld. O n the other hand, they are seem ly
critical tow ards the a ttitu d es of French
governm ents tow ards the colonial question
after the
The au th o rs of the textbooks
acknow ledge the rational policy o f the British
in guaranteed India an d o th er peoples w ith

national in d ependence and b ro u g h t them
together into the British C om m onw ealth. In
the m ean tim e they criticized the French
policy of re-conquering the form er colonies
and su p p ressin g the in d ep e n d e n t m ovem ents
after the
They also p oint out the
negative consequence of the colonial w ars in
Indochina and Africa to the political
developm ent of France. The p u p ils are also
inform ed about the m assacres caused by the

sww.

sww.


Pham Hong Tung / V N U journal o f Science, Social Sciences and Humanities 23, No. 5E (2007) 31-38

French colonial troops in V ietnam and in
A lgeria in 1945 and 1946 and the defeats of
the French arm y in the colonial w ars in
Indochina and Africa. In this respect, the new
G erm an-French com m on history textbook has
really overcom e the shortcom ings of som e
other history textbooks used in France
previously.
H ow ever, the new textbook has still
contained of som e points th at can be
considered as intentional distortions of the

history of decolonization of V ietnam (3). Like
in other French history textbooks the authors
of this
textbook
sim ply
ignore
the
collaboration betw een the French colonial
governm ent in Indochina u n d er General
G overnor Jean D ecoux w ith the Japanese
arm y from Septem ber 1940 to M arch 1945
[6, p.86].
The textbook w rites: "The national
m ovem ents and in d ep e n d en t struggles had
appeared already in the tim e betw een the
W orld Wars; they w ere violently suppressed
by the colonial pow ers, for exam ple in India
and N orth Africa" [6,p.86]. That is true for
India and N orth Africa, b u t w hy do they not
m ention the suppressions of the French
colonial governm ent against the national
m ovem ents in V ietnam before 1945? Are
these suppressions not typical en o u g h or they
ju st w ant to ignore them ?
In the "D ossier" "Vietnam im Brcnnpunkt
der internationalen Beziehungen" (Vietnam in
B urning Point of the International Relations)
of the chapter 5 the intentional historical
distortions of the textbook becom e even m ore
clearly. H ere, the au th o rs describe the

situation of V ietnam aro u n d the end of the

In so far I am not able to check the history of the
decolonization of Africa.

sww

37

and continue to ignore the FrancoJapanese collaboration. Then they com e on to
write: "... and in the last w eeks of the Second
W orld W ar the national m o v em en t th at w as
lead by the C om m unist politician H o Chi
M inh, took the control over the n o rth ern part
of the land"[6,p.94]. That is sim ply not true,
because the Viet M inh took the control over
the w hole Vietnam, except only som e
provinces in the N orth, and the fo u n d atio n of
the in d ep en d en t DRV w as declared on 2nd
Septem ber 1945.
In the next p art of the "D ossier" they
write: "The G eneva A greem ent th at w as
signed in July 1954 fixed ựestlegen) the
partition of the land into tw o p a r ts /' [6,p.94].
Again, that statem ent is totally false. The
Geneva A greem ent did not fixe the p artition
of Vietnam , b u t only set u p a tem poral
m ilitary dem arcation line at the 17th parallel.
The A greem ent also regulated for a general
election to reunify the country in July 1956.

That w as the truth that everyone know s. But
the authors of the textbook ignore th at and
write: "H ow ever, the co m m u n ist N o rth that
w as su p p o rted by the USSR an d C hina
w anted to enforce a reunification on their
ow n favor."[6,p.94].
D istortions and falsifications like these
can be found also in the pages describing on
the developm ent of the countries in Asia and
Africa d u rin g the post-colonial period. The
authors em phasize the m ism anagem ents,
econom ic crisis, social and political crisis and
w ars in these lands, b u t they fail to
acknow ledge that these w ere also p artly the
consequences of the colonial policies th at
France, Britain and other colonial p o w er had
carried out in the colonies previously.
Taking the reconciliation in history
teaching
am ong
E uropean
countries,


38

Pham Hong Tung / VN U Journal o f Science, Social Sciences and Humanities 23, No. 5E (2007) 31-38

p articularly
the

reconciliation
betw een
G erm any and France in the post-w ar period
as an exam ple "case stu d y " can help us to
d raw o u t m any valuable experiences for our
stu d ies here. Firstly, th at is the lesson
concerning the active role of the educators
and histo rian s of concerning countries. If they
cannot find o u t the w ays to talk and to w ork
to g eth er effectively, then the conflicts cannot
be reconciled. C ertainly, the governm ents of
concerning co u n tries play very im portant
role, because the conflicts in history teaching
are often highly politicized and the education
in m an y co u n tries are often u n d er the tight
control of the states. Thus, the outcom e of
reconciling efforts d ep en d s largely on the
a ttitu d e s of the concerning governm ents. The
civil initiatives are also very im p o rtan t to the
reconciliation. As poin ted o u t here, the first
reconciling effort in E urope w as initiated by
the Peace M ovem ent, and the new est one w as
also in itiated by the Franco-G erm an "Youth
P arliam ents".
The first G erm an - French com m on
history textbook can be considered as a
"classic" ex am p le of successful reconciliation
for histo ry teach in g conflicts. Besides m any
positive characteristics, this textbook still
contained a n u m b e r of distortions or

falsifications. A bove all, it reflects clearly a
Eurocentric approach of the G erm an and
French authors. Therefore, the new G erm anFrench com m on history textbook can help to
settle the old conflicts, b u t at the sam e time, it
brings in new conflicts.

References
[1] Chladenius

Johann

Martin,

Allegemeine

Geschichtswissenschaft, B oehlau, L eipzig (1752),
1982.
[2] A lexandre,

P hilippe,

Zur

Vorgeschichte

einer

deutsch-franzoesischen Geschichtsshulbuchrevision,
WWW.france-blog.inf o/p d f/A lex an d re_250906.p d f.

[3] A llain, Der deutsch - franzoesische Dialog ueber die
Geschichteschulbuecher,
w w w .fe sto k y o .co m /tex t_ allain .rtf.
[4] A nne Haeming, />/m o d e rn e s-le b e n /w e rb in ic h /w e rb in ic h ;a rt
413,2212192.
[5] "Failure
of
reconciliation

Education":
frnnco-German
with
Anti-Am ericanism ,

h ttp ://atlan ticrev iew .o rg /arch iv es/3 1 4 -F ailu reof-E ducation-F ranco-G erm an-R econciliatio n w ith -A n ti-A m erican ism .h tm l.
[6] Q uintrec,
G u illau m e
Le,
P eter
Geiss,
Histoire/Geschichte. Europa unci die W elt seit 1945,
E rnst Klett S ch u lb u ch v erlag , S tu ttg a rt - Leipzig,
2006.