DSpace at VNU: Distribution of persistent organic pollutants and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediment samples from Vietnam

291

Journal of Health Science, 53(3) 291–301 (2007)

Distribution of Persistent Organic Pollutants and Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Sediment Samples from Vietnam
Masao Kishida,∗, a Kiyoshi Imamura, a Yasuaki Maeda, b Tran Thi Ngoc Lan, c
Nguyen Thi Phuong Thao, d and Pham Hung Viete
a

Environmental Pollution Control Center, Osaka Prefectural Government, 1–3–62 Nakamichi, Higashinari-ku, Osaka 537–0025,
Japan, b Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, 1–1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599–8531, Japan,
c
College of Natural Science, Vietnam National University of Ho Chi Minh City, 227 Nguyen Van Cu Str., Dist.5, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam, d National Center for Natural Science and Technology, Hoang Quoc Viet Str., Hghia Do, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam, and
e
College of Science, Vietnam National University of Hanoi, T3 Building, 333 Nguyen Trai Str., Thanh Xuan Dist., Hanoi, Vietnam
(Received January 11, 2007; Accepted April 2, 2007; Published online April 6, 2007)

The presence of eight kinds of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as DDT and its metabolites
(DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), drin compounds (Drins), heptachlor,
hexachlorobenzene (HCB), heptachlor-epoxide, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and sixty-four polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds (PAHs) was identified using high resolution gas chromatography/high resolution
mass spectrometry (HRGC/HRMS) to investigate their distribution in surface sediment from Hanoi, Hue, and Ho
Chi Minh in Vietnam. A survey of sediment samples from Osaka was conducted for comparison. The concentrations of ΣDDTs, ΣCHLs, ΣPCBs and ΣPAHs in Vietnam were 0.19–140, N.D.–9.0, 0.11–110, and 30–5500 ng/gdry, respectively. Concentrations of these compounds in urban areas were higher than those in other areas. In
addition, the ΣDDT concentrations in Vietnamese urban areas were higher than those in Osaka. These results suggest that most DDTs would be used as insecticides for the purpose of health services rather than as agricultural
chemicals. PAH pollution in urban areas and suburbs is caused mainly by runoff of petrol, whereas in rural areas,
the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass is the major pollutant source.
Key words —— persistent organic pollutant, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, Vietnam, sediment sample, high
resolution gas chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry

INTRODUCTION

More than 120 countries participated in the
May 2001 Stockholm Convention on persistent
organic pollutants (POPs), adopting the reduction and/or prohibition of their use. The convention identified twelve types of compounds as
POPs, which consist of intentional compounds and
unintentional by-products of industrial processes.
The former are DDT and its metabolites (DDTs),
hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), toxaphene, drin compounds
(Drins), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and mirex; and the latter are polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs)
∗

To whom correspondence should be addressed: Environmental Pollution Control Center, Osaka Prefectural Government, 1–3–62 Nakamichi, Higashinari-ku, Osaka 537–0025,
Japan. Tel.: +81-6-6972-1321; Fax: +81-6-6972-5865; E-mail:


and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs).
The issue of POPs has generated a lot of interest in most countries. POPs released to the environment can be transported through air and water to
regions far from their original sources, such as the
Arctic.1) Moreover, POPs bioaccumulate in fatty tissues of living organisms because of low water solubility and/or high fat solubility.
In Southeast Asia and South Asia, a great deal
of POPs have been used since the 1960s.2, 3) Approximately 24000 tons of DDTs were imported to
Vietnam between 1957 and 1990 to control malaria
vectors and to remove insect pests from grains.4) Although the use of these pesticides has been prohibited since 1993, and the quantity of imported pesticides has been reduced, organochlorine pesticides
still remain in the environment of northern Vietnam.5, 6)
Import of approximately 27000–30000 tons of
oil containing PCBs from socialist countries such


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Vol. 53 (2007)

as the U.S.S.R., China, and Romania,4) and a great
deal of electric products from Australia has contributed to the presence of PCBs.7)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are
considered serious pollutants because of their carcinogenicity. The two main origins of PAH pollution are petroleum runoff and the combustion of
fossil fuel and biomass.8) Concentrations of PAHs
in industrialized cities such as Boston9, 10) and New
York11) were extremely high and are thought to
result from petroleum use. In contrast, in developing countries such as Malaysia, their concentrations were not as high, and their primary origin was
supposed to be the combustion of fossil fuel and
biomass.8)
Since 1986, the economy of Vietnam has been
rapidly expanding due to Doi Moi policy, which introduced a free market economy system to the socialist country. The country has been industrialized,
and the number of motorcycles in the cities has drastically increased. As a result, the consumption of
petrol has increased in cities such as Hanoi and Ho
Chi Minh.
Several POP surveys have been conducted in urban areas3, 6, 12) using gas chromatography/electron
captured detectors (GC/ECD). However, detailed
investigations of their components, such as the congeners and/or isomers of PCBs, have not been conducted.
In the present study, we determined the concentrations of POPs and PAHs in sediment samples using high resolution gas chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry (HRGC/HRMS) to estimate their distribution throughout Vietnam. The
sampling locations were 2 sites in Hanoi, 4 sites in
Hue, 5 sites in Ho Chi Minh, and 1 site in Osaka,
Japan, situated at the mouth of the Yamato River.
POP monitoring has been conducted at the latter
sampling site since 1978, to determine the effectiveness of the Chemical Substances Control Law
in Japan, which has prohibited their production and
use since 1972.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Compounds Examined —— The POPs monitored

were DDTs (o, p′ -, p, p′ -DDT, o, p′ -, p, p′ -DDD,
and o, p′ -, p, p′ -DDE), HCHs (α-, β-, γ-, δ-HCH),
CHLs (trans-, cis-chlordane, trans-, cis-nonachlor,
and oxchlordane), Drins (aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin), heptachlor, heptachlor-epoxide, HCB, and

PCBs.
PAHs are classified into six categories, depending on the number of rings in the molecule;
2-ring: naphthalene, benzo[b]thiophene, 1-,2methylnaphthalene, biphenyl, 2,6-, 2,7-, 1,3-, 1,4-,
2,3-, 1,5-, 1,2-dimethylnaphthalene, and 2,3,5trimethylnaphthalene;
3-ring: acenaphthylene, biphenylene, acenephthene, fluorene, 9,10-dihydroanthracene, 9,10dihydrophenanthrene, dibenzothiophene, phenanthrene, anthracene, 1-,2-phenylnaphthalene, o-, m-,
p-terphenyl, 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 9-methylphenanthrene,
2-,9-methylanthracene, 3,6-dimethylphenanthrene,
and 9,10-dimethylanthracene;
4-ring: 1,2,3,4-tetrahydrofluoranthene, 4Hcyclopenta[def ]phenanthrene (4H-CdefP), pyrene,
fluoranthene, benzo[b]fluorene, 1,1-binaphthyl,
9-phenyanthracene, benz[a]anthrathene (BaA),
triphenylene, chrysene, naphthacene, and 7methylbenz[a]anthracene (7-MeBaA);
5-ring: benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), benzo[ j]
fluoranthene (BjF), benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF),
benzo[e]pyrene (BeP), benzo[a]pyrene (BaP),
perylene, 3-methylcholanthrene, 7-methylbenzo[a]
pyrene (7-MeBaP), 9,10-diphenylanthracene, and
dibenzo[a, h]anthracene;
6-ring: indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (INcdP), benzo
[ghi]perylene (BghiP), anthanthrene, naphtho[2,3a]pyrene, and 3,4,8,9-dibenzopyrene;
7-ring: coronene.
Sampling Methods —— The sample properties
and sampling locations are shown in Table 1. Sediments were collected at three points near the sampling site using an Eckmann dredge sampling apparatus. The sediments were mixed uniformly and
put in a glass vessel for transport to the laboratory.
The sediments were centrifuged by 3000 rpm for

10 min to remove water, and stored in the refrigerator. Some samples were dried under moderate
conditions in the laboratory.
Reagents —— Standard POP materials except for
p, p′ -DDE, CHLs, and PCBs were purchased from
Gasukuro Kogyo Inc. (Tokyo, Japan). A standard
material of p, p′ -DDE was purchased from Wako
Pure Chemical Industries Ltd. (Osaka, Japan). Standard solutions of CHLs were purchased from AccuStandard Inc. (Shelton, CT, U.S.A.). A standard mixture solution of PCBs (BP-WD) was purchased from Wellington Laboratories, Inc. (Ontario,
Canada). A standard mixture solution of 16 PAH
components (TCL Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons Mix) cited in Target Compound List/Priority


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No. 3

Table 1. List of Sediment Samples from Vietnam
Code

Sampling Site

City

HN1
HN2
HU1
HU2
HU3
HU4
HC1
HC2

HC3
HC4
HC5
Y1a)

TrucBach Lake
West Lake
LangCo Lagoon
ThuyTu Langoon
CauHai Lagoon
R. Huong
BenNghe Chanel
R. Saigon
ThiNghe Chanel
R. Saigon
MyHung Chanel
R. Yamato

Hanoi
Hanoi
Hue
Hue
Hue
Hue
Ho Chi Minh
Ho Chi Minh
Ho Chi Minh
Ho Chi Minh
Ho Chi Minh
Osaka

Description
of area
urban
urban
rural
rural
rural
rural
urban
suburb
urban
suburb
suburb
urban

Co-ordinate
North
East
◦
′
′′
21 02 46
101◦ 50′ 21′′
◦
′
′′
21 03 27
105◦ 50′ 15′′
◦

′
′′
16 33 37
107◦ 37′ 15′′
◦
′
′′
16 29 30
107◦ 43′ 20′′
◦
′
′′
16 20 19
107◦ 52′ 28′′
◦
′
′′
16 23 31
107◦ 34′ 35′′
◦
′
′′
10 45 48
106◦ 41′ 54′′
◦
′
′′
10 49 08
106◦ 43′ 55′′
◦

′
′′
10 47 36
106◦ 41′ 46′′
◦
′
′′
10 48 52
106◦ 45′ 07′′
◦
′
′′
10 51 04
106◦ 43′ 44′′
◦
′
′′
34 36 30
135◦ 26′ 06′′

Sampling Date
27/July/2002
27/July/2002
13/January/2002
12/January/2002
10/January/2002
10-12/January/2002
18/July/2002
16/July/2002
16/July/2002

16-18/July/2002
16-18/July/2002
11/October/2002

a) Japan.

Table 2. Operational Conditions for HRGC/HRMS
HRGC
Column
Column temp.
Carrier gas
Injection temp.
Injection mode
HRMS
Ion source
Ion source temp.
Interface temp.
Ionization voltage
SIM mode

POPs

PAHs

HP-5MS (Agilent Technology)
30 m × 0.25 mm I.D., 0.5 µm f.t.
100◦ C (1 min.hold)–30◦ C/min–160◦ C–
5◦ C/min–300◦ C (1 min.hold)
He 1.2 ml/min
260◦ C

splitless (90 sec)

HP-1MS (Agilent Technology)
15 m × 0.25 mm I.D., 0.25 µm f.t.
70◦ C (1 min.hold)–15◦ C/min–130◦ C–
6◦ C/min–300◦ C (2 min.hold)
He 1.2 ml/min
300◦ C
splitless (120 sec)

EI positive
260◦ C
260◦ C
38 eV
high resolution >10000

EI positive
260◦ C
260◦ C
70 eV
low resolution

Pollutant List of US EPA was purchased from
Supelco (Bellefonte, PA, U.S.A.). Standard solutions of methylphenanthlene isomers were purchased from Chiron AS (Trondheim, Norway).
Standard solutions of 2-phenylnaphthalene, 3,6dimethylphenanthrene, 7-MeBaA, BeP, and anthanthrene were purchased from AccuStandard Inc.
All other PAH materials were purchased from Wako
Pure Chemical Industries Ltd., AccuStandard Inc.,
Supelco, Aldrich Chemical Co., Inc. (Milwaukee,
WI, U.S.A.), Tokyo Kasei Kogyo Co., Ltd (Tokyo,
Japan), Ishizu Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd (Osaka,

Japan), Nakarai Chemicals Ltd. (Kyoto, Japan),
ICN Biomedicals Inc. (Aurora, OH, U.S.A.), Acros
Organics (Morris Plains, NJ, U.S.A.), and Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill, MA, U.S.A.). A standard material of fluoranthene-d12 was purchased from Wako

Pure Chemical Industries Ltd. All other reagents
were purchased from Wako Pure Chemical Industries Ltd. All chemicals were residual pesticide analytical grade.
Analysis —— Sample extraction and clean-up followed procedures specified in the manual edited
by the Ministry of the Environment, Japan.13) Tentwenty g of wet and/or dry sediment was extracted
three times with 25 ml acetonitrile using ultrasonic
extraction. The extracts were cleaned up with
the acetonitrile/n-hexane partition. The acetonitrile
layer was put into 500 ml of 5% sodium chloride solution and extracted twice with 50 ml n-hexane. The
concentrate was cleaned up with 5 g of 5% hydrous
silica gel column chromatography. The first fraction, eluted with 20 ml of n-hexane, was treated with
5 g reduced granular copper (60–80 mesh). The sec-


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Vol. 53 (2007)

Fig. 1. Representative SIM Chromatograms of POPs (DDTs and PCBs) at the Sampling Site of HC3
(A) and (B): DDTs, (C): PeCBs.

ond fraction, eluted with 50 ml of 1% acetone/nhexane, was submitted for PAHs analysis. The third
fraction was eluted with 40 ml of 10% acetone/nhexane. 100 ng of fluoranthene-d12 was added to
each fraction and submitted for analysis. One µl
of each concentrate was analyzed by HRGC/HRMS
(HP5890; Agilent, DE, U.S.A. JMS-700D; JEOL,
Japan) and the conditions are shown in Table 2.

Representative chromatograms of selected ion monitoring (SIM) for a sediment sample at a location
HC3 were shown in Fig. 1.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
POPs
Analytical results for DDTs are shown in Table 3. The averages of ΣDDTs for Hanoi, Hue, Ho
Chi Minh, and Osaka were 43, 1.3, 36, and 13 ng/gdry, respectively. The ΣDDT concentrations at sampling sites HN1, HN2, HC1, and HC3, located in
urban areas, range between 29 and 140 ng/g-dry,
while concentrations at the other sites in Vietnam
range between 0.19 and 5.5 ng/g-dry. These data


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No. 3

Table 3. Concentrations of POPs (ng/g-dry weight) in Sediment Samples from Vietnam and Osaka
HU2
0.48
0.51
0.49
0.14
0.12
0.064
1.8

HU3
0.24
0.39
0.21

0.032
0.059
0.017
1.0

0.16
0.17
0.074
0.081
0.48

0.069
0.087
0.12
0.055
0.33

0.069
0.024
0.033
0.023
0.15

0.015
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.015

0.015

N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.015

0.013
0.054
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.068

trans-Chlordane
cis-Chlordane
Oxychlordane
trans-Nonachlor
cis-Nonachlor
ΣCHLsc)

0.54
0.034
0.29 N.D.e)
N.D.e) N.D.e)
0.20 N.D.e)
0.042 N.D.e)
1.1
0.034

0.010
0.013
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.023

0.007
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.007

0.016
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.016

N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)

Aldrin
Dieldrin
Endrin
Σdrinsd)

N.D.e)
0.65
N.D.e)
0.65

0.008
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.008

N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)

0.054
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.054

N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)

Heptachlor
HCB
Heptachlor Epoxide

0.96

0.23
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
0.034
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
0.015
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
0.017
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
0.020
N.D.e)

p, p -DDT
p, p′ -DDD
p, p′ -DDE
o, p′ -DDT
o, p′ -DDD
o, p′ -DDE
ΣDDTsa)
α-HCH
β-HCH
γ-HCH
δ-HCH

ΣHCHsb)

0.21
0.17
0.14
0.077
0.60

HN2
4.9
15
20
1.2
2.4
0.61
44

Sampling locations
HU4
HC1
HC2
0.43
1.3
0.10
0.33
15
2.9
0.34
9.0
2.2

0.091
0.18
0.029
0.074
3.0
0.15
0.026
0.34
0.13
1.3
29
5.5

HU1
0.29
0.19
0.22
0.11
0.094
0.054
1.0

′

HN1
1.9
15
21
1.1
2.8

0.65
42

HC3
14
79
34
1.1
13
1.4
140

HC4
0.54
1.8
1.4
0.087
0.33
0.10
4.3

HC5
0.041
0.023
0.079
0.025
0.010
0.012
0.19

Y1
1.0
5.0
3.7
0.31
2.3
0.40
13

0.009
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.009

0.037
0.11
N.D.e)
0.040
0.19

0.048
0.018
0.056
N.D.e)
0.12

0.017
0.019
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
0.036

0.13
0.38
N.D.e)
0.090
0.61

0.37
0.34
N.D.e)
0.20
0.15
1.1

0.014
0.014
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.028

3.1
2.9
N.D.e)
2.1
0.80
9.0

0.084
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.064
0.036
0.18

N.D.
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)

7.6
7.2
N.D.e)
6.1
2.6
24

N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
5.9
N.D.e)
5.9

0.012
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
0.012

0.095
6.2
N.D.e)
6.3

N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)
N.D.e)

0.054
0.54
0.10
0.70

N.D.e)
0.023
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
8.9
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
0.11
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
16
0.066

N.D.e)
0.14
N.D.e)

N.D.e)
0.014
N.D.e)

0.41
N.D.e)
N.D.e)

a) Sum of concentratios of o, p′ -, p, p′ -DDT, o, p′ -, p, p′ -DDD, and o, p′ -, p, p′ -DDE. b) Sum of concentrations of α-, β-, γ-, δ-HCH. c)
Sum of concentrations of trans-, cis-chlordane, trans-, cis-nonachlor, and oxchlordane. d) Sum of concentrations of aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin.
e) N.D., not detected.

show that the ΣDDT concentrations in urban areas
of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh were higher than those

in Osaka.
In an aqueous environment, p, p′ -DDT decomposes very slowly to p, p′ -DDE and subsequently
to p, p′ -DDD through biological and chemical processes.14) The residence time of p, p′ -DDT could be
estimated using the ratio of p, p′ -DDT to ΣDDTs.
The ratio for technical DDTs was reported to be
0.77.15) Ratios of p, p′ -DDT to ΣDDTs at sampling
sites HU1, HU2, HU3, HU4, and HC5 were 0.22–
0.33, and those at the other locations were 0.02–
0.13. These results indicate that fields in areas HU1,
HU2, HU3, HU4, and HC5 have been sprayed with
DDTs more recently.
Analytical results for HCHs are also shown in
Table 3. The averages of ΣHCHs for Hanoi, Hue,
Ho Chi Minh, and Osaka were 0.54, 0.13, 0.085,
and 0.61 ng/g-dry, respectively. ΣHCH concentrations in the sediment samples were lower than those

of ΣDDTs, despite the fact that HCHs were used in
Vietnam as well as DDTs.16) Nhan et al.6) pointed
out that lower concentrations of ΣHCH, compared
with ΣDDT, are caused by the relatively short environmental half-lives of HCHs in soils (T1/2 of hours
to weeks), lower KOW 3.6–3.8, and higher water
solubilities, which are 3 to 4 orders of magnitude
higher than those of DDTs. In addition, the ΣHCH
and ΣDDT concentrations in the atmospheric environment at Hue were reported to be 12000 and
2400 ng/m3 , respectively.2) These results indicate
that HCHs are more volatile than DDTs, and evaporate readily into the atmosphere.
Previously, the technical HCH mixtures have
been reported17) to contain 55–80% of α-HCH, 5–
14% of β-HCH, and 8–15% of γ-HCH, and the ratio
of α-/γ-HCH was 5.3–6.7. The ratios of α-/γ-HCH

at sampling sites HN1, HN2, HU1, HU2, and HC4
were 0.58–2.2, lower than those of technical HCH.
These results indicate that the HCHs used in Viet-


296

Vol. 53 (2007)

spectively. The concentrations of these compounds
were low when compared with DDTs and CHLs.
Analytical results for PCBs are shown in Table 4. The averages of ΣPCBs in Hanoi, Hue,
Ho Chi Minh, and Osaka were 21, 0.46, 33, and
67 ng/g-dry, respectively. The ΣPCBs concentrations at sampling sites HN1, HN2, HC1, HC3, and
Y1 were 21–110 ng/g-dry and those at the other
sites were 0.11–7.3 ng/g-dry. These data show
that the concentrations of ΣPCBs in urban areas of
Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh were at the same levels as
those in Osaka.
Profiles of PCB congeners at the five sampling
sites NH1, HN2, HC1, HC3, and Y1 and for the
commercial product Kanechlor (KC)21) are shown
in Fig. 2. The pentachloro-biphenyls (PeCBs) were
the highest congeners at sampling sites HN1 and
HN2 and the trichloro-biphenyls (TriCBs) were the
highest ones at sampling sites HC1 and HC3. These
facts indicate that the PCB components in Hanoi
(at sampling sites HN1 and HN2) was mainly contributed from the KC-500 product and Ho Chi Minh
(at sampling sites HC1 and HC3) were from the KC300 product. At the site of Y1, the concentrations of
PCB congeners increased as the number of the chlorine atoms in the PCB molecules decreased. The

dichloro-biphenyls (DiCBs) was the highest congeners. However, DiCBs was not main components of any PCB products. These facts suggest that
the higher chlorinated PCBs would be dechlorinated
gradually to the lower ones under anaerobic conditions22, 23) as shown in the Netherlands24) and in
Rhode Island, U.S.A.25)
As discussed previously, ΣDDTs, ΣCHLs, and
ΣPCBs at sampling sites HN1, HN2, HC1, HC3,
and Y1, located near the center of cities, were much

nam contained higher percentages of γ-HCH, that
is, Linden.18)
Analytical results for CHLs are also shown in
Table 3. The ranges of ΣCHL concentrations in
Hanoi, Hue, Ho Chi Minh, and Osaka were 0.034–
1.1, N.D.–0.023, N.D.–9.0, and 24 ng/g-dry, respectively. The ΣCHL concentrations at urban areas except for a sampling site NH2 were 1.1–24 ng/g-dry
and those at the other sites were N.D.–0.18 ng/g-dry.
These results indicate that the ΣCHL concentrations
in Osaka were higher than those at the urban areas
of Vietnam. No oxychlordane compounds were detected in the sediments.
Iwata et al.3) reported that the technical CHLs
consist of 24±2 wt% of trans-chlordane, 19±3%
of cis-chlordane, 7±3% of trans-nonachlor, and
other compounds, and the ratios of trans-nonachlor
to trans-chlordane ranged between 0.15–0.45, under continuous CHL usage. The ratios of transnonachlor to trans-chlordane at HN1, HC1, HC3,
and Y1 were 0.37, 0.54, 0.68, and 0.80, respectively. The value at HN1 was close to those of technical chlordane. In contrast, the ratios at HC1, HC3,
and Y1 were higher than those of technical CHLs.
In Japan, CHLs remaining in the environment have
resided for more than 30 years, since the production
and use of POPs was prohibited in 1972. Over a
long residence time, the ratio of trans-nonachlor to
trans-chlordane changes due to the preferential depletion of trans-chlordane.3, 19, 20)

Analytical results for Drins, HCB, heptachlor,
and heptachlor-epoxide are also shown in Table 3.
The concentration ranges of aldrin, dieldrin, endrin,
heptachlor, HCB, and heptachlor-epoxide in Hanoi,
Hue, Ho Chi Minh, and Osaka were N.D.–0.96,
N.D.–0.054, N.D.–16, and N.D.–0.70 ng/g-dry, re-

Table 4. Concentrations of PCBs Congeners (ng/g-dry weight) in Sediment Samples from Vietnam and Osaka

MoCBs
DiCBs
TriCBs
TeCBs
PeCBs
HxCBs
HpCBs
OcCBs
NoCBs
DeCBs
ΣPCBsa)

HN1
N.D.b)
0.43
2.2
3.3
9.3
4.8
0.68
0.17

N.D.b)
0.14
21

HN2
N.D.b)
0.33
1.8
3.8
10
4.6
0.61
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
21

HU1
N.D.b)
0.13
0.38
0.18
0.073
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
0.77

HU2
N.D.b)
0.18
0.28
0.13
0.088
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
0.67

HU3
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
0.11
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
0.11

Sampling locations
HU4
HC1
N.D.b) N.D.b)

0.15
2.6
0.12
16
N.D.b)
7.2
N.D.b)
6.8
N.D.b)
7.5
N.D.b)
3.2
N.D.b)
0.79
N.D.b)
0.12
N.D.b)
0.43
0.27
44

a) Sum of concentrations of Mo to DeCBs. b) N.D., not detected.

HC2
N.D.b)
0.21
1.2
1.5
2.0
1.5

0.66
0.21
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
7.3

HC3
0.11
4.2
31
18
19
19
10
2.6
0.36
1.7
110

HC4
0.12
0.34
1.0
0.69
0.80
1.1
0.69
0.22
N.D.b)
N.D.b)

5.0

HC5
N.D.b)
0.088
0.10
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
N.D.b)
0.19

Y1
0.16
31
14
7.9
6.5
4.8
1.4
0.35
N.D.b)
0.073
67


297

No. 3

Fig. 2. Homologue Profiles of PCBs in Sediment Samples from Vietnam and Osaka
Relative concentration was the ratio of each PCBs homologue to the most intense one. (A) HN1, (B) HN2, (C) HC1, (D) HC3, (E) Y1, (F) KC-300,
(G) KC-400, (H) KC-500, (I) KC-600.

higher than those at the other sites. The ΣDDT concentrations in Vietnamese urban areas were higher
than those in Osaka. These facts suggest that they
were mainly used as insecticides for public health
reasons rather than as agricultural chemicals. In
contrast, the ΣCHL concentrations in Osaka were
higher than those in Vietnamese urban areas. The
CHLs have been stored in sediment of Osaka for
more than 30 years because of long environmental
half-lives and the moderate climate of Japan. The

use and production of CHLs have been prohibited
since 1972 by the law in Japan,
PAHs
Analytical results for PAHs are shown in Table 5. The averages of ΣPAHs in Hanoi, Hue,
Ho Chi Minh, and Osaka were 1600, 130, 1900,
and 3200 ng/g-dry, respectively. The concentrations of ΣPAHs at sampling sites HN1, HN2, HC1,
HC3, and Y1, which were located in urban areas,


298

Vol. 53 (2007)

Table 5. Concentrations of PAHs (ng/g-dry weight) in Sediment Samples from Vietman and Osaka
Sampling locations
HU4 HC1
HC2
4.6 170
2.5

HN1
27

HN2
23

HU1
10

HU2
8.3

HU3
6.0

phenanthrene
1-methylphenanthrene
2-methylphenanthrene
3-methylphenanthrene
4-/9-methylphenanthrene
Σ3-ringsb)

24

12
13
11
13
170

21
9.3
10
9.1
11
150

6.5
1.4
2.7
1.6
1.7
29

6.8
1.6
2.3
1.6
1.9
14

2.8
0.6
0.9

0.7
0.9
6

7.3
1.4
1.9
1.5
1.3
13

1,2,3,4-tetrahydrofluoranthene
4H-CdefP
fluoranthene
pyrene
benzo[b]fluorene
1,1-binaphthyl
9-phenyanthracene
BaA
triphenylene/chrysene
naphthacene
7-MeBaA
Σ4-ringsc)

0.5
21
79
200
53
0.8

3.3
96
30
37
2.0
520

0.4
18
69
170
48
0.6
2.4
79
25
9.1
1.6
420

N.D.i)
0.9
6.0
12
1.2
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
3.8
1.8
N.D.i)

N.D.i)
25

N.D.i)
1.0
5.7
13
0.8
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
3.9
1.9
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
26

N.D.i)
0.4
3.1
5.9
0.8
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
2.7
1.2
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
14

N.D.i)

1.0
4.5
7.6
0.6
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
1.7
1.2
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
17

BbF/BjF
BkF
BeP
BaP
3-methylcholanthrene
7-MeBaP
9,10-diphenylanthracene
dibenz[a, h]anthracene
perylene
Σ5-ringsd)
Σ5-ringsd,e)

Σ2-rings

a)

INcdP
BghiP

anthanthrene
naphtho[2,3-a]pyrene
3,4,8,9-dibenzopyrene
Σ6-rings f )

HC3
170

HC4
12

HC5
3.5

Y1
23

53
63
71
56
71
810

13
5.2
6.9
5.9
6.6
110

3.9
0.6
0.9
0.7
0.7
7

48
9.2
17
8.9
10
250

2.9
41
73
190
170
14
37
260
47
80
15
930

0.5
4.8

13
43
16
1.2
3.7
16
7.2
8.4
0.6
120

N.D.i)
0.7
1.9
3.3
0.4
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
0.5
0.4
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
7.2

0.9
17
94
250
3.6
150

5.9
49
50
38
3.8
660

81
62
12
9.4
6.0
3.8 120
17
120
12
80
58
11
8.7
5.0
3.0
86
17
220
10
130
99
18
14

8.4
5.7 170
27
300
22
250
190
10
8.4
8.4
4.5 530
66
940
35
6.6
4.0
0.2 N.D.i) N.D.i) N.D.i)
18
3.7
65
1.1
27
16
1.2
0.9
1.0
0.4
49
9.8 150
12

1.9 N.D.i) N.D.i) N.D.i) N.D.i) N.D.i)
0.3 N.D.i) N.D.i) N.D.i)
8.5
4.9
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
10
1.8
26
0.9
390
280
17
14
14
20
1200
1500
670
1100
980
710
71
56
43
38
2200
1600

2500
1200
590
430
54
42
29
18
1000
100
1800
100

0.7
0.7
1.0
0.6
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
N.D.i)
1.0
4.0
3.0

150
160
240
580
18

55
N.D.i)
19
1800
3000
1200

150
260
56
39
N.D.i)
510

46
49
57
44
63
580

2.0
0.2
23
7.2
73
16
210
57
70

19
6.9
0.7
18
2.1
170
25
46
7.7
47
4.9
11
N.D.i)
670
140

97
31
18
14
7.5 180
160
39
25
19
10
340
30
1.4
1.2

0.9
4.1 120
16
5.1
2.5
2.9
0.8
23
N.D.i) N.D.i) N.D.i) N.D.i) N.D.i) N.D.i)
300
77
46
37
23
660

coronene
Σ-ringsg)

63
63

34
34

17
17

ΣPAHsh)
ΣPAHse,h)

2300
1900

1600
1400

230
210

9.7
9.7
170
160

7.4
7.4
120
100

4.1
4.1
110
93

3.0
3.1
2.8
2.9
4.3

16

63
63
4300
3100

27
510
37
750
37
360
4.2 110
N.D.i) N.D.i)
110
1700
5.3
5.3
1900
400

270
270
6400
5700

19
1.0
300

28
1.2
450
29
1.9
140
0.8 N.D.i)
73
N.D.i) N.D.i) N.D.i)
77
4.1
960
5.0
5.0
1500
420

0.4
0.4
33
32

87
87
5000
3200

a) Sum of 2-ring PAH compound concentrations. b) Sum of 3-ring PAH compound concentrations. c) Sum of 4-ring PAH compound
concentrations. d) Sum of 5-ring PAH compound concentrations. e) Estimated by subtracting the concentration of perylene from ΣPAHs. f ) Sum
of 6-ring PAH compound concentrations. g) Coronene concentration. h) Sum of 2- through 7-ring PAH compound concentrations. i) N.D., not

detected.

were 1700–5700 ng/g-dry, while those at other sites
were 30–420 ng/g-dry. These values were estimated
by subtracting the concentration of perylene from
ΣPAHs since perylene is considered to be naturally
occurring.26) The ΣPAHs concentrations in urban

areas of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh were at the same
levels as in Osaka.
The profiles of 2- to 7-aromatic ring PAHs at
HN1, HN2, HC1, HC3, and Y1 are shown in Fig. 3.
The compositions of the 2- to 7-ring PAHs at the five


299

No. 3

Fig. 3. Profiles of 2- to 7-Aromatic Rings of PAHs in Sediment Samples from Vietnam and Osaka

locations HN1, HN2, HC1, HC3, and Y1 were similar to each other. The percentages of 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-,
6-, and 7-ring PAHs to ΣPAHs at the five locations
listed above were 1–6%, 7–14%, 17–32%, 31–38%,
22–31%, and 2–5%, respectively. Thus, the sedimentary PAHs at these locations mainly consist of
4- to 6-ring PAHs.
The predominant components observed at sampling sites NH1 and HN2 were BaP, BghiP, pyrene,
INcdP, BeP, BaA, BbF/BjF, and BkF and their averages were 220, 210, 190, 120, 120, 87, 72, and
69 ng/g-dry, respectively. At HC1 and HC3, the
predominant components were BaP, BghiP, INcdP,

BeP, methylphenanthrene isomers, BaA, pyrene,
BkF, and BbF/BjF and their means were 740, 550,
350, 240, 240, 220, 200, 150, and 120 ng/g-dry,
respectively. At Y1, the predominant components
were BaP, BghiP, INcdP, pyrene, BeP, BkF, and
BbF/BjF and their concentrations were 580, 450,
300, 250, 240, 160, and 150 ng/g-dry, respectively.
Profiles of predominant PAH components at
HN1, HN2, HC1, HC3, and Y1 are shown in Fig. 4.
The two components, BaP and BghiP among eleven
predominant ones were mainly observed at the five
sampling sites. The PAH components in the regional differences were pyrene and methylphenanthrene isomers. The concentrations of pyrene were
relatively high in Hanoi and Osaka, and those of
methylphenanthrene isomers in Ho Chi Minh.
Zakaria et al.8) reported that the origin of PAHs
could be estimated using the ratio of total concentrations of methylphenanthrene isomers (ΣMPs) to that
of phenanthrene (P). The ratios in petrol were more
than 2.0, whereas those emitted by combustion of

Table 6. ΣMPsa) /Pb) Ratios in Sediment Samples from
Vietnam and Osaka
Sampling locations
HN1
HN2
HU1
HU2
HU3
HU4
HC1
HC2

HC3
HC4
HC5
Y1

ΣMPsa) /Pb)
2.0
1.9
1.1
1.1
1.1
0.8
4.6
4.4
4.9
1.9
0.7
4.6

a) Sum of concentrations of 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 9methylphenanthrene. b) concentration of phenanthrene.

the materials were less than 1.0 because phenanthrene was a predominant compound produced in
the combustion process. The ratios of ΣMPs/P are
shown in Table 6. The ratios at sampling locations
HN1, HN2, HC1, HC2, HC3, HC4, and Y1 were
1.9–4.9. These values show that PAH pollution at
these sites was mainly caused by petrol runoff (petrogenic origin). In contrast, ΣMPs/P at other locations were 0.7–1.1. The PAH pollution at these locations was of pyrogenic origin.
The higher values of ΣPAHs were observed in
urban areas, as in the case of POPs. The PAHs in
the urban areas and suburbs are predominantly of

peterogenic origin, whereas in the rural areas, the
PAHs are of pyrogenic origin, such as the combustion of fossil fuel and biomass.


300

Vol. 53 (2007)

Fig. 4. Profiles of Predominant PAH Components in Sediment Samples from Vietnam and Osaka
Relative concentration was the ratio of each PAH component to the BaP. (A) HN1, (B) HN2, (C) HC1, (D) HC3, (E) Y1. a: phenanthrene, b:
ΣMPs, c: fluoranthene, d: pyrene, e: BaA, f: BbF/BjF, g: BkF, h: BeP, i: BaP, j: INcdP, k: BghiP.

Acknowledgements We heartily express our
thanks to Prof. Jyunko Oda, Kibi Kokusai University, for technical support of GC/MS analysis of
PAHs and also to Dr. Norimichi Takenaka, Osaka
Prefecture University, for useful advice.

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