A STUDY ON “ USING GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

-------------------------------

A STUDY ON “ USING GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
TO TEACH WRITING FOR CLASS 10V”

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1


1. Introduction
1.1. Rationale.
1.2.Purpose of the study.
1.2.1. Hypothesesof the study
1.2.2. Research Questions.
1.2.3. Significance of the Study.
2. Literature review
2.1. Theoretical considerations
2.2. The reality of teaching and learning writing at Son La specialized high
school
3.

Methodology Section.
3.1. Participants and setting
3.2. Data sources and research material
3.3. Data collection procedure:

4.

Research Schedule:

4. 1. Intervention

4.1.1. Pre – intervention.
4.1.2. Intervention.
4.1.3. Post – Intervention.
5. Applications of the study in the Units
6.

Findings.

7.

Closing Remark.

References Appendix

2


1. Introduction
1.1. Rationale
In the process of globalization, English plays an important role in
enhancing economy, politics, culture and international relations between many
countries. Therefore, there is a great demand for teaching and learning English
in the world as well as in Viet Nam. English users today focus more on the
ability to communicate in spoken and written languages. However, according to
Trang and Baldoff (2007), the education quality has not met the society’s
expectation because mostly high-school graduates cannot communicate in
English effectively in both oral and written forms. Under the urgent demand of
improving the qu lity, Vietn m’s English l ngu ge te ching h s recently
undergone a comprehensive reform. Vietnamese Ministry of Education and
Training has issued a new set of textbook for high school students in order to

develop students’ communic tive competence. he new textbook displ ys two
new teaching approaches. They are learner- centered and communicative ppro
ches. owever, reg rding Vietn m’s context, the ch nge will cre te

lot of

difficulties to teachers of English who are too familiar to the old teaching
methods, especially in teaching writing skill, which seems to be the most
difficult work in teaching English.
At Son La high school for gifted students, teaching writing skills is really a
big challenge. One of the major reasons for students' low performance in
writing; however, is the traditional methods adopted to teach this skill. In fact
teaching writing in this part of the word does not go far beyond "the teacher
assigns a topic, the students write and the teacher evaluates and (at his/her best)
provides feedback"(Marshi&Henatabad, 2011. p.79 ) Such an approach to
teaching writing, in the researchers' point of view, is very unproductive and
demotivating. It induces the learners to develop negative attitudes towards
writing. To make teaching writing more fruitful and less boring, more modern
innovative techniques such as graphic organizers are worth considering and
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being utilized in teaching English writing. Another problem is the students’ low
level of English proficiency. That is why they find it difficult to write.
Moreover, lack of motivation also faces the students. They often get bored and
indifferent in the writing lessons. In my opinion, the current problem must be
worked out and appropriate teaching techniques should be made. Up to present,
a few researches have been carried out on the teaching of writing for students in
Son La. As a teacher of English, who is aware of the fact, I wish to contribute
some suggestions for possible improvements in the teaching and learning of

writing skill by the means of graphic organizers.
1.2. Purpose of the study
In response to the problem of student' insufficient writing ability, comes this
research as an attempt to determine whether using graphic organizers helps to
improve Son La high school for gifted

students' writing performance as

measured by scores from a modified writing proficiency rubric developed by
The Georgia Department of Education (2008). This research also intends to see
how the use of such techniques impacts the students' attitudes towards writing.
1.2.1. Hypotheses of the study
Through the use of graphic organizers to teach writing, it is hypothesized
that:
1.2.1.1. Students' writing performance will improve significantly.
This hypothesis is based on the assumption that graphic organizers provide
scaffolding or support for new information, help to focus attention, organize
information, select relevant vocabulary and offer a reminder for previous
information.
1.2.1.2. Students' attitudes towards writing will become more positive.
This hypothesis is based on the assumption that these organizers create
an enjoyable learning atmosphere that enhances meaningful learning. Hence
they serve to improve performance and prevent frustration and boredom.

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1.2.2.Questions of the study
This research is intended to answer two questions that are directly related
to the above hypotheses.

1-

What is the effect of using graphic organizers on students' writing

performance?
2-

How does the use of graphic organizers impact the students'

attitudes towards writing?
1.2.3.Significance of the Study
This research is significant as it attempts to investigate the impact graphic
organizers may have on the writing ability and attitudes towards writing English
of the 10th grade students at Son La specialized high school towards this
significant skill.
This study is also significant because its results would demonstrate the
viability of using such an occidental innovative technique; the graphic
organizers to improve the writing proficiency of a group of the 10 th grade
students as well as their attitudes towards this important skill. If this technique
proves to be useful, then it goes without saying that it will be adopted to teach
this vital skill to attain better writing performance. Better writing performance
secures the academic future of the students and facilitates their educational
progress.
2. Literature review
2.1. Theoretical considerations
2.1.1. Definitions of writing
There are a lot of definitions of writing. According to Byrne (1991),
writing can be defined as the act of forming graphic symbols. When we write,
we use graphic symbol (alphabet, grammar, and structures) to make visual
meaningful utterances. Therefore, on one level, writing can be said to be the act

of making marks on flat surface of some kinds. However, writing is not just

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simply putting words, sentences together. Many researchers tended to focus on
the nature of writing as an entity of linguistic creation. For example, Brannon,
Knight and Neverow- urk ( 982, p. 2) pointed out “ writing is cre tive rt, not as
assembly line operation of locking words together into sentence and bolting
sentences together into paragraphs in accordance with a predefined pl n.”
Other researchers considered writing as a communicative process with
purposeful interaction between the participants. For example, NuNan (1999, p.
100) st ted, “Writing is not solit ry ct, r ther, it is the result of the inter ction
mong people, contexts, nd texts.” Oluw diy ( 990) considered the n ture of
writing s “ process” of “vi -text communic tion” between n ddresser nd n
addressee.
However, writing, in l ngu ge te chers’ opinions, is “ l ngu ge skill which is
difficult to cquire” ( ribble, 996, p. 3). t is “ process th t occurs over a period
of time, particularly if we take into account the sometimes extended periods of
thinking th t precede cre ting n initi l dr ft.” ( Harris, 1993, p. 10).
In short, the definitions of writing are various. However, writing is
characterized with some basic features, i.e. being linguistics, creative,
progressive and interactive. Besides, the word “writing” itself m y imply n ct, a
process, or a skill, which needs practice and study to develop. It requires both
physical and mental powers from the writers.
2.1.2. The importance of writing
NancieAtwel (1998) a leading writing practitioner reflecting on the importance
of writing, referred to it as a way of life. She explains that writing is a means to
acquire and attain language, confirming that it is an important mode of
communication through which life experience and personal views can be

shared.
At another level, Graham and Perin (2007) describe writing as skill that draws
on the use of strategies to accomplish a variety of goals. They affirm that
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writing is a means of extending and reinforcing knowledge. They add that
writing acts as an effective tool for acquiring new information.
2.1.3. Difficulty of teaching writing
Albeit the importance of writing, many scholars and researchers admit that
teaching this skill is a complex and cumbersome process (Calkins, 1994;
Marten, Seagraves, Thacker & Young, 2005). Other researchers confirm that
teaching writing is just as complicated as writing itself(Graham and Perin
(2007). Ching and Chee (2010) admit that teaching writing is demanding and
cumbersome.
As a teacher of writing for a long time, I acknowledge the difficulty and
complexity of teaching English writing. However, it should also be
acknowledged that the traditional methods which are widely adopted to teach
this skill in this part of the world is one of the major causes for the poor level of
the students' writing performance.
2.1.4. Effective writing teaching requirements
Effective writing teaching requires the use of assistive devices to support and
maintain the learning of this skill (Dell, Newton &Pertraff, 2008). It is not
enough for the teachers of writing to be highly qualified, but that their practices
of instruction follow scientific based research.
Strangman&Dalton (2005) outlines the major principles of effective writing
instruction. These involve providing support for recognition through
(presentation), support for strategic learning through (expression) and support
for affective learning through (engagement). Use of mind maps and graphics,
says Strangman, provides the teacher with tools and strategies that help him/her

to adhere to the above principles of effective writing teaching.
Currently, visual organizers are widely incorporated in teaching writing. These
tools areclaimed to provide learners with a concrete structural framework of
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information and help to focus the learners' attention on key ideas and the
conceptual relations between these ideas rather than the apparently isolated facts
(Delrose, 2011).

In fact,

the

use of

graphic organizers enhances

understanding, organizing and meaningful learning, and in this way facilitates
the complex task of learning writing while serving to prevent boredom (Janssen,
Beissner&Yacci, (1993).
Lee (2004) regards graphic organizers as the most effective tools for teaching
and improving writing skills. In fact, dozens of empirical studies were
conducted to verify the efficacy of such organizers, and almost all of these
studies asserted their viability for teaching writing. It is found that these
organizers help the students visualize the abstract ideas, divide the writing tasks
into smaller palatable parts, and monitor their writing progress (Unzueta, 2009).
2.1.5.Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers are defined by Bishop (2013) as visual displays of key
content information designed to guide learners and to enhance their

comprehension. They are sometimes referred to as concept maps, cognitive
maps, or content maps, but they are all used to serve one purpose. They are
meant, says Baxendell (2003) to help students clearly see how ideas are
organized within a text or surrounding a concept. Through the use of
organizers, learners acquire the structure of abstract concepts. A graphic
organizer is a visual graphic display that shows the relation between facts, terms
or ideas within a learning task (Hall &Strangman, 2002). The visual
representation of graphic organizers provides learners with a structural
framework of information to be learned. This helps to direct the learners'
attention to key concepts and conceptual relationships. The use of such
organizers, thus promotes understanding, and enhances organization and long
term retention of information. It stresses meaningful learning which serves to
facilitatelearning and minimize boredom (Janssen, et al, 1993).

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2.1.6. Students' attitudes towards writing
The ability to write clearly, consciously and efficiently is important to achieve
academic success. However, many students have limited writing abilities and
struggle to write compositions that adequately convey their thoughts and ideas
(Unezueta, 2009). Indeed, the writing process can be very cumbersome and
difficult to master. Actually many students are classified as low achievers in this
skill. This situation is quite frustrating and leads many students to develop
negative attitudes towards this essential skill.
Educators can play a major role in helping students overcome this problem. It is
important for teachers to provide students with interesting, authentic and
meaningful writing experiences (Chohan, 2011). When these types of
experiences are provided for the students, they become more engaged and
interested in their learning. According to Chohan (2011), writing is better

learned when students are engaged, helped to organize their thoughts, and
allowed to express their own experiences.
Lancaster (2013) reports that when students have the chance to participate in
writing workshops and used a variety of graphic organizers, writing becomes
meaningful, creative and more enjoyable. Furthermore, when learners are
offered the opportunity to practice writing under stress-free conditions, they
become more comfortable and confident in the writing process.
Marten ,L. Seagraves ,R. Thacker, S. &Young, L. (2005) add that teaching
writing via the use of graphic organizers is meaningful and interesting because it
effectively shows students' growth with respect to their writing abilities.
Lancaster (2013) confirms that the use of graphic organizers in teaching is one
way to create a learning atmosphere where students love writing. Teachers can
prevent writing failure and students' frustration when successful, meaningful
ways of teaching are used.

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2.2. The reality of teaching and learning writing atSon La specialized
high school
2.2.1. The teacher’s and students’ attitudes towards the teaching and
learning of writing
Writing is not highly appreciated by the students and even the teachers do
not take the importance of writing seriously. This is because of the main purpose
of teaching and learning English at Son Laspecializedhigh school. The results of
the final exam and university entrance exam are considered the most importance
of teaching and learning English at school so both the teachers and students
there focus mostly on grammar and reading skill rather than on other skills such
as speaking, listening and writing. This cert inly ffects the students’ writing
competence and prevents the improvement of their writing ability. onsequently,

most of the te chers nd the students think the students’ writing competence is
bad.
2.2.2. Students’ difficulties in learning writing
The 10th form students at Son La Specialized high school are sixteen years
old. Although they have been learning English for four years at lower-secondary
schools, their English knowledge is still limited. Besides, they have no clear
determination on English learning goal. Students have to face many difficulties
that are from two causes: (1) from the students themselves, and (2) from the te
chers’ lectures.
In terms of the first cause, the majority of the students have trouble with
writing because of their low level of English proficiency. Their vocabulary and
sentence structures are poor. Grammar mistakes and spelling are also a common
fear for many of them. Besides, their low background knowledge also makes
them feel stressed when writing. Many of the students said they found it hard to
generate ideas and make an outline because of their low background knowledge.
Their low motivation is also a problem. These students consider the result of the
exams as the most importance of their learning. Therefore, they care much
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about grammar, structures and reading skill. This, obviously, decreases their
interest in writing. Moreover, they consider time limitation as a trouble. Many
of them said they sometimes did not have enough time to complete writing tasks
at class. The main reason for this is because of their low level of English
proficiency and low background knowledge.
In terms of the second cause, the students do not highly asses their te chers’
ssist nce. hey find their te chers’ feedb cks re not comprehensive nd their te
chers’ instructions re not dequ te.
2.2.3. The new “TiengAnh 10” textbook.
he new “ ieng nh 0” is the first of three-level English language set of

textbooks for the Vietnamese upper secondary school. It follows the systematic,
cyclical and theme-based curriculum approved by the Minister of Education and
Training on 23rd November 2012. The aim of this set of textbooks is to develop
students’ communic tive competence in listening, speaking, reading and writing
so that when finishing upper secondary school, students will achieve level three
of the Vietnamese Foreign Language
Competence Framework (equivalent to B1 in the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages).
2.2.3.1. Grade 10 writing objectives
The aim of the course is to equip students with English writing skill for
basic communication. For grade 10 students, the objective is to develop
students’ bilities to provide 0 - 180 word paragraphs or short essay on familiar
topics.
2.2.3.2. Writing lessons
The writing subsection prepares students to cope with the two biggest
problems they usually experience, which are lack of ideas and lack of necessary
language to express ideas. It often begins with a pre-writing activity that
presents the topic and gives students an opportunity to brainstorm ideas related
11


to the given topic. In the following activity, useful phrases are presented and
practiced so that students can use them later. Sometimes, a model text is
presented with one or two tasks for students to study its structure and format
before producing their own text. This approach to writing gives students some
guidance so that they feel more confident and are better prepared for the writing
task.
In order to realize the course objective, the writing section focuses on daily
and popular topics. The required competences and objectives of the writing
lesson in each unit are detailed in the following table:

Units
Required tasks
1. Family Life

Writing about doing household chores

2. Your body and Writing about what to eat and not to eat
you
3. Music
Writing a biography
4. For a Better

Writing an application letter for volunteer work

Community
5. Inventions

Writing about the benefits of an invention

6. Gender Equality

Writing about the disadvantages of working mothers

7. Cultural Diversity Writing about some typical characteristics of Vietnamese
people
8. New ways to learn Writing about the advantages of electronic devices as
learning tools
9. Preserving the
Environment

Writing about environmental problem and give some
practical advice on how to preserve the environment

10. Ecotourism

Writing a travel brochure promoting an ecotour

Table 1: Checklist of writing tasks in TiengAnh 10 textbook

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3. Methodology section
3.1. Participant and Setting
The participants of this study were the students from class 10V with 32
students majoring in literature. They are chosen to be the first students to study
the new textbook designed for those who have been studying English for 10
years from grade 3 to grade 12. To study this textbook, students have to achieve
level two of the Vietnamese Foreign Language Competence Framework
(equivalent to A2 in the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages). However, the number of the students that can meet the requirement
is very small, about 15in the total of 32 students. Consequently, I faced a lot of
challenges when teaching students the new textbook, especially writing skill.
3.2. Data sources and research material
Both quantitative and qualitative methods are employed to carry out the study.
The study used two major instruments for data collection: a writing rubric (see
App. A) and an attitudinal survey (see App. B). The writing rubric based on
The Georgia Department of Education Scale was selected and modified by the
researcher to assess the various traits of students' writing. The second
instrument used in this study was the attitude survey. This survey was intended

to measure the students' attitudes and feelings towards writing and their
perceptions of the writing task. Informal interviews with the colleagues and the
students are also conducted. Besides, reviewing the related documents is also a
method to establish the theoretical background for the study.

13


3.3. Data collection procedure:
The data collection procedure is indicated in the following chart:
32
grade 10 students

The attitude survey

Writing pre-test

The teaching of writing skills (3 lessons-Unit 3, 4 and
5)
1st writing post – test

The teaching of writing skills (3 lessons-Unit 6, 7, 9 )

2ndwrtiting post - test

Compare the results of the pre-test and the two post tests

The attitude survey

DATA ANALYSIS

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4. Research Schedule:
4. 1. Intervention
4.1.1. Pre – intervention
- This began after I had finished teaching Unit 1 and 2 in the new
textbook. This stage lasted for one week during which I met twice with
students. In the first lesson, the students were given some explanation of the
intended experiment and its expected benefits for them. The concept of
graphic organizers was briefly introduced and the students were informed
that they were going to learn more about these techniques and their use to
enhance writing ability.
In the same lesson, the students were given the writing attitude survey.
This was a close -ended survey intended to collect some information about
the students’ perceptions and feelings towards writing before the graphic
organizers' intervention. This survey would be given to the students once
more at the end of the study to see if there were any changes in students'
attitudes towards writing which could be attributed to the graphic organizers'
intervention.
In the second lesson of this phase, the participants were informed that
they were going to do their first writing assignment. Evaluation was carried
out by using the writing rubrics designed for this study.
4.1.2. Intervention
I applied graphic organizers in teaching writing skill for 10V in Unit 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 9 and 10.In the first semester, the students had 2 periodical tests, the
teacher used these test as a way to check the development of the students’
ability on writing skill. After each writing lesson, the teacher took notice of
any development of students by collecting students’ writing and that was

also used for the comparison in collecting date.

15


4.1.3. Post – Intervention
There were two post-writing test, the first one was conducted at the end
of the first term and the second was at the end of the second term.The
scores of the students were averaged and recorded to be compared to
their scores before the intervention or before they received their graphic
organizer's training. Results of this comparison would help to answer the
major question of this study and to reject or verify its main hypothesis.
In the second lesson of this last week of the study, the students were
administered the writing attitudes survey. It was the same survey which
was given to them during the baseline period. The students’responses to
this questionnaire were used to check if the use of graphic organizers
had changed their attitudes towards writing.
5. Applications of the study in the Units. Unit
3: MUSIC
Writing a biography
Early life:

Name of the
Person:

Typical works:

Important
achievements:

16

Conclusion:


Unit 4: FOR A BETTER COMMUNITY Writing an
application letter for volunteer work

Writer’s address
Date
Employer’s title
Company/ Organization
Address
Dear .....................................
Paragraph 1: Mentioning the job you are applying for
and where you found the job.

Paragraph 2: Telling why you are right for the job
mentioning your experiences and responsibilities.

Paragraph 3: Listing your personal qualities and offering
to send references.

Paragraph 4: Saying you are available for an interview
and when you could start work.

I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours......................

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Unit 5: INVENTIONS
Writing about the benefits of an invention
Topic sentence

Benefit 1:

Benefit 2:

further
explanation:

further
explanation:

Benefit 3:

further
explanation:

Unit 6: GENDER EQUALITY
Writing about the disadvantages of working mothers

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Topic sentence:

Supporting idea 1:

Explanation 2:

Explanation 1:

Supporting idea 2:

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

Supporting idea 3:

Explanation 2:

Explanation 1:

Concluding sentence:

Unit 7: CULTURAL DIVERSITY

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Writing about some typical characteristics of Vietnamese people
Introduction:

is
is

characteristics 1:
characteristics 2:

because
because

is

characteristics 3:

because

Conclusion:

Unit 9: PRESERVING THE ENVIRONMENT
Writing about environmental problem and give some practical advice on
how to preserve the environment

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Solution 1:
...................................
...................................
...................................
...........

Solution 4:
...................................
...................................

...................................
...........

Solution 2:
...................................
...................................
...................................
...........

Environmental
problem: (what
and why?)
........................
........................
........................
........................
.................

Solution 3:
...................................
...................................
...................................
...........

5.1. When to use graphic organizers
Graphic organizers enable the students to organize material logically and to see
relationships between and among ideas. Effective use of graphic organizers can
help the students to present his or her ideas in an effective and persuasive
manner, resulting in a focused and coherent text.
Graphic organizers can be used during the pre-writing stage or at any other time

during the writing process. For example, a student who has written a draft
lacking in coherence and purposeful organization could benefit from using a
graphic organizer during conferencing with the teacher or peers. The perspective
gained from graphically visualizing ideas should persuade even the reluctant
user of graphic organizers that some method of organization is necessary for
effective communication.
Teachers can provide printed or electronic templates for all students to use
individually as graphic organizers during the writing process. These templates
21


can be used during a demonstration lesson as well. The teacher-student
conferencing process, including the results of formative assessment, can help
both teacher and student to determine which graphic organizer is best for each
particular student during a specific writing assignment. This
instructionallearning strategy also addresses the various learning styles that each
student prefers. No matter the style or method, graphic organizers serve a
critical role during any writing process.
6. Findings Results of the attitude survey
The attitude survey was administered twice once before and once after the
participants had completed the graphic organizers' intervention. Responses to
the survey questions were compared and summarized in the table below:
1 How do you rate writing in term of
Easy
Difficult Medium
difficulty?
* Before graphic organizer training
4
16
12

* After graphic organizer training
9
11
12
2 How do you feel when it is time for writing? Excited
* Before graphic organizer training
3
* After graphic organizer training
15

Nervous
16
10

Neutral
13
7

3 Do you think writing is fun or boring?
* Before graphic organizer training
* After graphic organizer training
4 Do you often try your best to accomplish
your writing task?
* Before graphic organizer training
* After graphic organizer training

Fun
4
14
Yes

Boring
15
8
No

Not sure
13
10
Sometimes

13
18

12
6

7
8

5 What is the most difficult part of writing for
you?
* Before graphic organizer training
* After graphic organizer training

Planning

Writing

Organizing

10
5

8
20

14
7

Table 2 : Writing attitude survey
The above data which were generated through the attitudinal survey can be used
to verify the second hypothesis of this study which stated that the use of graphic
organizers will positively impact the attitudes of students towards writing. This
22


is clearly shown in the students' responses which changed radically after they
had completed their graphic organizers training and used them as instruments
for writing. For instance, when the participants were asked to rate writing in
term of difficulty, almost half of the participants ranked writing as difficult, but
when asked the same question after the graphic organizers' intervention (28 %)
ranked it as easy. When asked about their feeling when it was time for writing
only (9.4 %) of the participants said they felt excited when it was time for
writing. However, after the intervention more than (47 %) of the participants
said they found writing exciting. Before graphic organizers' training, only (12.5
%) said writing was fun and (43.8 %) said it was boring. This feeling towards
writing had changed dramatically after the graphic organizer intervention and
(47 %) rated writing as fun and only (28 %) said it was boring.
The above data can be used to verify and accept the second hypothesis of the

study that the use of graphic organizers has positively impacted the student's
attitudes towards writing. The same data can be used to answer the second
question of the study "What is the impact of using graphic organizers on
students' attitudes towards writing? Obviously, the use of graphic organizers has
a positive impact on students' attitudes towards writing.
Results of the tests
The scores of the students’ in writing before and after they received their
graphic organizers' training are shown in figure 1 below: It shows the
participants' level of performance in the five traits of writing according to the
rubrics suggested by the Georgia Department of Education.

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Figure 1: A graph for the mean scores for writing with and without graphic
organizer

A- Content, B-organization, C-word choice, D-sentence fluency and
Econvention.
All - the average mean performance of all participants' in the five writing traits.
The above graph reveals that the mean score for writing was increased in all
five traits after the graphic organizers intervention; however, the maximum
increase was observed in organization reaching (75.5%) instead of( 48%) and
word choice reaching (75%) instead of (48.5%). The overall mean score for
writing after the participants had received their graphic organizers' training did
increase significantly to approach (68.88%). It was only (45%) before
intervention. The difference in mean between the writing of students before and
after they received the graphic organizers' training was almost (24%). This
finding clearly indicates that students' writing has shown a higher mean than
their writing before this intervention.

7. Closing Remark.
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From the results of this study, it can be concluded that graphic organizers are
effective instruments to develop the students' writing ability. The use of such
organizers with a group of 32 students at Son La Gifted high school did have a
significant positive impact on students' writing as well as on their attitudes
towards this skill. Students' mean score in writing increased from (45%)
to( 68.88%) with a difference of (25%), and that it is due to the graphic
organizers' intervention. Furthermore, the students' attitudes towards writing
have changed dramatically. The students started to view writing as easy,
exciting and interesting after they had completed their graphic organizers
training.

Reference
1.

Tribble, C.(1996). Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Teaching English Forum 30, (4), 12- 15.
2.

Oluwadiya, A.(1992). Some prewriting techniques for students for
students writers.

Henle Publisher.
3.

Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning.Hongkong:
Heinle&

4.

Harris, J. (1993). Introducing writing. London: Penguin.London:
Longman.

5.

Byrne, D. (1991). Teaching writing skills- Longman handbook for
language teachers. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/ Cook Publishers.

6.

Brannon, L., Knight, M., &Neverow-Turk, V. (1982) Writers Writing.
Heinemann

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