Seaweed in health and disease prevention

Seaweed in Health and
Disease Prevention

Edited by
Joël Fleurence
Ira Levine

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Dedication
To my sons Julien and Simon for the joy and the happiness
that they bring to my life.

—Joël Fleurence
To Dr. Patricia Bonamo for her faith in playing a hunch.
To MILKS for their loving support and to my wife and
best friend Laurie.
—Ira Levine


List of Contributors
E. Ar Gall
University of Brest, Brest, France
J.-M. Bard
University of Nantes, Nantes, France
P. Baweja
University of Delhi, Delhi, India
N. Bourgougnon
UBS, IUEM, Vannes, France
D. Cheney
Northeastern University, Nahant, MA, United States
L. Coiffard
University of Nantes, Nantes, France
C. Couteau
University of Nantes, Nantes, France
A. Couzinet-Mossion
University of Nantes, Nantes, France
C. Dawes
University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
A. Delaney
Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
P. Déléris
University of Nantes, Nantes, France

E. Deslandes
IUEM-UBO, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, Plouzané, France
J. Dumay
University of Nantes, Nantes, France
J. Fleurence
University of Nantes, Nantes, France
K. Frangoudes
Université de Brest, UMR AMURE, Brest, France
S.-A. Ii
Miyazaki Municipal University, Miyazaki, Japan
M. Kendel
Bureau d’Etudes et Conseil, Vannes, France
S. Kraan
Ocean Harvest Technology, Milltown, Ireland

xv


xvi

List of Contributors

S. Kumar
University of Delhi, Delhi, India
I. Levine
University of Southern Maine, Lewiston, ME, United States
M. Morançais
University of Nantes, Nantes, France
H. Nazih
University of Nantes, Nantes, France

D. Sahoo
University of Delhi, Delhi, India
V. Stiger-Pouvreau
IUEM-UBO, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, Plouzané, France
C. Vonthron-Sénécheau
University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
G. Wielgosz-Collin
University of Nantes, Nantes, France


About the Editors
Dr. Ira A. Levine, PhD, is a tenured professor of
natural and applied sciences at the University of
Southern Maine, Chairperson of the USM Lewiston
Auburn College Faculty, and Director of the USM,
LAC Aquatic Research Lab (algal genetic engineering, physiological ecology, and new product development). In addition, Dr. Levine is the President and
Board Chair of the Algae Foundation and President
and Board Chair of Professors Beyond Borders. Dr.
Levine was awarded a 2009–10 US State Department,
Fulbright New Century Scholar and in 2007–08 was a
visiting professor of biology at Duke University. Dr. Levine combines 30 years of applied
and basic research in molecular, physiological ecology, and cultivation of algae, aquatic
farming management, and aquaculture engineering. Dr. Levine’s farming experience
includes open-ocean and pond cultivation in Canada, China, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia,
the Philippines, and the United States (Hawaii, Florida, and Maine). Current efforts
include algal cultivar enhancement for aquaculture and agriculture feed supplementation, human nutraceuticals and cosmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and plant-based biofuels.
Dr. Joel Fleurence, PhD, is a professor of marine
biology and biochemistry at Nantes University. He
is one of two directors of the Research Laboratory
“Sea, Molecules, Health.” He has been a member

of the University National Council since 2007 and
was elected vice-president of the section “Biology
of Organisms” in 2011. He is a senior scientist and
an international expert on seaweed valorization
(100 international publications including patents).
In 1985, he began his research career in the pharmaceutical industry in the French company RousselUclaf. In 1990, he was recruited by the Institute of
Valorisation of Seaweeds (CEVA, Brittany, France)
to lead research into the chemical composition and nutritional properties of macroalgae.
Professor Fleurence has participated in the establishment of the French regulation on marine algae used as sea vegetables. In 1994, he was appointed head of the
laboratory “Proteins and Quality” at Ifremer (Research French Organism for the Sea
Exploitation) and developed research on the nutritional properties of seaweed protein
for use in human or animal food. Since 2002, he has been working as a professor at
the University of Nantes and leads research on the development of seaweed uses as
protein or pigment sources for industry.

xvii


Acknowledgment
The editors thank Mr. O. Barbaroux for the photographs of seaweed factories and
markets.

xix


CHAPTER

Algae: A Way of Life and
Health

1
I. Levine

University of Southern Maine, Lewiston, ME, United States

“Vilor alga” (translated as “more vile or worthless than algae”), wrote Virgil, the
Latin Poet, in 30 BC. Civilization was aware of the role of algae in the human condition long before Virgil. The use of macroalgae dates back to Shen Nung, the father
of husbandry and medicine, approximately 3000 BC (Doty, 1979). Seaweeds were
reported to be utilized in Iceland in 960 BC, the Chinese Book of Poetry (800–600 BC)
praised housewives for cooking with algae, and the Chinese Materia Medica (600 BC)
refers to algae as follows: “Some algae are a delicacy fit for the most honorable guest,
even for the King himself” (Porterfield, 1922; Wood, 1974).
Macroalgae (seaweeds) are a diverse group of predominantly marine, multicellular, photosynthetic, chlorophyll “a”-containing, eukaryotic organisms, lacking
true roots, stems, and leaves with simple reproductive structures and found from
the intertidal zone to 300-m deep. The macroalgae or seaweeds are evolutionarily
diverse and are found in two kingdoms, Plantae and Chromista, and four phyla, Charophyta (Chara), Chlorophyta (green), Rhodophyta (red), and Ochrophyta (brown).
The approximately 10,000 described marine macroalgal species are segregated by
photosynthetic pigment content, carbohydrate food reserve, cell wall components,
and flagella construction and orientation. This eclectic group has evolved over the
last 600–900 million years occupying a variety of ecological niches, ie, attached to
hard substrata, unconsolidated sand and mud, other algae, seagrasses, free floating,
and, on rare occasions, parasitic. There are many additional groups of algae, known
collectively as microalgae, including but not limited to the blue green bacteria (eg,
Spirulina sp.), diatoms, and dinoflagellates, which can form biofilms, colonial formations, and turfs. Occasionally these formations are considered “macroalgae,” but
for the purpose of this text they lie outside of the scope of this book.
Early examples of utilization of seaweeds for medicinal purposes include the
Chinese use of Sargassum for goiter (16th century, Chinese herbal, “Pen Tsae Kan
Mu”), Gelidium for intestinal afflictions, and Laminaria for the dilation of the cervix
in difficult child births (Dawson, 1966). The Japanese’s lack of goiter (one case/million people) is contributed to their large consumption of seaweed and their iodine
concentration. Oriental seaweed iodine concentrations range from 18 to 1600 mg/kg

dry weight (Chapman and Chapman, 1980). Agar, a phycocolloidal extract from
commercial red algae, eg, Gracilaria, has been used since the 17th century as a
Seaweed in Health and Disease Prevention. />Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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CHAPTER 1  Algae: A Way of Life and Health

laxative and is perhaps the world’s first diet fad. In addition, during times of war,
agar was utilized as a wound dressing because of its antiblood-clotting activity allowing wounds to be appropriately disinfected. Subsequently, agar was identified as the
ideal substrate for culturing bacteria, assisting with the foundational research into
the microbial world. Brown algal phycocolloidal extracts, alginate and algin, have
been used in the binding of pills and ointments, cholesterol reduction, as a hemostatic
agent (control of bleeding), and have replaced agar as the primary dental mold gel.
The ancient Greeks utilized red algae as a vermifuge, thought to be the same alga
rediscovered on Corsica in 1775, known as Corsican moss. Finally, a common alga
from both North America and Europe, Chondrus crispus, a red alga, has been used
as a remedy for urinary tract infections, diarrhea, breast infections, and tuberculosis
(Dawson, 1966). Additional traditional algal uses as medicines include: dulse
(Palmaria palmata) extract used to assist in breaking of fevers (18th-century England),
bull kelp steam extract used to fight headaches (Alaska, USA), Durvillaea as a cure
for scabies (New Zealand), and antifungal and antibiotic compounds from the brown,
green and red algae (Chapman and Chapman, 1980).
The inclusion of large amounts of seaweeds in a balanced diet has been connected
to decreased rates of many of the “Western lifestyle” diseases (eg, cancer, cardiovascular diseases). Reduced rates of breast cancer in postmenopausal Japanese women
are thought to be connected to the ingestion of seaweeds in general and the kelps
Kombu and Wakame in particular. Potential mechanisms include: increased fiber

influence on fecal bulk and bowel transit time, alteration of posthepatic metabolism
of sterols, antibiotic and enzymatic influence on enteric bacterial populations, and
increased immune response (Teas, 1983, as reported in Erhart, 2015a). Additional
research efforts include (1) a 95% reduction in cancer rates when fed a hot waterextracted kelp powder and (2) apoptosis of stomach, colon, and leukemia cancer cells
by F- and U-fucoidan-sulfated polysaccharides from kelps (Yamamoto et al., 1986
and Anonymous, 1990–1996, as reported in MCSV Cancer Prevention and Treatment bulletin). Miller (2008 as reported in Erhart, 2015b) reported an increase in
fibrocystic breast disease in American women rose from 3% to 90% in the 1920s
and 2000s, respectively. In addition, he infers that 15% of American women experience iodine deficiencies and the same percentage of American women develop breast
cancer; however, Japanese women experience the lowest cancer rates by including
200 times as much iodine per day as their American counterparts (45,000 μg/day
and 240 μg/day, respectively). Dr. Miller hypothesizes that both fibrocystic disease
and breast cancer are iodine deficiency disorders. Kelps provide some of the highest
amounts of bioavailable iodine, up to 18,000 times as much as fresh vegetables.
As a young man coming from New York City, seaweeds were considered to be
just a smelly mess found on the beach but after 10 years of studying algae in Hawaii,
the author has embraced his Hawaiian roots and uses the term “limu,” which according to Pukui and Elbert (1977) as reported by Abbott (1984) is: “a general name for
all kinds of plants living under water, both fresh and salt, also algae growing in any
damp place in the air, as on the ground, rocks, and on other plants; also mosses, liverworts and lichens…” However, for most Hawaiians, limu means edible seaweeds


  Algae: A Way of Life and Health

(Abbott, 1984). Along with fish and poi, limu constituted the troika of the Hawaiian
balanced diet, providing vitamins A, B, C, minerals (iodine), and protein. Historical Hawaiian limu usage included the treatment of coral cuts, representing a nearly
instant infection, which were historically treated with Sargassum, similar to the
traditional use of mosses as a poultice. In addition, seaweeds were used in religious
ceremonies (burial cleansing rituals), cultural celebrations (weddings and hula
dancing), and family celebrations.
“Is Seaweed the New Lobster?” was a headline from the March 2015 edition
of Down East: The Magazine of Maine; quite a transformation from the “the stuff

washed up on the beach, which tends to be rotting and full of flies” (Sneddon, 2015).
Maine, a maritime-based state in the northeastern corner of the United States, has
a long history of seaweed utilization dating back to its colonial period and beyond,
when marine macroalgae were referred to as “sea manure” (Sneddon, 2015). As
algae in general and seaweeds in particular have played an ever-increasing role in
the human diet, health, and well-being, its utilization and product development have
rapidly expanded our appreciation for its diversity of uses. As with lobsters, which
were plentiful and served up as food for the state’s prisoner population, seaweeds
have been experiencing a frameshift from the smelly stuff on the beach to a source
of valued balanced nutrition.
Shep Erhart, the founder of Maine Coast Sea Vegetables, is a pioneer of seaweed
utilization in the United States and has dedicated his life to the development and
marketing of seaweed products throughout America and beyond. In the 1970s he
realized the potential for seaweeds as a complete source of colloidal, chelated minerals, trace elements, and vitamins to replace the loss of these nutrients from processed
food products. “Some people who are mineral deficient get around it and they go
crazy…It can kind of buzz you out because it is so energizing” (Shep Erhart, quoted
from Sneddon, 2015).
“The Road from Science Geek to Being Cool, Algal Physiological Ecology: a
Global Economic Development Engine” is the title of a seminar given by the author
at Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont, USA, in March 2010. How does one
become “cool” being a phycologist (someone who studies algae)? Kaitlynn Levine, a
Middlebury College molecular biology major, coined the phrase after algae and algalbased biofuels became a research and development priority in the United States during
the 21st century. If studying algae, previous to renewed interests, was held in such
disregard or benign neglect, then why would anyone dedicate his or her life to algae?
Phycology has a long history of remarkable, dedicated scientists and lay practitioners
who have advanced our algal-based knowledge through their tireless field and laboratory efforts. Massive algal collections were assembled and herbarium libraries established at universities (eg, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts) and museums
(eg, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii). Meticulous anatomical, reproductive, and
systematic treatises were published expanding our body of knowledge. Biotechnological methodologies were incorporated into current molecular, genomic, ultrastructural,
physiological ecology, and biochemical studies advancing our understanding of the
biology, ecology, systematics, and commercial value of algae. Algae represent a field

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CHAPTER 1  Algae: A Way of Life and Health

of study that is far from the mainstream. Phycologists have enjoyed their life’s work
in relative obscurity until recent interests in seaweed farming, seaweeds as a healthy
food, feed, medicine, and biofuel. Algae have enjoyed the focus and funding to move
seaweed and its place in human health and disease prevention to the forefront of the
human condition. The editors of this book have assembled a group of experts dedicated
to the advancement of algae, who will endeavor to bring seaweeds and their role in
health and disease prevention to a diverse group of readers.
The Biology of Algae by R.A. Lewin, 1971. Phycol. Newsletter 7:1.
The biology of algae is a duty, or a task,
That consumes the better portion of your time
In the sampling of waters from an ocean, or a flask,
Or a snow-field, or a gutter-full of slime.
You get cold, and wet, and grubby; you get dusty, hot, and dry;
You get dian dejected, and defied;
But you’ll find that, if you’re lucky—if you’re good—and if you try,
You can do a little science on the side.
The biology of algae is a pastime, or an art,
That embodies a diversity of skill:
How to mend a pH meter which has somehow come apart,
Or to regulate a microscope or still;
How to edit a proposal, or a chapter of a book;
How to float upon the academic tide;

How to teach a fellow creature how to speak, or how to cook,
And a little bit of science on the side.
The biology of algae is a virtue, or a vice,
That entails some tricky searching of the soul.
It involves the growth of fishes, and the harvesting of rice,
And pollution, and the origins of coal.
It may get us into trouble; it may get us into space;
Its dilemmas are as long as they are wide.
It involves some moral judgements on the future of our race—
And a little bit of science on the side.

REFERENCES
Abbott, I.A., 1984. Limu, an Ethnobotanical Study of Some Hawaiian Seaweeds. Pacific
Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, p. 35.
Anonymous, 1990–1996. Research Project: Glycobiology Research Aimed at the Development
of Useful Carbohydrates. Research Institute for Glycotechnology Advancement, Aomoriken. Japan.
Chapman, V.J., Chapman, D.J., 1980. Seaweeds and Their Uses. Chapman and Hall, London,
p. 334.


  References

Dawson, E.Y., 1966. Marine Botany, an Introduction. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York,
p. 371.
Doty, M.S., 1979. Status of marine agronomy with special reference to the tropics. Proc. Intl.
Seaweed Symp. 9, 35–58.
Erhart, S., 2015a. Sea Vegetables for Cancer Prevention and Treatment. Maine Coast Sea
Vegetables. />Erhart, S., 2015b. Sea Vegetables for Iodine Sufficiency. .
Lewin, R.A., 1981. The Biology of Algae and Other Verses. University Press of America,
Washington, D.C, p. 103. Originally published 1971. The Biology of Algae. Phycol.

Newsletter 7:1.
Miller, D.W., 2008. Extrathyroidal benefits of iodine. J. Am. Physicians Surgeons 11 (4),
106–110.
Porterfield, W.M., 1922. References to the algae in Chinese classics. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club
49, 297–300.
Pukui, M.K., Elbert, S.H., 1977. Hawaiian Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
402 + 188 pp.
Sneddon, R., 2015. Kelp: It’s what’s for dinner. Down East Magazine 61 (8), 60–72.
Teas, J., 1983. The dietary intake of Laminaria, a brown seaweed, and breast cancer prevention.
Nutr. Cancer 4 (3).
Wood, C.G., 1974. Seaweed extracts: a unique ocean resource. J. Chem. Ed. 51 (7), 449–452.
Yamamoto, I., Maruyama, H., Takahashi, M., Komiyama, K., 1986. The effects of dietary
or intraperitoneally injected seaweed preparations on the growth of sarcoma-180 cells
subcutaneously implanted into mice. Cancer Lett. 30 (2), 125–131.

5


CHAPTER

Society and Seaweed:
Understanding the Past
and Present

2
A. Delaney

Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

K. Frangoudes

Université de Brest, UMR AMURE, Brest, France

S.-A. Ii
Miyazaki Municipal University, Miyazaki, Japan

INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a general overview of the human dimensions of seaweeds, their
uses, management, and harvesting techniques, touching upon not only the history of
seaweeds, but also their future.
For centuries, coastal populations have harvested a wide variety of seaweeds
within all the algal groups: red (Rhodophyta), brown (Phaeophyceae), and green
(Chlorophyta). They were most often first used for domestic purposes, such as
for human consumption; later, industrial uses were discovered. In many areas the
increased demand for seaweed pushed harvesters to search for more effective harvesting techniques and to establish rules to manage their activities (eg, France, Japan,
and Korea). Since seaweeds are a natural resource they require careful management
to sustainably and efficiently harvest. In some cases, harvesting and the management of seaweed may be the responsibility of the processing industry or local fishers’
organizations. These organizations, with the help of scientists, attempt to manage the
resource and the ecosystem richness associated with it in sustainable ways.
Seaweeds can be a lucrative business, driven by economic rather than environmental considerations. This often meant that harvesters jumped on a “mechanical
treadmill,” forever working to improve the technology available for increased harvests (eg, Japan) and profits. Though seaweed harvesting is often highly mechanized, some species are still harvested manually because of ecological limitations or
cultural preferences, giving them greater value. Historically, there was also often a
gender component involved with women being the primary harvesters of seaweeds
(eg, in Wales (O’Conner, 2013), France (Frangoudes, 2011), Japan (Delaney, 2011),
and Korea (Ii, 2012)) and though this has changed in many parts of the world, in
others, women remain key to seaweed harvesting. Current harvesting methods, technologies, and cultural preferences have a strong connection with both historical uses
Seaweed in Health and Disease Prevention. />Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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CHAPTER 2  Society and Seaweed

and culture and society themselves. The wide variety of uses put to seaweeds today
stands as testament to the ingenuity of humankind.

USES OF SEAWEED: PAST AND PRESENT
The most traditional uses of seaweed include both nonconsumptive and consumptive
forms: as medicine, as inputs into industrial processes, as fertilizer and animal feed,
and for other domestic purposes such as for building materials. Human consumptive
uses include raw products, such as in salads, soups, and main dishes, including sushi,
as well as in processed form such as flavorings in chips and snacks.

NONCONSUMPTIVE HUMAN USES
One of the most common and widespread nonconsumptive use of seaweeds was as
inputs for industry, including glass and soap production.

Production of Glass and Soap
The first recorded commercial use of seaweeds in Europe is from the 17th century
when they were used for the production of glass (eg, France and Norway). Production increased and expanded until, in the first half of the 18th century, burning kelp
was allowed along the French coastline, enabling algae ashes to replace wood ash
in glass production. In France, glass was the most important industry for seaweed
harvesters until markets developed for kelp in iodine manufacturing. Founded in
Normandy, plants for this industry extended to Brittany, where algal resources were
more abundant. In the 1770s the first plants producing soda were also established in
this region. At this time, algae were predried over dunes and then the seaweed was
burned in stone ovens (Fig. 2.1). This activity required the participation of entire
families because of the intensity of labor required. In fact, additional assistance of
laborers from inland communities was often also required because of the intensity of

the labor (Frangoudes, 2011; Frangoudes and Garineaud, 2015). In the French case
the use of kelp, for potash production, altered the structure of the harvesting, which
now became more intensive. In these areas, seaweed or potash is no longer used for
household needs, but became a pure industrial input.
A similar evolution is found in Norway where soda and glass production were
being produced during the same period. Around 1755, burning of kelp for potash
was an important income for farmers in the regions between Rogaland and Sør-Trøndelag. The smoke from the kelp fires was sometimes so dense that navigation was
difficult, causing several conflicts along the coast with other people. Fishers claimed
that the smoke and harvesting scared fish and caused low catches; the burning of
kelp was even blamed for the famine in Nord-Møre in 1804. The industry ceased in
Rogaland in 1780 because of complaints from farmers and fishermen, but continued
further north. Around 1800, 1500 tons of potash was exported from Norway to the
glass and soap industry in Europe (Meland and Rebours, 2012).


  Uses of Seaweed: Past and Present

FIGURE 2.1
Participants gather for a festival to burn algal resources in Brittany, France.
Credit: Katia Frangoudes.

In 19th-century France, there was a switch from using seaweed in glass production to the production of iodine. The production of iodine constituted the main use
of seaweed until World War II when chemical materials replaced seaweed. Consequently seaweed harvesters and the processing industry needed to find new uses for
their products and the extraction of alginate acid emerged as a solution. Though the
first extraction of alginate acid began early in some countries, it was not until the
end of 1950s that alginate acid production became well established (Arzel, 1998;
Mesnildrey et al., 2012).

ANIMAL FEED AND FERTILIZER
Seaweeds have been used to feed livestock for thousands of years; such uses have

even been mentioned in ancient Greek texts and in the Icelandic sagas (Heuzé et al.,
2015). In Iceland, where fodder was scarce for long periods, seaweeds were often fed
to sheep, horses, and cattle. Seaweeds were dried and stored in barns, and there are
reports of seaweeds being preserved as silage and used as winter feedstuff for sheep
and cattle in the early 1900s (Evans and Critchley, 2014). In the 19th and early 20th
centuries, there were numerous reports of occasional or systematic use of seaweeds
to feed livestock in France (Brittany), in the Scottish islands (Lewis), and Scandinavia (Gotland, Norway, Finland), mostly to ruminants (including calves) and pigs
( Sauvageau, 1920; dipedia.
org/node/19173 Chapman and Chapman, 1980 in Heuzé et al., 2015). On islands,
and other places with limited agriculture, animals grazed seaweed because it was
the only solution. Today the Orkney sheep in the North Ronaldsay Islands (Northern

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CHAPTER 2  Society and Seaweed

Scotland) are still grazing a diet almost exclusively based on seaweeds (http://www.
feedipedia.org/node/17899 Heuzé et al., 2015).
In Europe, seaweed was also used to improve nutrient-poor soils, for example, along
the French Atlantic coast where seaweeds were gathered after storms. Men gathered the
algae at sea with large rakes, even in winter, and women collected it along shorelines.
The algae were then spread on dunes, mainly by women and children, to be dried for
year-round preservation (Arzel, 1987). Farmers living around the area gathered kelp
(Laminaria spp.) to use in their fields (Arzel, 1987; Frangoudes and Garineaud, 2015).
A sharp decline of this activity occurred with the advent of chemical fertilizers and the
increase of the size of agricultural land. Today, soil improvement using fresh seaweed is
rarely practiced, except in small private fields, such as on Batz Island in northern Brittany.

In Norway the first industries processing Ascophyllum nodosum for animal food
and for fertilizer were established in 1926 and 1937. The first industry producing
seaweed meal from A. nodosum was established in 1937 with nine plants along the
coast. These companies were merged later and still process A. nodosum for the production of seaweed extracts and meal for soil conditioner, fertilizer, and feed supplements (Meland and Rebours, 2012).
In Ireland, seaweed was a vital fertilizer that enabled smallholders to produce
quantities of subsistence crops beyond the normal capacities of their lands. Commercially-focused algae harvesting in this country commenced in 1947 when the Irish
State of Arrama Teomara established two plants in the western part of the country.
This industry processed mainly A. nodosum for fertilizers and animal food. It still
dominates the Irish algae industry today by production volume; they supply numerous other companies with the raw material for the production of horticultural, cosmetics, and animal welfare products (Walsh, 2010) (Fig. 2.2).

FIGURE 2.2
Ascophyllum pile to be processed in Ireland.
Credit: Katia Frangoudes.


  Uses of Seaweed: Past and Present

HOUSEHOLD USES
Using seaweeds and other marine plants in industry shows the creativity and ingenuity of humans through experimentation. In some areas of Europe, marine plants were
also used in housing construction. The islanders of Læsø, Denmark, used eelgrass
(Zostera marina) as roofing material. The unusual choice of this plant for roofing
came from the ingenuity that arises from necessity. Local women are credited with
the invention, using their skills from working with wool to process the seaweed.
Læsø residents also used the eelgrass to stuff furniture (eg, sofas and chairs). In the
1930s a fungal disease wiped out the local stocks. Today, efforts are under way to
preserve the remaining historic buildings and to relearn the processing techniques
(personal communication, Læsø historian). A seaweed (use of “seaweed” is a literal
translation of the Danish word tang though technically eelgrasses are not algae but a
flowering plant) bank was founded in 2007, which is filled with eelgrass from other
Danish islands. The bank was founded to always have available enough eelgrass for

two roofs (Fig. 2.3). In 2012 the efforts of the group to preserve and maintain these
techniques were acknowledged with the winning of the Europa Nostra Prize (Europa
Nostra, n.d.) for education, training, and raising awareness of cultural heritage.

MEDICINE
Over time, in many places in Europe, the use of seaweeds in glass production was
replaced by iodine production. For example, in Norway, potash from kelp became
an important source for local industry. The first chemical iodide fabric was built

FIGURE 2.3
A farmhouse with the “seaweed” (tang in Danish) roof. The house was first built in the
1730s, and expanded over the years. Used as a family home until 1959, it is currently a
popular destination as a local museum. Læsø, Denmark.
Credit: Paulina Ramirez-Monsalve.

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CHAPTER 2  Society and Seaweed

in Trondheim in 1870, supplied with potash from Hitra in Sør-Trøndelag. In 1913,
150,000 tons of kelp was cut by hand or collected from the shore, and burned for
export of 6000 tons of potash. In 1933 a cheaper raw material for iodine production,
“chile saltpeter,” was found, and the production from kelp ceased (Aasland, 1997;
Meland and Rebours, 2012).
A similar process was found in France where, in 1829, a local chemical engineer
developed an industrial process to produce iodine from kelp. About 30 iodine factories were set up in the northern Finistère district where they played an important role
within the local economy. The factories employed a great number of kelp harvesters

and skilled workers. In 1944 the number of kelp harvesters registered in the national
social security system was estimated at between 3000 and 4000. In practice, however, probably 15,000 people were involved in kelp harvesting and seaweed gathering (Muller, 1944). This activity ended in the early 1950s, with the production of
iodine from chemicals. Local fishers’ organizations helped kelp harvesters and their
families cope with their economic difficulties by distributing subsidies (Frangoudes
and Garineaud, 2015).

HUMAN CONSUMPTION
As shown earlier, seaweeds have been used in a variety of ways in industry and
for farming. Its most common usage, however, comes from human consumption.
European historical sources document that in some countries local populations were
consuming seaweed far back into history. Palmaria palmata has been used as human
food in Norway, for example, since the Viking age. In Ireland, P. palmata, Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stallatus, and Porphyra umbricallis were consumed in
coastal communities located on the west and north coasts of the country. Seaweed
was considered a seasonal food product for household consumption or sold locally
seasonally. For this reason, quantities were limited and edible algae did not function
as a cash crop because there was little demand for it outside coastal communities.
As the following quotation shows (by C.P. Idyll), Irish and Scottish populations were
consuming edible seaweed until the middle of the 20th century:
In Great Britain in the middle of the 19th Century sugar wrack and other species
were sold in the streets of Edinburgh by vendors crying: “buy Dulse and tongles.”
Arzel (1987: 31)

In Galway, dulse was sold in the street as recently as 1958. The dulse in this case
is a preparation made mainly by P. palmata (Arzel, 1987: 31). In France, human consumption of seaweed was limited to the use of bleached C. crispus to jellify milk and
make the traditional black “far” (custard made with buckwheat) in Brittany (Fig. 2.4).
In Wales, laver (a Porphyra spp.) was traditionally boiled and served with cockles
and bacon, or fried with oatmeal to make laverbread (O’Conner, 2013).
Originally, laver was a defining food of the small South Wales coastal communities of fishermen and small farmers, which were transformed by the urban industrialization of the area in the nineteenth century…Labourers streaming into South

  Uses of Seaweed: Past and Present

FIGURE 2.4
Processed dulse, Brittany, France.
Credit: Katia Frangoudes.

Wales from elsewhere to work in mines and factories took up the consumption of
laver, already established locally, because they appreciated it as both a cheap,
nutritious food and also as a kind of prophylactic against the illnesses connected
with their employment.
O’Conner (2013: 18)

In Europe, in general, human consumption is limited to specific coastal populations; this is not the case in East Asia where seaweed consumption was, and remains,
extremely high. The following sections highlight the examples of nori (Porphyra
spp.; Japan) and miyeog (Undaria pinnatifida; Korea) by showing the importance of
these species in the local diet over time (Fig. 2.5).

JAPAN
Seaweeds in East Asia have been documented to have been harvested for thousands
of years, as evidenced by archeological findings in Jomon (6000 BCE–300 BCE) and
Yayoi (300 BCE–400 CE) era sites (Nisizawa et al., 1987). Some of the earliest written
documentation on seaweed comes from the Taiho Code (701 CE), Japan’s first written
legal codex (Miyagi, 1993). This document lists murasaki nori (“purple nori”) as an
item that could be used as an annual tribute tax payment (Miyagi, 1993; M
­ iyashita,
1970) along with seven other types of seaweed and 22 other marine products. Of
these, nori was considered one of the best, thus making it a “commodity with high
cultural value and visibility” (O’Conner, 2013: 22) (Fig. 2.6). Though nori production
increased through the years, it often remained a luxury item with demand outstripping
supply until true cultivation methods were developed in the post-World War II period

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CHAPTER 2  Society and Seaweed

FIGURE 2.5
Cutting of seaweed by women.

FIGURE 2.6
Nori being judged for the Annual Consecration and Competition at the Shiogama Shrine,
Miyagi, Japan. The winning nori is sent to the Emperor of Japan.
Credit: Alyne Delaney.

(Zenkoku, 1998; Delaney, 2003; O’Conner, 2013). Taken altogether, seaweeds are
estimated to make up approximately 10% of the Japanese diet (Guiry, 2007).

Nori
Today, nori (Porphyra spp., eg, Porphyra tenera, Porphyra pseudolinearis, and
Porphyra yezoensis) is one of the most ubiquitous of the seaweeds used for human
consumption in East Asia. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, nori is


  Uses of Seaweed: Past and Present

…among the most nutritious seaweeds, with a protein content of 30–50 percent,
and about 75 percent of that is digestible. Sugars are low (0.1 percent), and the
vitamin content very high, with significant amounts of Vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C,

niacin and folic acid, but the shelf life of vitamin C can be short in the dried product.
McHugh and Dennis (2003: 74)

Though seaweeds, such as nori, have been used by humans for millennia, for
most of history their use and consumption was limited because of processing and
harvesting size, making them, at times, prestige or luxury items, especially since,
until the late 1950s and early 1960s, nori was gathered by hand. “It’s been said it
wasn’t unusual to hear about Japanese who had never eaten nori before World War
Two” (Zenkoku, 1998: 23). Indeed, as one nori cultivator’s wife pointed out to a
researcher, “I rarely had nori until I married [and moved to Shichigahama]. Because
we lived far from the sea, [my family] always had onigiri (rice balls) wrapped in
shiso (beefsteak plant) leaves” (Delaney, 2003: 170) (Fig. 2.7).

FIGURE 2.7
A display of nori products in a local post office, Miyagi, Japan, 2014.
Credit: Alyne Delaney.

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CHAPTER 2  Society and Seaweed

Throughout the world today, nori is best known as a wrapper for sushi, but it can
also be used in soups and salads, just like other species such as kombu (Laminaria
japonica), wakame (U. pinnatifida), and hijiki (Sargassum fusiforme). Nori (Porphyra spp.) is also fried as a snack with beer.

KOREA
In Korea, a variety of edible different species of algae, dasima (L. japonica), miyeok

(U. pinnatifida), umudggasari (Gelidium amansii), gamtae (Eckonia cava), and gim
(Porphyra spp.) are utilized. U. pinnatifida (miyeok in Korean; wakame in Japanese)
is the most popular species in this country and can be found in wild and in cultivated
forms. Wild sea mustard harvesting is call “Miyokddol” or “Gwagam” in Korean and
harvesting was—and is still—done by diving (Ii, 2012). The dry Porphyra spp. (gim
in Korean; nori in Japanese) is eaten as a side dish approximately every day in Korea.
Porphyra spp. is eaten only in Korea and Japan.
Traditionally, seaweed was a delicacy consumed by all social classes in Korea,
as evidenced by various historical sources describing the consumption and harvesting of seaweed. According to the Goryeo Dogyeong, a document written by Su Jing,
a diplomat of the Chinese Song Dynasty, about the culture of the Goryeo Dynasty
period (AD 918–1392) the king and nobles ate lamb, mutton, and pork while the poor
population ate fish and other marine products. But abalones, oysters, and seaweed
were consumed by all social classes.
In addition to the gastronomic qualities of seaweed, in Korea seaweed has also
cultural importance. Korean customs give symbolic significance to seaweed (Fig.
2.8). For example, dry sea mustard (U. pinnatifida) is prepared for the goddess of
childbirth and for a parturient woman (Ii, 1999). Dried seaweed is offered to the

FIGURE 2.8
Steamed rice with red beans and miyeok soup to eat on a birthday.


  Uses of Seaweed: Past and Present

goddess with rice, water, and a thread for 4 weeks and people pray for the longevity
of the baby and the health of the mother every day. Korean mothers also consume sea
mustard (wakame; miyeok) soup for 4 weeks after childbirth; it is believed that sea
mustard improves mothers’ milk because it contains a lot of calcium and iodine,
which are necessary for the mother’s body (Ii, 1999).

CONTEMPORARY CULTURE AND CONSUMPTION
Many algal species continue to be exploited and used for human consumption today.
In the Atlantic coastal region, and particularly in France and Ireland, there are small
and medium enterprises using edible wild seaweeds in production. These new types
of industry have developed in recent years because of demand from European consumers (Mesnildrey et al., 2012; Walsh, 2010).
In Ireland, edible seaweeds are currently harvested, processed, and packaged by
several small-scale enterprises for sale as health foods. Though there has been growing public interest in seaweed products, the total national harvest of all these species
combined is still less than 100 tons per annum. In France, fresh seaweeds harvested
in Brittany are consumed under the name “vegetable of the sea.” Seaweeds are sold
in different forms such as raw products (dry or salty), condiments, and as spreads
(mashed algae). These products, which qualify as “French”-type products, are primarily sold in organic or health shops, but can also be found in delicatessens (Fig. 2.9).
Other types of algae, such as nori or wakame, are also used in the preparation of
Asian cuisine, such as sushi. These products, however, can only be found in large,
chain supermarkets (Le Bras et al., 2015). Currently, there is a push to increase the

FIGURE 2.9
Processed, “boutique” algae, France.
Credit: Katia Frangoudes.

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CHAPTER 2  Society and Seaweed

use of laver in Welsh cuisine. One producer, building on the fact that Welsh seaweed
is wild harvested in waters known for their purity, is exporting laver (nori) for the
Japanese luxury connoisseur trade (O’Conner, 2013).
Until the late 1970s, most Japanese nori was prepared by families and consumed

in households (Zenkoku, 1998). Coastal residents, able to obtain fresh nori (or
iwanori), consumed it in the forms of nori salads and in soups in addition to more
processed forms, such as sheets of nori. Nori harvesting families also make beer
(tsumami) and other snacks from nori (Delaney, 2003). The most common usage
of processed nori is seen in the forms of sushi and onigiri (rice balls). Temakizushi,
sushi made by hand at home, is a popular small-gathering, party food. Onigiri are the
Japanese’s answer to the sandwich—common at outdoor events such as picnics, field
day events, and lunches.
Nori was also an important item in annual gift giving at the middle and end of
the year.
Department stores, both up-market establishments like Takashimaya and Mitsukoshi and mid-market chains like Seibu, compete vigorously for oseibo customers,
and all the major Japanese nori producers have extensive ranges of gift-packaged
nori in all its forms—sheets, strips, powered, shredded and paste—for presentation. This reinforces nori’s cultural value and visibility in Japan….
O’Conner (2013)

Japan also celebrates a “Nori Day” (Delaney, 2003) on February 6 of each year.
Despite its continued popularity, cultivators and fisheries cooperative association
members have noted a change in consumer patterns for nori. “In the past, 50% of
nori went as gifts (O-Seibo, Chuugen1); now 80% goes to large amount sellers (ryouhanten)” who form it into foods such as onigiri, which sell for a low price (Delaney,
2003: 171). Cultivators often complained to one resident fieldworker that nori was
the same price in 2001 as it was in 1972, a result of its inclusion in processed foods.
Nevertheless, nori remains a key item of exchange in Japanese culture through formal gift-giving practices (Delaney, 2003).

NEW INDUSTRIAL USES OF SEAWEED
Industrial use of seaweed started after 1945 with the production of hydrocolloids:
alginate, agar–agar, and carrageenan. In Europe the seaweed processing industry,
which buys fresh seaweed, is divided into two categories: those producing alginate
acid and those producing kelp meal for animal food and agriculture. The development of alginate acid extraction contributed to the intensification of seaweed harvesting. Alginates are polysaccharides that are extracted from brown algae. They are of
commercial importance because they have very good gelling properties and also biological properties, such as being natural, biocompatible, biodegradable, bioadhesive,
1 End

of year and midyear gift giving. An extremely important cultural practice.


  New Industrial Uses of Seaweed

and nonimmunogenic. They are used in the food industry as thickening and gelling agents in, for example, ice cream and desserts. They are commonly used in the
pharmaceutical industry in gastric alkalis, binding agents for tablets, wound dressings, and dental impressions. They also have industrial applications in the production
of textiles, electrodes, and in water processing as well as many other applications
(Mesnildrey et al., 2012).
The production of alginate and the production of meal for agriculture require
vast quantities of raw seaweed. Seaweed cannot successfully be transported to other
regions by road because of the high number of trucks required to move the vast
volume of wet material. The high cost of transportation explains the establishment
of the two main companies and other smaller companies in north Finistère, near to
where the most important kelp (Laminaria digitata and Laminaria hyperborea) forest is located. In Norway, where the geographical area for L. hyperborea harvesting
is larger than that in France, the processing company uses boats for transport to the
sole operating plant. In Ireland the plant processing A. nodosum is located in the
west coast of the country where the seaweed is located. Other small companies are
located in the same area. In Norway the main company that is exploiting and processing A. nodosum for seaweed meal and for animal food, fertilizer, food, and cosmetic
products is also based on the coast near the harvesting areas. All European seaweed
processing plants are subsidiaries of multinational companies, which often change
ownership.
In southern Europe (Spain and Portugal) the processing industry produces agar–
agar because local seaweeds are ideal for this product. A Japanese company first
promoted this activity in the early 1950s. In the Spanish Basque country the last processing plants producing agar–agar closed in 2000 because of regional conservation
measures. In Asturias, where seaweed harvesting is still practiced, limited processing
industries producing agar–agar remain. In Galicia (Spain), seaweed harvesting is still
important and the number of processing industries is higher than in the two previous
regions (Gallastegi, 2010). Portugal also produces agar–agar and is the fifth highest

producer in the world (Marques, 2010).
Overall the number of seaweed processing plants in Europe is decreasing. In
some areas this is caused by a decline in seaweed stocks; in others, seaweed harvesting is forbidden because of conservation reasons, as seen in the Basque country or
in Ireland. In the latter country, for example, environmental protection interests have
halted the expansion of mechanical harvesting (Kelly, 2005).
Currently, European wild seaweed stock processing is unable to meet the high
demand for alginates and other products dependent on seaweed. The processing
industry, which has access to the raw material locally (eg, France, Norway, and Ireland), also imports dried seaweed when local supplies are out of season. For example, the two main companies based in northern Finistère import seaweed from third
countries to supplement the local production, particularly during closed harvesting
seasons. When local supplies dry up completely there have been instances of processors moving to third countries, where they can access cheap raw materials (eg, Chile,
the Philippines, and China).

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