Introductory chemistry essentials 5th global edtion by tro

Periodic Table of the Elements
GROUP
1
1A
1

H

1.01

hydrogen

3

2

PERIOD

3

Li

6.94

4

5

K

39.10

3
3B

magnesium

20

21

Ca

40.08

Sc

4
4B

5
5B

22

23

Ti

V

6
6B
24

Cr

25

Mn

8
8B
26

Fe

9
8B
27

Co

scandium

titanium

vanadium

chromium

manganese

54.94

55.85
iron

cobalt

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

87.62

88.91

Rb

85.47

Cs

132.91
cesium

87

Fr

(223)

francium

44.96

Sr

strontium

Y

yttrium

56

Ba

137.33

barium

57

La

138.91

zirconium

72

Hf

178.49

hafnium

89

104

(227)

(261)

88

radium

Zr

91.22

lanthanum

Ra

(226)

47.88

Ac

actinium

Lanthanide series

Rf

Nb

92.91

niobium

73

Ta

180.95

Mo

95.95

Tc

(99)

molybdenum technetium

74

W

ruthenium

rhodium

76

77

190.23

Os

Ir

tantalum

tungsten

rhenium

osmium

105

106

107

108

109

(262)

(263)

(262)

(265)

(266)

Sg

186.21

Rh

102.91

192.22
iridium

Db

183.85

75

Re

Ru

101.07

58.93

Bh

Hs

Mt

rutherfordium

dubnium

seaborgium

bohrium

hassium

meitnerium

58

59

60

61

62

63

Ce

140.12
cerium

90

Actinide series

50.94

52.00

7
7B

calcium

55

7

Mg

24.31

potassium

rubidium

6

9.01

12

19

hydrogen

4

11

sodium

1.01

Be

beryllium

Na

H

2
2A

lithium

22.99

Atomic number
Element symbol
Atomic mass*
Element name

1

1

Th

(232)

thorium

Pr

Nd

140.91

144.24

91

92

Pm

(147)

praseodymium neodymium promethium

Pa

(231)

protactinium

U

(238)

uranium

93

Np

(237)

neptunium

Sm

150.36

samarium

94

Pu

(244)

plutonium

Eu

151.97

europium

95

Am

(243)

americium

*The mass number of an important radioactive isotope—not the atomic mass—
is shown in parentheses for those elements with no stable isotopes.

CVR_TRO0295_05_SE_FEP.indd 807

28/08/14 10:16 PM

Metals

18
8A

Metalloids

13
3A

Nonmetals

5

B

10.81

14
4A
6

C

12.01

15
5A
7

N

14.01

16
6A
8

O

16.00

nitrogen

oxygen

fluorine

13

14

15

16

17

Al

Si

P

S

12
2B

aluminum

silicon

phosphorus

30.97

32.06

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

nickel

46

Pd

106.42

palladium

78

Pt

Cu

63.55

copper

47

Ag

107.87
silver

79

Au

Zn

65.39
zinc

48

Cd

112.41

cadmium

80

Hg

19.00

carbon

11
1B

Ni

9

F

boron

10
8B
58.69

17
7A

26.98

Ga

69.72

gallium

49

In

114.82
indium

81

Tl

28.09

Ge

72.63

germanium

50

Sn

118.71
tin

82

Pb

As

74.92

arsenic

51

Sb

121.75

antimony

83

Bi

sulfur

Se

78.97

Cl

Br

79.90

127.60

126.90

neon

18

Ar

I

iodine

85

At

argon

Kr

83.80

krypton

54

Xe

131.29
xenon

86

Rn

195.08

196.97
gold

mercury

204.38

207.2

bismuth

astatine

(222)

lead

polonium

(210)

thallium

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

(281)

(280)

(285)

(284)

(289)

(288)

(293)

(292)

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

platinum

Ds

Rg

darmstadtium roentgenium

Gd

157.25

gadolinium

96

Cm

(247)

curium

Tb

158.93

terbium

97

Bk

(247)

200.59

Cn

Dy

162.50

dysprosium

98

Cf

(251)

—

Ho

164.93

holmium

99

Es

(252)

berkelium californium einsteinium

Fl

Er

167.26

erbium

100

Fm

(257)

fermium

208.98

—

Tm

168.93

thulium

101

Md

(258)

(209)

20.18

36

53

84

10

Ne

35

52

Po

helium

39.95

bromine

tellurium

He

4.00

35.45

chlorine

selenium

Te

2

Lv

Yb

173.04

**

Lu

lutetium

102

103

(259)

(260)

mendelevium nobelium

—

(294)

174.97

ytterbium

No

radon

Lr

lawrencium

**Discovered in 2010, element 117 is currently under review by IUPAC.

CVR_TRO0295_05_SE_FEP.indd 808

28/08/14 10:16 PM


Introductory

Chemistry
Essentials

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 1

22/09/14 3:25 PM


This page is intentionally left blank.

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 2

22/09/14 3:25 PM


Introductory

CHEMISTRy
Essentials

Fifth Edition

Global Edition

Nivaldo J. Tro
Westmont College
Global Edition Contributions by

Ho Yu Au-Yeung
The University of Hong Kong

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 3

22/09/14 3:25 PM

Editor in Chief: Adam Jaworski
Acquisitions Editor: Chris Hess, Ph.D
Director of Development: Jennifer Hart
Executive Marketing Manager: Jonathan Cottrell
Associate Team Lead, Program Management, Chemistry and
­Geosciences: Jessica Moro
Program Manager: Coleen Morrison
Development Editor: Erin Mulligan
Editorial Assistant: Caitlin Falco
Marketing Assistant: Nicola Houston
Team Lead, Project Management, Chemistry and Geosciences:
Gina M. Cheselka
Project Manager: Beth Sweeten
Head of Learning Asset Acquisition, Global Edition: Laura Dent
Senior Acquisitions Editor, Global Edition: Priyanka Ahuja
Project Editor, Global Edition: Anuprova Dey Chowdhuri

Media Production Manager, Global Edition: M. Vikram Kumar
Senior Manufacturing Controller, Global Edition: Trudy Kimber
Production Management: Lumina Datamatics
Compositor: Lumina Datamatics
Illustrator: Precision Graphics
Image Lead: Maya Melenchuk
Photo Researcher: Peter Jardim, PreMedial Global
Text Permissions Manager: Michael Farmer
Text Permission Researcher: Electronic Publishing Services Inc.
Interior Design Manager: Mark Ong
Interior Designer: Wanda Espana, WeeDesign
Cover Design Manager: Jonathan Boylan
Cover Designer: Shree Mohanambal Inbakumar,

Lumina Datamatics
Operations Specialist: Christy Hall
Cover Art: © Laborant/Shutterstock

Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page
within the text or on p. PC-1.
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England
and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the World Wide Web at:
www.pearsonglobaleditions.com
© Pearson Education Limited 2015
The rights of Nivaldo J. Tro to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Introductory Chemistry Essentials, 5th edition, ISBN 978-0-321-91873-4, by Nivaldo J. Tro,
published by Pearson Education, Inc. © 2015.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting
restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations
appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. All trademarks
used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark
ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners.
ISBN 10: 1-292-06133-2
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-06133-7 (Print)
ISBN 13: 978-1-488-68349-7 (PDF)
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Typeset in Minion Pro by Lumina Datamatics®
Printed and bound by CTPS in China

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 4

22/09/14 3:25 PM


To Annie

About the Author
Nivaldo Tro, is a Professor of Chemistry at Westmont
College in Santa Barbara, California, where he has been a faculty member since 1990. He received his Ph.D. in chemistry from
Stanford University for work on developing and using optical
techniques to study the adsorption and desorption of molecules
to and from surfaces in ultra high vacuum. He then went on to
the University of California at Berkeley, where he did post doctoral research on ultrafast reaction dynamics in solution. Since
coming to Westmont, Professor Tro has been awarded grants from
the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund, from
Research Corporation, and from the National Science Foundation
to study the dynamics of various processes occurring in thin adlayer films adsorbed on dielectric surfaces. He has been honored
as Westmont's outstanding teacher of the year three times and
has also received the college's outstanding researcher of the year
award. Professor Tro lives in Santa Barbara with his wife, Ann, and their four children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden.
In his leisure time, Professor Tro enjoys mountain biking, surfing, reading to his children, and being outdoors with his
family.

 ​5

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 5

22/09/14 3:25 PM


Brief Contents
Preface

1 The Chemical World
2 Measurement and Problem Solving
3 Matter and Energy
4 Atoms and Elements
5 Molecules and Compounds
6 Chemical Composition
7 Chemical Reactions
8 Quantities in Chemical Reactions
9 Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table
10 Chemical Bonding
11 Gases
12 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
13 Solutions
14 Acids and Bases
15 Chemical Equilibrium
16 Oxidation and Reduction
17 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
Appendix: Mathematics Review

20
36

46
90
128
162
200
238
282
318
358
392
444
480
520
562
608
644
MR-1

Glossary

G-1

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

A-1

Photo Credits
Index

PC-1

I-1

 ​6

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 6

22/09/14 3:25 PM


Contents
Preface

1

20

The Chemical
World

36

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

37
39
39
40

Soda Pop Fizz
Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things
All Things Are Made of Atoms and Molecules
The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think
Everyday Chemistry ​Combustion and the
Scientific Method

1.5

A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed

Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

2

Measurement and
Problem Solving

2.1
2.2
2.3

Measuring Global Temperatures
Scientific Notation: Writing Large and Small
­
Numbers
Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to Reflect

Precision

42
42
43
44
44

46
47
47
50

Counting Significant Figures ​ ​51
Exact Numbers ​ ​52

Chemistry in the Media ​The COBE Satellite
and Very Precise Measurements That Illuminate Our
Cosmic Past
53

2.4

2.5

2.6

Significant Figures in Calculations

54

Multiplication and Division ​ ​54
Rounding ​ ​54
Addition and Subtraction ​ ​55
Calculations Involving Both Multiplication/Division
and Addition/Subtraction ​ ​56

The Basic Units of Measurement

58

The Base Units ​ ​58
Prefix Multipliers ​ ​59
Derived Units ​ ​60

Problem Solving and Unit Conversion
Converting Between Units ​ ​61
General Problem-Solving Strategy ​ ​63

■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Solving Unit
Conversion Problems

2.7
2.8
2.9

Solving Multistep Unit Conversion Problems
Units Raised to a Power
Chemistry and Health ​Drug Dosage
Density

​64
65
67
68
70

Calculating Density ​ ​70
Density as a Conversion Factor ​ ​71
Chemistry and Health ​Density,
Cholesterol, and Heart Disease

73

2.10 Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies
and the Solution Map

■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Solving
Numerical Problems

61

Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

73
​74
75
81

81
 ​7

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 7

22/09/14 3:25 PM


8 ​ 

​| ​  ​Contents

3.12 Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations
Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

4

Atoms and
Elements

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

3

Matter and
Energy

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

In Your Room
What Is Matter?
Classifying Matter According to Its State:
Solid, Liquid, and Gas
Classifying Matter According to Its
Composition: Elements, Compounds,
and Mixtures
Differences in Matter: Physical and
Chemical Properties
Changes in Matter: Physical and
Chemical Changes

4.9

90
91
91

93

94
97
99

Conservation of Mass: There Is No New Matter101
Energy
102
Chemistry in the Environment ​
Getting Energy out of Nothing?
103

Key Terms
Exercises

5

Molecules and
Compounds

Molecules and Atoms
3.11 Temperature Changes: Heat Capacity
Everyday Chemistry ​Coolers, Camping,
and the Heat Capacity of Water

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 8

111

133
134
135
138
142

Sugar and Salt
Compounds Display Constant Composition
Chemical Formulas: How to Represent
Compounds

145
147
148
150
153
153

162
163
164
165

5.4

A Molecular View of Elements and Compounds169

5.5

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds

105
106
110

129
130
131
131

Polyatomic Ions in Chemical Formulas ​ ​167
Types of Chemical Formulas ​ ​168

Units of Energy ​ ​103

3.9 Energy and Chemical and Physical Change
3.10 Temperature: Random Motion of

Isotopes: When the Number of
Neutrons Varies
Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of
an Element’s Atoms
Chemistry in the Environment ​
Radioactive Isotopes at Hanford, Washington

5.1
5.2
5.3

128

Ions and the Periodic Table ​ ​143

Chapter in review

Separating Mixtures Through Physical Changes ​ ​101

3.7
3.8

Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon
Indivisible: The Atomic Theory
Everyday Chemistry ​Atoms and Humans
The Nuclear Atom
The Properties of Protons, Neutrons,
and Electrons
Everyday Chemistry ​Solid Matter?
Elements: Defined by Their Numbers
of Protons
Looking for Patterns: The Periodic Law
and the Periodic Table
Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons

111
115
120
120

Atomic Elements ​ ​169
Molecular Elements ​ ​169

Molecular Compounds ​ ​169
Ionic Compounds ​ ​170

172

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing
Only Monoatomic Ions ​ ​172
■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Writing Formulas
for Ionic Compounds​172

22/09/14 3:25 PM


Contents ​  ​| ​ ​
9

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing
Polyatomic Ions ​ ​173

5.6
5.7

5.8
5.9

Nomenclature: Naming Compounds
Naming Ionic Compounds

174
174

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a
Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation ​ ​175
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal
That Forms More Than One Type of Cation ​ ​176
Naming Ionic Compounds Containing a
Polyatomic Ion ​ ​177
Everyday Chemistry ​Polyatomic Ions
178

Naming Molecular Compounds
Naming Acids

179
180

Naming Binary Acids ​ ​180
Naming Oxyacids ​ ​181

Chemistry in the Environment ​
Acid Rain

5.10 Nomenclature Summary

182
182

Ionic Compounds ​ ​183
Molecular Compounds ​ ​183
Acids ​ ​183

5.11 Formula Mass: The Mass of a Molecule
or Formula Unit

Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

6

184
185
190
190

Chemical
Composition

200

6.1
6.2
6.3

201
202
203

6.4

6.5

How Much Sodium?
Counting Nails by the Pound
Counting Atoms by the Gram
Converting between Moles and
Number of Atoms ​ ​203
Converting between Grams and Moles
of an Element ​ ​204
Converting between Grams of an Element and
Number of Atoms ​ ​207

Counting Molecules by the Gram

Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors

Mass Percent Composition of Compounds
Mass Percent Composition from a
Chemical Formula

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 9

219
Calculating Empirical Formulas for Compounds 219

6.9

Calculating an Empirical Formula from
Experimental Data ​ ​220
■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Obtaining an

Empirical Formula from Experimental Data​221

Calculating Molecular Formulas for
Compounds

Key Terms
Exercises

222
224
230
230

208

211

Converting between Grams of a Compound and Moles
of a Constituent Element ​ ​212
Converting between Grams of a Compound and
Grams of a Constituent Element ​ ​213
Chlorine in Chlorofluorocarbons

6.8

Chapter in review

Converting between Grams and Moles
of a Compound ​ ​208
Converting between Grams of a Compound and

Number of Molecules ​ ​210

Chemistry in the Environment ​

6.6
6.7

Chemistry and Health ​Fluoridation of
Drinking Water

215
216
217

7

Chemical
Reactions

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

238

Grade School Volcanoes, Automobiles, and
Laundry Detergents
Evidence of a Chemical Reaction
The Chemical Equation

How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations

239
240
243
245

■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Writing Balanced
Chemical Equations

246

22/09/14 3:25 PM


10 ​ 

7.5

​| ​  ​Contents

Aqueous Solutions and Solubility:
Compounds Dissolved in Water

248

Solubility ​ ​249

7.6

7.7
7.8

7.9

Precipitation Reactions: Reactions in Aqueous
Solution That Form a Solid

252

Predicting Precipitation Reactions ​ ​252
■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Writing Equations
for Precipitation Reactions

254

Writing Chemical Equations for Reactions
in Solution: Molecular, Complete Ionic, and
Net Ionic Equations
Acid–Base and Gas Evolution Reactions

255
257

Acid–Base (Neutralization) Reactions ​ ​257
Gas Evolution Reactions ​ ​258
Chemistry and Health ​Neutralizing
Excess Stomach Acid

Oxidation–Reduction Reactions

260
260

Combustion Reactions ​ ​261

7.10 Classifying Chemical Reactions

262

Classifying Chemical Reactions by
What Atoms Do ​ ​263
Classification Flowchart ​ ​265

Chemistry in the Environment ​
The Reactions Involved in Ozone Depletion
Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

8

Quantities in
Chemical Reactions

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5

8.6
8.7

267
267
273
273

282

Climate Change: Too Much Carbon Dioxide 283
Making Pancakes: Relationships between
Ingredients
284
Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions 285
Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions 287
Chemistry in the Media ​The Controversy
over Oxygenated Fuels
288
More Pancakes: Limiting Reactant,
Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
291
Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and
Percent Yield from Initial Masses of Reactants 294
Enthalpy: A Measure of the Heat Evolved
or Absorbed in a Reaction
298
Everyday Chemistry ​Bunsen Burners
299

9

Electrons in Atoms and
the Periodic Table

318

9.1
9.2
9.3

319
320
322

Treatment for Cancer

9.4
9.5

Chapter in review
Exercises

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 10

302
306
307

The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits

The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms
with Orbitals

324
325
328

Baseball Paths and Electron Probability Maps ​ ​328
From Orbits to Orbitals ​ ​329

9.6

Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals and Electron Configurations
329
Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals ​ ​330
Electron Configurations: How Electrons
Occupy Orbitals ​ ​332

Sign of Hrxn ​ ​299
Stoichiometry of Hrxn ​ ​300
Key Terms

Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom
Light: Electromagnetic Radiation
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Chemistry and Health ​Radiation

9.7
9.8

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 336
The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-­
Mechanical Model
339

22/09/14 3:25 PM


Contents ​  ​| ​ ​
11

9.9

Periodic Trends: Atomic Size, Ionization
Energy, and Metallic Character

341

Atomic Size ​ ​341

Chemistry and Health ​Pumping Ions:
Atomic Size and Nerve Impulses
Ionization Energy ​ ​343
Metallic Character ​ ​345

Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

10

Chemical
Bonding

343

347
350
350

358

10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs
359
10.2 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots
360
10.3 Lewis Structures of Ionic Compounds: Electrons
Transferred

10.4 Covalent Lewis Structures: Electrons Shared

361
362

Double and Triple Bonds ​ ​363

10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent
Compounds

364

■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Writing Lewis
Structures for Covalent Compounds​365

Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions ​ ​366
Exceptions to the Octet Rule ​ ​367

10.6 Resonance: Equivalent Lewis Structures

for the Same Molecule
10.7 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules
Chemistry in the Environment
 ​
The Lewis Structure of Ozone

11.3 Pressure: The Result of Constant
368
369
370

■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Predicting
Geometry Using VSEPR Theory
373
Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper ​ ​373
Chemistry and Health ​Fooled by
Molecular Shape
374

10.8 Electronegativity and Polarity: Why Oil
and Water Don’t Mix

Electronegativity ​ ​375
Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules ​ ​377
Everyday Chemistry ​How Soap Works
Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

11

375

396

Pressure Units ​ ​397
Pressure Unit Conversion ​ ​398

11.4 Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume
Everyday Chemistry ​Airplane Cabin
Pressurization

Everyday Chemistry ​Extra-long Snorkels

11.5 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature
11.6 The Combined Gas Law: Pressure, Volume,
and Temperature

11.7 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Moles
11.8 The Ideal Gas Law: Pressure, Volume,
Temperature, and Moles

379
380
383
383

399
400
404
405
409
411
413

Molar Mass of a Gas from the Ideal Gas Law ​ ​417

11.9 Mixtures of Gases: Why Deep-Sea Divers

Breathe a Mixture of Helium and Oxygen

419

Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressure ​ ​421
Collecting Gases over Water ​ ​422

11.10Gases in Chemical Reactions

423

Molar Volume at Standard Temperature

and Pressure ​ ​426

Gases

Chemistry in the Environment ​
392

11.1 Extra-Long Straws
393
11.2 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases 394

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 11

Molecular Collisions

Air Pollution
Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

428
429
434
434

22/09/14 3:25 PM


12 ​ 

​| ​  ​Contents

Dipole–Dipole Force ​ ​460
Hydrogen Bonding ​ ​462
Ion–Dipole Force ​ ​463

Chemistry and Health ​Hydrogen
Bonding in DNA

12.7 Types of Crystalline Solids: Molecular,
Ionic, and Atomic

464
466

Molecular Solids ​ ​466
Ionic Solids ​ ​467
Atomic Solids ​ ​467

12.8 Water: A Remarkable Molecule
Chemistry in the Environment ​
Water Pollution
Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

13

Solutions

13.1 Tragedy in Cameroon
13.2 Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures
13.3 Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water:
How to Make Rock Candy

12

Liquids, Solids,
and Intermolecular
Forces
12.1 Interactions between Molecules
12.2 Properties of Liquids and Solids
12.3 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface
Tension and Viscosity

Everyday Chemistry ​Why Are Water

12.4 Evaporation and Condensation

13.4 Solutions of Gases in Water: How Soda
Pop Gets Its Fizz

13.5 Specifying Solution Concentration:
Mass Percent

444
445
446
447

449
449

Boiling ​ ​451
Energetics of Evaporation and Condensation ​ ​452
Heat of Vaporization ​ ​453

12.5 Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation

454

Energetics of Melting and Freezing ​ ​455
Heat of Fusion ​ ​455
Sublimation ​ ​457

Dispersion Force ​ ​459

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 12

480
481
482
483

13.6 Specifying Solution Concentration: Molarity
Chemistry in the Environment ​
The Dirty Dozen
Using Molarity in Calculations ​ ​493
Ion Concentrations ​ ​495

13.7 Solution Dilution
13.8 Solution Stoichiometry
13.9 Freezing Point Depression and Boiling

Point Elevation: Making Water Freeze
Colder and Boil Hotter
Freezing Point Depression ​ ​500
Everyday Chemistry ​Antifreeze in Frogs
Boiling Point Elevation ​ ​502

13.10Osmosis: Why Drinking Salt Water
in Medicine
Chapter in review

459

486
488

Mass Percent ​ ​488
Using Mass Percent in Calculations ​ ​489

Causes Dehydration
Chemistry and Health ​Solutions

12.6 Types of Intermolecular Forces: Dispersion,
Dipole–Dipole, Hydrogen Bonding, and
Ion–Dipole

469

470
474
474

Solubility and Saturation ​ ​484
Electrolyte Solutions: Dissolved Ionic Solids ​ ​485
How Solubility Varies with Temperature ​ ​486
Rock Candy ​ ​486

Surface Tension ​ ​448
Viscosity ​ ​448
Drops Spherical?

468

Key Terms
Exercises

491
492
495
497

500
502

504
505
506
512

512

22/09/14 3:25 PM


Contents ​  ​| ​ ​
13
+

Calculating pH from [H3O ] ​ ​542
Calculating [H3O+] from pH ​ ​543
The pOH Scale ​ ​544

14.10Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change
Chemistry and Health ​Alkaloids
Chemistry and Health ​The Danger of
Antifreeze
Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

15

545
546
548
548
554
554

Chemical
Equilibrium

562

15.1 Life: Controlled Disequilibrium
15.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction

563
564

15.3 The Idea of Dynamic Chemical Equilibrium
15.4 The Equilibrium Constant: A Measure of

568

Collision Theory ​ ​564
How Concentration Affects the Rate of a Reaction ​ ​566
How Temperature Affects the Rate of a Reaction ​   ​567

How Far a Reaction Goes

14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4

15.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: The Equilibrium

Acids and Bases

Sour Patch Kids and International Spy Movies
Acids: Properties and Examples
Bases: Properties and Examples
Molecular Definitions of Acids and Bases

520
521
522
523
524

The Arrhenius Definition ​ ​524
The Brønsted–Lowry Definition ​ ​525

14.5 Reactions of Acids and Bases

Neutralization Reactions ​ ​527
Acid Reactions ​ ​528
Everyday Chemistry ​What Is in
My Antacid?
Base Reactions ​ ​530

14.6 Acid–Base Titration: A Way to Quantify the
Amount of Acid or Base in a Solution
14.7 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases

527

530

530
533

Strong Acids ​ ​533
Weak Acids ​ ​534
Strong Bases ​ ​537
Weak Bases ​ ​537

14.8 Water: Acid and Base in One
14.9 The pH and pOH Scales: Ways to
Express Acidity and Basicity

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 13

571

Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions for
Chemical Reactions ​ ​571
The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant ​ ​572

Expression for Reactions Involving a Solid
or a Liquid
15.6 Calculating and Using Equilibrium Constants

574
575

Calculating Equilibrium Constants ​ ​575

Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations ​ ​577

15.7 Disturbing a Reaction at Equilibrium:

Le Châtelier’s Principle
578
15.8 The Effect of a Concentration Change
on Equilibrium
580
15.9 The Effect of a Volume Change on Equilibrium 582
Chemistry and Health ​How a
Developing Fetus Gets Oxygen from Its Mother
584
15.10The Effect of a Temperature Change
on Equilibrium
585
15.11The Solubility-Product Constant
587
Using Ksp to Determine Molar Solubility ​ ​588
Everyday Chemistry ​Hard Water

15.12The Path of a Reaction and the Effect
of a Catalyst

589
590

How Activation Energies Affect Reaction Rates ​ ​590
Catalysts Lower the Activation Energy ​ ​592
Enzymes: Biological Catalysts ​ ​593

538

Chapter in review
Key Terms

541

Exercises

594
598
598

22/09/14 3:26 PM


14 ​ 

​| ​  ​Contents

16

Oxidation and
Reduction

608

16.1 The End of the Internal Combustion Engine?
16.2 Oxidation and Reduction: Some Definitions

16.3 Oxidation States: Electron Bookkeeping

609
610
613

Everyday Chemistry ​The Bleaching of
Hair

16.4 Balancing Redox Equations

615
616

■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Balancing Redox
­Equations Using the Half-Reaction Method ​  ​617

Chemistry in the Environment ​
Photosynthesis and Respiration: Energy for Life

16.5 The Activity Series: Predicting Spontaneous
Redox Reactions

621
621

Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid ​ ​624

16.6 Batteries: Using Chemistry to
Generate Electricity

625

Dry-Cell Batteries ​ ​627
Lead-Acid Storage Batteries ​ ​628
Fuel Cells ​ ​628

16.7 Electrolysis: Using Electricity to Do Chemistry 629
16.8 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions
630
Everyday Chemistry ​The Fuel-Cell
Breathalyzer
Chapter in review
Key Terms
Exercises

17



Radioactivity and
Nuclear Chemistry

17.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis
17.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity
17.3 Types of Radioactivity: Alpha, Beta, and
Gamma Decay

631
632

636
636

Chemistry and Health ​Environmental
Radon
A Natural Radioactive Decay Series ​ ​657

644
645
646
647

654
655
656

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 14

658

659

17.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun
17.10The Effects of Radiation on Life

662
663
664

17.11Radioactivity in Medicine

665

Chapter in review

667
670
670

Acute Radiation Damage ​ ​664
Increased Cancer Risk ​ ​664
Genetic Defects ​ ​665
Measuring Radiation Exposure ​ ​665
Isotope Scanning ​ ​665
Radiotherapy ​ ​666

Key Terms

17.6 Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity
to Measure the Age of Fossils and
Other Artifacts

of Turin

17.7 The Discovery of Fission and the Atomic Bomb 660
17.8 Nuclear Power: Using Fission to
Generate Electricity

Alpha (a) Radiation ​ ​648
Beta (b) Radiation ​ ​650

Gamma (g) Radiation ​ ​651
Positron Emission ​ ​652

17.4 Detecting Radioactivity
17.5 Natural Radioactivity and Half-Life

Chemistry in the Media ​The Shroud

Exercises

Appendix: Mathematics Review
Glossary
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises
Photo Credits
Index

MR-1
G-1
A-1
PC-1
I-1

22/09/14 3:26 PM


Contents ​  ​| ​ ​
15

Problem-Solving Procedures
Solving Unit Conversion Problems

64

Solving Numerical Problems

74

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds

173

Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data

221

Writing Balanced Chemical Equations

246

Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions

254

Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds

365

Predicting Geometry Using VSEPR Theory

373

Balancing Redox Equations Using the Half-Reaction Method

617

Naming Alkanes

689

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 15

22/09/14 7:32 PM


This page is intentionally left blank.

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 16

22/09/14 3:26 PM


To the Student
This book is for you, and every text feature is meant to help you learn. I have two
main goals for you in this course: to see chemistry as you never have before and to
develop the problem-solving skills you need to succeed in chemistry.
I want you to experience chemistry in a new way. I have written each chapter
to show you that chemistry is not just something that happens in a laboratory;
chemistry surrounds you at every moment. I have worked with several outstanding artists to develop photographs and art that will help you visualize the molecular world. From the opening example to the closing chapter, you will see chemistry.
My hope is that when you finish this course, you will think differently about your
world because you understand the molecular interactions that underlie everything around you.

My second goal is for you to develop problem-solving skills. No one succeeds
in chemistry—or in life, really—without the ability to solve problems. I can’t give
you a formula for problem solving, but I can give you strategies that will help you
develop the chemical intuition you need to understand chemical reasoning.
Look for several recurring structures throughout this book designed to help
you master problem solving. The most important ones are (1) a four-step process
(Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check) designed to help you learn how to solve problems; (2) the solution map, a visual aid that helps you navigate your way through
problems; (3) the two-column Examples, in which the left column explains in clear
and simple language the purpose of each step of the solution shown in the right
column; and (4) the three-column Examples, which describe a problem-solving
procedure while demonstrating how it is applied to two different Examples. In addition, you will find a For More Practice feature at the end of each worked Example that directs you to the end-of-chapter problems that provide more opportunity
to practice the skill(s) covered in the Example. In this edition, I have added a new
tool for you at the end of each chapter: a Self-Assessment Quiz. These quizzes are
designed to help you test yourself on the core concepts and skills of each chapter.
You can also use them as you prepare for exams. Before an exam, take the quiz associated with each chapter that the exam will cover. The questions you miss on the
quiz will reveal the areas you need to spend the most time studying.
Lastly, I hope this book leaves you with the knowledge that chemistry is
not reserved only for those with some superhuman intelligence level. With the
right amount of effort and some clear guidance, anyone can master chemistry,
including you.
Sincerely,
Nivaldo J. Tro


 ​17

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 17

22/09/14 3:26 PM

To the Instructor

 ​18

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 18

I thank all of you who have used any of the first four editions of Introductory
­Chemistry—you have made this book the most widely selling book in its market,
and for that I am extremely grateful. The preparation of the fifth edition has enabled me to continue to refine the book to meet its fundamental purpose: teaching
chemical skills in the context of relevance.
Introductory Chemistry is designed for a one-semester, college-level, introductory or preparatory chemistry course. Students taking this course need to develop
problem-solving skills—but they also must see why these skills are important to
them and to their world. Introductory Chemistry extends chemistry from the laboratory to the student’s world. It motivates students to learn chemistry by demonstrating the role it plays in their daily lives.
This is a visual book. Wherever possible, I have used images to help communicate the subject. In developing chemical principles, for example, I worked
with several artists to develop multipart images that show the connection between
everyday processes visible to the eye and the molecular interactions responsible
for those processes. This art has been further refined and improved in the fifth
edition, making the visual impact sharper and more targeted to student learning.
For example, you will note a hierarchical system of labeling in many of the images:
The white-boxed labels are the most important, the tan-tint boxes are the second
most important, and unboxed labels are the third most important. This allows me
to treat related labels and annotations within an image in the same way, so that the
relationships between them are immediately evident. My intent is to create an art
program that teaches and that presents complex information clearly and concisely.
Many of the illustrations showing molecular depictions of a real-world object or
process have three parts: macroscopic (what we can see with our eyes); molecular
and atomic (space-filling models that depict what the molecules and atoms are
doing); and symbolic (how chemists represent the molecular and atomic world).
The goal is for the student to begin to see the connections between the macroscopic

world, the molecular world, and the representation of the molecular world with
symbols and formulas.
I have also refined the problem-solving pedagogy to include four steps: Sort,
Strategize, Solve, and Check. The solution map, which has been part of this book
since the first edition, is now part of the Strategize step. This four-step procedure is
meant to guide students as they learn chemical problem solving. Extensive flowcharts are also incorporated throughout the book, allowing students to visualize
the organization of chemical ideas and concepts. The color scheme used in both
the solution maps and the flowcharts is designed to have pedagogical value. More
specifically, the solution maps utilize the colors of the visible spectrum—always in
the same order, from violet to red.
Throughout the worked Examples in this book, I use a two- or three-column
layout in which students learn a general procedure for solving problems of a particular type as they see this procedure applied to one or two worked Examples.
In this format, the explanation of how to solve a problem is placed directly beside
the actual steps in the solution of the problem. Many of you have said that you use
a similar technique in lecture and office hours. Since students have specifically
asked for connections between Examples and end-of-chapter problems, I include
a For More Practice feature at the end of each worked Example that lists the review
examples and end-of-chapter problems that provide additional opportunities to
practice the skill(s) covered in the Example.

22/09/14 3:26 PM


To the Instructor ​  ​| ​ ​
19

A successful new feature in the second edition was the Conceptual Checkpoints, a series of short questions that students can use to test their mastery of key
concepts as they read through a chapter. Emphasizing understanding rather than
calculation, they are designed to be easy to answer if the student has grasped the
essential concept but difficult if he or she has not. Your positive remarks on this

new feature prompted me to continue adding more of these to the fifth edition,
including questions that highlight visualization of the molecular world.
This edition has allowed me to add four new global features to the book: Learning Outcomes (LOs), Group Questions, Self-Assessment Quizzes, and Interactive
Worked Examples. You will find the learning outcomes underneath most section
heads—many of the LOs are repeated in the end of chapter material with an associated worked example. You will find the Group Questions following the chapter exercises. You can assign these as homework if you would like, but you can also use
them as in class activities to encourage active learning and peer-to-peer engagement. The Self-Assessment Quizzes are at the very beginning of the chapter review material. These quizzes are designed so that students can test themselves on
the core concepts and skills of each chapter. I encourage my students to use these
quizzes as they prepare for exams. For example, if my exam covers Chapters 5–8,
I assign the quizzes for those chapters for credit (you can do this in MasteringChemistry®). Students then get a sort of pretest on the core material that will be on the
exam. The Interactive Worked Examples are a new digital asset that we created
for this edition. These examples are available in MasteringChemistry® and at the
following website: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/tro. Each Interactive Worked
Example walks the student through a key example from the book (the examples
that have been made interactive are marked with a play icon in the book). At a key
point in the Interactive Worked Example, the video pauses and the student is asked
a question. These questions are designed to encourage students to be active in the
learning process. Once the student answers the question, the video resumes to the
end. A follow-up question can then be assigned for credit in MasteringChemistry®.
My goal in this new edition is to continue to help you make learning a more
active (rather than passive) process for your students. The new Group Questions
can help make your classroom more active. The new Conceptual Checkpoints,
along with the new Self-Assessment Quizzes, make reading the book a more active
process. The addition of the Interactive Worked Examples makes the media experience active as well. Research consistently shows that students learn better when
they are actively engaged in the process. I hope the tools that I have provided here
continue to aid you in teaching your students more effectively. Please feel free
to e-mail me with any questions or comments you might have. I look forward to
hearing from you as you use this book in your course.
Sincerely,
Nivaldo J. Tro

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 19

22/09/14 3:26 PM


Preface
New to This Edition
NEW! Key Learning Outcomes have been added to each chapter section. Learning outcomes correlate to the Chemical Skills and Examples in the end-of-chapter
material and to MasteringChemistry®. Each section (after the introductory sections) has at least one learning outcome that summarizes the key learning objective of the material to help students focus their learning and assess their progress.
NEW! Self-Assessment Quizzes. Each chapter contains a 10-15 question multiple choice self-assessment quiz. These quizzes are designed to help students review the chapter material and prepare for exams.
NEW! 3–4 Questions for Group Work have been added to the end-of-chapter
problems in each chapter to facilitate guided-inquiry learning both inside and outside the classroom.
NEW! 20 Interactive Worked Examples. Interactive Worked Examples are digital versions of the text’s worked examples that make Tro’s unique problem-solving
strategies interactive, bringing his award-winning teaching directly to all students
using his text. In these digital versions, students are instructed how to break down
problems using Tro’s proven Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check technique. The Interactive Worked Examples can be accessed by scanning the QR code on the back
cover allowing students to quickly access an office-hour type ­experience.
These problems are incorporated into MasteringChemistry® as assignable tutorial activities and are also available for download and distribution via the Instructor Resource Center (IRC) for instructional and classroom use.
More than 20 New Conceptual Checkpoints are in the fifth edition and are
designed to make reading the book an active process. The checkpoints encourage
students to stop and think about the ideas just presented before moving on and
also provide a tool for self-assessment.
Interest Box Questions are now numbered in the Everyday Chemistry, Chemistry in the Environment, Chemistry in the Media, and Chemistry and Health
­boxes so that they can easily be assigned.
Cross-references to the Math Appendix, now indicated by a +/- icon in the
fifth edition, are more visible and allow students to locate additional resources
more easily.

Additional Features

• A student-friendly, step-by-step, problem-solving approach is ­presented
throughout the book (fully introduced and explained in Chapter 2): Tro’s
unique two-and three-column examples help guide students through ­problems

 ​20

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 20

22/09/14 3:26 PM


Preface ​  ​| ​ ​
21

step-by-step using Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check. “Relationships Used”
are also included in most worked examples.
• In all chapters, figure labels follow a consistent hierarchy. Three types of
labels appear in the art. The most important information is in white shadow
boxes; the second most important is in tinted boxes (with no border); and the
third level of labels is unboxed.
• All figures and figure captions have been carefully examined, and images
and labels have been replaced or revised when needed to improve the teaching focus of the art program.
• Every end-of-chapter question has been carefully reviewed by the author
and editor and accordingly revised and/or replaced when necessary.
Some significant improvements have been made to key content areas as well.
These include:
• To reflect recent changes made by IUPAC that introduce more uncertainty in
atomic masses, the periodic tables on the inside front cover of the book and all
subsequent periodic tables in the text containing atomic masses now include
the modified following atomic masses: Li 6.94; S 32.06; Ge 72.63; Se 78.97; and

Mo 95.95.
• In Chapter 1, The Chemical World, key wording about chemicals as well as the
definition of chemistry have been changed to more strongly reflect particles
and properties connection.
• In Section 2.3, Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to Reflect Precision, clarification has been added about trailing zeros in the significant digits discussion in
Section 2.3.
• In Section 3.8, Energy, a new schematic has been added to the photo of the dam
to better illustrate the concept of potential energy, and there is a new figure,
Figure 3.15, Potential Energy of Raised Weight.
• Several new subheadings have been added to Chapter 5 to help students
better navigate the material; Table 5.3, Some Common Polyatomic Ions, has
been moved to an earlier place in Chapter 5; and fourth edition Example 5.7,
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds, has been replaced with fifth edition
Example 5.7, Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic
Ions.
• In Chapter 6, Chemistry in the Environment box Chlorine in Chlorofluorocarbons has been revised and updated. Figure 6.3, The Ozone Shield, has been
updated and revised to include a molecular perspective and be a better teaching tool and Figure 6.4, Growth of the Ozone Hole, has been updated with 2010
data.
• The transition between balancing chemical equations to investigating types
of reactions at the beginning of Section 7.5, Aqueous Solutions and Solubility:
­Compounds Dissolved in Water, has been sharpened to help students relate
Section 7.5 to the previous section.
• Figure 7.7, Solubility Rules Flowchart, has been edited so that Ca2+, Sr2+, and
Ba2+ are in periodic table order throughout for easier memorization.
• The phrase “global warming” has been replaced with “climate change”
throughout Chapter 8, Quantities in Chemical Reactions, and Figure 8.2,
Climate Change, has been updated to include global temperature data for 2011
and 2012.
• In Section 9.1, Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom, more emphasis has been
placed on the relationship between atomic structure and properties in the discussion of helium and hydrogen.

• In Section 9.4, The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits, new introductory material
has been added to emphasize the relationship between light emission and
electron motion.

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 21

22/09/14 3:26 PM


22 ​ 

​| ​  Preface

• Orbital representations in figures throughout Chapter 9 have been modified to
be more accurate.
• Throughout Chapter 10, Chemical Bonding, the term Lewis theory has been replaced with Lewis model.
• In Chapter 11, Gases, an update about how newer jets pressurize their cabins
has been added to the Everyday Chemistry box, Airplane Cabin Pressurization,
and Table 11.5, Changes in Pollutant Levels for Major U.S. Cities, 1980–2010, has
been updated to include the most recent available data.
• Content has been revised and material has been added to improve clarity in
the subsection entitled Surface Tension in Section 12.3, Intermolecular Forces in
Action: Surface Tension and Viscosity. Also, the caption for Figure 12.5, Origin of
Surface Tension, has been revised and the phase inset figures in Figure 12.16,
Heating Curve during Melting, have been corrected to show the phases more
accurately.
• The new title for Section 12.6, Types of Intermolecular Forces: Dispersion,
­Dipole–Dipole, Hydrogen Bonding, and Ion–Dipole, reflects new content and
new ­material about ion–dipole forces, including new Figure 12.25, Ion–Dipole
Forces. Also, ion–dipole forces have been added to Table 12.5, Types of Intermolecular Forces, and the art in the table now depicts space-filling models of the

molecules.
• Content in Section 13.3, Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water: How to Make Rock
Candy, links the discussion of solvent–solute interactions to the discussion of
intermolecular forces in Chapter 12.
• Figure 14.19, How Buffers Resist pH Change, has been changed to be more useful
and easier for students to understand.
• Section 14.11, Acid Rain: An Environmental Problem Related to Fossil Fuel Combustion, has been cut.
• New, brief introductory statements have been added to Section 15.6, Calculating and Using Equilibrium Constants, and in Section 15.10, The Effect of a
Temperature Change on Equilibrium, numbers that indicate sequence have been
added to the three unnumbered equations that indicate how equilibrium
changes when heat is added or removed from exothermic and endothermic
reactions.
• The title of Figure 16.12, Used Voltaic Cell, has been corrected, and the art has
been slightly modified.
• Figure 16.18, Schematic Diagram of a Fuel-Cell Breathalyzer, in the box Everyday
Chemistry: The Fuel-Cell Breathalyzer has also been modified for accuracy.
The design and features of this text have been conceived to work together as
an integrated whole with a single purpose: to help students understand chemical
principles and to master problem-solving skills in a context of relevance. Students
must be able not only to grasp chemical concepts and solve chemical problems,
but also to understand how those concepts and problem-solving skills are relevant
to their other courses, their eventual career paths, and their daily lives.

Teaching Principles
The development of basic chemical principles—such as those of atomic structure,
chemical bonding, chemical reactions, and the gas laws—is one of the main goals
of this text. Students must acquire a firm grasp of these principles in order to succeed in the general chemistry sequence or the chemistry courses that support the

A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 22

22/09/14 3:26 PM