Facts on file encyclopedia ovolume VI the contemporary world 1950 to the present

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
WORLD HISTORY
The Contemporary World
1950 to the Present

VOLUME VI


ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
WORLD HISTORY
Volume I
The Ancient World
Prehistoric Eras to 600 c.e.
Volume II
The Expanding World
600 c.e. to 1450
Volume III
The First Global Age
1450 to 1750
Volume IV
Age of Revolution and Empire
1750 to 1900
Volume V
Crisis and Achievement
1900 to 1950
Volume VI
The Contemporary World
1950 to the Present
Volume VII
Primary Documents
Master Index

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
WORLD HISTORY
The Contemporary World
1950 to the Present

VOLUME VI
edited by
Marsha E. Ackermann
Michael J. Schroeder
Janice J. Terry
Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur
Mark F. Whitters


Encyclopedia of World History
Copyright © 2008 by Marsha E. Ackermann, Michael J. Schroeder, Janice J. Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo
Upshur, and Mark F. Whitters.
Maps copyright © 2008 by Infobase Publishing.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Encyclopedia of world history / edited by Marsha E. Ackermann . . . [et al.].

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.


ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4 (hc : alk. paper)

1. World history—Encyclopedias. I. Ackermann, Marsha E.

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
WORLD HISTORY
Volume VI
CONTENTS
About the Editors
Foreword
Historical Atlas
List of Articles
List of Contributors
Chronology
Major Themes
Articles A to Z
Resource Guide
Index

vi
vii
viii

ix
xv
xix
xxxi
1–476
477
481


About the Editors
Marsha E. Ackermann received a Ph.D. in American culture from the University of Michigan. She
is the author of the award-winning book Cool Comfort: America’s Romance with Air-Conditioning and has taught U.S. history and related topics at the University of Michigan, Michigan State
University, and Eastern Michigan University.
Michael J. Schroeder received a Ph.D. in history from the University of Michigan and currently
teaches at Eastern Michigan University. Author of the textbook The New Immigrants: Mexican
Americans, he has published numerous articles on Latin American history.
Janice J. Terry received a Ph.D. from the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of
London, and is professor emeritus of Middle East history at Eastern Michigan University. Her
latest book is U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East: The Role of Lobbies and Special Interest
Groups. She is also a coauthor of the world history textbooks The 20th Century: A Brief Global
History and World History.
Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur received a Ph.D. from the University of Michigan and is professor emeritus of
Chinese history at Eastern Michigan University. She is a coauthor of the world history textbooks
The 20th Century: A Brief Global History and World History.
Mark F. Whitters received a Ph.D. in religion and history from The Catholic University of America
and currently teaches at Eastern Michigan University. His publications include The Epistle of Second Baruch: A Study in Form and Message.

vi

Foreword
The seven-volume Encyclopedia of World History is a comprehensive reference to the most important events, themes, and personalities in world history. The encyclopedia covers the entire range
of human history in chronological order—from the prehistoric eras and early civilizations to our
contemporary age—using six time periods that will be familiar to students and teachers of world
history. This reference work provides a resource for students—and the general public—with content that is closely aligned to the National Standards for World History and the College Board’s
Advanced Placement World History course, both of which have been widely adopted by states and
school districts.
This encyclopedia is one of the first to offer a balanced presentation of human history for a truly
global perspective of the past. Each of the six chronological volumes begins with an in-depth essay
that covers five themes common to all periods of world history. They discuss such important issues
as technological progress, agriculture and food production, warfare, trade and cultural interactions,
and social and class relationships. These major themes allow the reader to follow the development
of the world’s major regions and civilizations and make comparisons across time and place.
The encyclopedia was edited by a team of five accomplished historians chosen because they are
specialists in different areas and eras of world history, as well as having taught world history in
the classroom. They and many other experts are responsible for writing the approximately 2,000
signed entries based on the latest scholarship. Additionally each article is cross-referenced with relevant other ones in that volume. A chronology is included to provide students with a chronological
reference to major events in the given era. In each volume an array of full-color maps provides geographic context, while numerous illustrations provide visual contexts to the material. Each article
also concludes with a bibliography of several readily available pertinent reference works in English.
Historical documents included in the seventh volume provide the reader with primary sources, a
feature that is especially important for students. Each volume also includes its own index, while the
seventh volume contains a master index for the set.
Marsha E. Ackermann
Michael J. Schroeder
Janice J. Terry
Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur
Mark F. Whitters
Eastern Michigan University

vii

Historical Atlas
List of Maps

The Cold War, 1946–1991
China—Border Disputes and the Cultural Revolution, 1948–1983
Indochina War, 1946–1954
The Korean War, 1950–1953
Suez Canal Crisis, 1956
African Independence
The U.S. and Latin America, 1954–2000
Israel following the 1967 War
Racial Unrest and Segregation in America, 1965–1968
South Africa under Apartheid
The Vietnam War
Return of the Sinai to Egypt, 1975–1982
Governments of the Middle East and North Africa
The Collapse of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact, 1989–1991
Persian Gulf War, 1991
The United Nations and the World
Asia: Wars, Political Unrest, and Territorial Disputes, 1945–Present
International Organizations
Major Regional Trading Groups
The Kyoto Protocol and CO2 Emissions
Yugoslavia, 1945–2006
Oil Supply and Demand
Transportation and Infrastructure in the Modern World
Natural and Man-Made Environmental Disasters
Weapons of Mass Destruction, 2007

Decolonization in South and Southeast Asia, 1947–2000
Religion in the Modern World
Major Terrorist Attacks since 1979
The Spread of Democracy and Women’s Suffrage
Air Campaign in Kosovo, March 25–June 20, 1999

viii

M161
M162
M163
M164
M165
M166
M167
M168
M169
M170
M171
M172
M173
M174
M175
M176–177
M178
M179
M180
M181
M182
M183

M184
M185
M186
M187
M188
M189
M190–191
M192


List of Articles
A
Afghanistan
African National Congress (ANC)
African Union
AIDS crisis
Akihito
Algerian revolution
Allende, Salvador
Alliance for Progress
American Federation of Labor and Congress of
Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO)
American Indian Movement (AIM)
Angola, Republic of
ANZUS Treaty
appropriate technology
Arab-Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations
Arab-Israeli War (1956)
Arab-Israeli War (1967)
Arab-Israeli War (1973)

Arab-Israeli War (1982)
Arafat, Yasir
Arévalo, Juan José
Argentina, Madres de Plaza de Mayo
Aristide, Jean-Bertrand
Armenia and Azerbaijan
arms race/atomic weapons

art and architecture
Asian Development Bank
Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
Assad, Hafez alAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
Aswa¯n Dam
Aung San Suu Kyi
Awami League
Ayub Khan, Muhammad
B
Ba’ath Party
baby boom, U.S.
Baghdad Pact/CENTO
Balkans (1991–present)
Baltic States (1991–present)
Banda, Hastings
Bandung Conference (Asian-African Conference)
Bangladesh, People’s Republic of
Bay of Pigs
Beat movement
Berlin blockade/airlift
Betancourt, Rómulo
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX)
Bhutto, Benazir
ix




List of Articles

Bhutto, Zulfikar
Biafran War (1967–1970)
biblical inerrancy
Black Power movement
Bolivian revolution (1952–1964)
Bosch, Juan
Bourguiba, Habib
Bracero Program (1942–1964)
Brazil, military dictatorship in (1964–1985)
Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich
Brown v. Board of Education
Bush, George H.W.
Bush, George W.
C
Canada after 1950
Caribbean Basin Initiative
Carter, Jimmy
Castro, Fidel
Central Asia after 1991
Chávez, Hugo
Chiang Ching-kuo

“Chicago Boys” (Chilean economists, 1973–1980s)
China, human rights and dissidents in
China, People’s Republic of
Chinese-Vietnamese conflict
Civil Rights movement, U.S.
Clinton, Bill (1946– ) and Hillary Rodham
(1947– )
cold war
Colombia, La Violencia in (1946–1966)
Comecon
Commonwealth of Nations
contra war (Nicaragua, 1980s)
counterculture in the United States and Europe
Cuban migration to the United States
Cuban missile crisis (October 1962)
Cuban revolution (1959– )
Cyprus, independence of
Cyprus, Turkish invasion of
D
Dalai Lama, 14th (Tenzin Gyatso)
Darfur
Day, Dorothy
Democratic Progressive Party and Chen Shui-bian
(Chen Shui-pien)
Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaïre)
Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-p’ing)
disarmament, nuclear
drug wars, international

Dutch New Guinea/West Irian

Duvalier dictatorship (Haiti, 1957–1986)
E
Eastern bloc, collapse of the
East Timor
Ebadi, Shirin
Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA)
ecumenical movement
Egyptian revolution (1952)
El Salvador, revolution and civil war in (1970s–
1990s)
environmental disasters (anthropogenic)
environmental problems
Equal Rights Amendment
Eritrea
Ethiopia, Federal Democratic Republic of
European Economic Community/Common Market
European Union
F
Falklands War (1982)
Falun Gong
Fanon, Frantz
feminism, worldwide
Fonseca Amador, Carlos
Ford, Gerald
Free Speech Movement
FRELIMO
G
Gaitán, Jorge Eliécer
Gandhi, Indira
Gandhi, Rajiv, and Sonia S.

Gang of Four and Jiang Qing (Chiang Ch’ing)
Gaulle, Charles de
gay liberation movements
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
Germany (post–World War II)
Ghana
globalization
Gorbachev, Mikhail
Graham, Billy
Great Leap Forward in China (1958–1961)
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in China
(1966–1976)
Great Society (U.S.)
Greek Junta
Green Revolution
Grenada, U.S. invasion of (1983)
Guatemala, civil war in (1960–1996)



Guevara, Ernesto “Che”
Gulf War, First (1991)
Gulf War, Second (Iraq War)
H
Hamas
Hável, Vaclav
Hizbollah
Ho Chi Minh
Hong Kong
Horn of Africa

Hu Jintao (Hu Chin-t’ao)
Hu Yaobang (Hu Yao-pang)
Huk Rebellion
Hundred Flowers Campaign in China (1956–1957)
Hungarian revolt (1956)
Hussein, Saddam
I
India
Indochina War (First and Second)
Indonesian Communist Party (PKI)
Indo-Pakistani Wars (Kashmir)
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
interstate highway system, U.S.
Intifada (first)
Intifada, al-Aqsa
Iran, contemporary
Iran-contra affair
Iran hostage crisis
Iranian revolution
Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988)
Iraq revolution (1958)
Iraq War
Irish Republican Army (IRA)
Islamist movements
J
Janata Party
Al Jazeera
Jesus movement
Jiang Zemin (Chiang Tse-min)

John Paul II
Johnson, Lyndon B.
Jordan, Hashemite monarchy in
K
Karmal, Babrak
Karzai, Hamid
Kaunda, Kenneth

List of Articles
Kennedy, John F.
Kenya
Kenyatta, Jomo
Khan, Liaquat Ali
Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah
Khrushchev, Nikita
Kim Il Sung (1912–1994)/Kim Jong Il (1942– )
King, Martin Luther, Jr.
Koizumi, Junichiro
Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea, Republic of
Korean War (1950–1953)
Kubitschek, Juscelino
Kurds
Kuwait
Kyoto Treaty
L
Latin American culture
Latin American politics
Latin American social issues
Lebanese civil war

Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)
Liberian civil wars (1989–1996 and 1999–2003)
Libya
Lin Biao (Lin Piao)
literature
Li Zongren (Li Tsung-jen)
Lumumba, Patrice
M
Macao (1999)
Macapagal-Arroyo, Gloria
Makarios III
Malaysia, Federation of
Malcolm X
Mandela, Nelson
Manley, Michael
Marcos, Ferdinand and Imelda
Marshall, Thurgood
Marshall Plan
McCarthyism
Meir, Golda
Menchú, Rigoberta
Mexico, agrarian reform in
Mobutu Sese Seko
Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott
Montoneros (Argentine urban guerrillas, 1970s)
Morocco
Mossadeq, Mohammad
Mountbatten, Louis, Lord

xi

xii

List of Articles

Mugabe, Robert
Musharraf, Pervez
music
N
Namibia
Nasser, Gamal Abdel
Ne Win
Nehru, Jawaharlal
Nepal civil war
Ngo Dinh Diem
Nguyen Van Thieu
Nicaraguan revolution (1979–1990)
Nigeria
Nixon, Richard
Nkrumah, Kwame
Noriega, Manuel
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Numeiri, Jaafar
Nunavut Territory, Canada
Nyerere, Julius
O
Olympics (1950–present)
Organization of American States (OAS)

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC)
P
Pakistan People’s Party
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
Park Chung Hee
Pathet Lao
Paz Estenssoro, Victor
Peace Corps, U.S.
Perón, Juan Domingo
Philippine revolution (1986)
Pinochet Ugarte, Augusto
Poland (1991–present)
Pol Pot
Portugal (1930–present)
Prague Spring
presidential impeachment, U.S.
Putin, Vladimir
Q
Qaddafi, Muammar
al-Qaeda
Quebec sovereignty movement
Qutb, Sayyid

R
Rabin, Yitzhak
Rahman, Sheikh Mujibur
Reagan, Ronald
Rhee, Syngman
Rhodesia/Zimbabwe independence movements

Roe v. Wade
Rosenberg, Julius and Ethel
Russian Federation
Rwanda/Burundi conflict
S
Sahel, ecological crisis in
San Francisco, treaty of
Sandinista National Liberation Front
Saudi Arabia
School of the Americas
Shanghai Communiqué
Shastri, Lal Bahadur
Shining Path
Silva, Luiz Inácio Lula da
Singapore
Singh, Manmohan
Sino-Soviet Treaty (1950)
Solidarity movement
Somalia (1950–2006)
South East Asia Treaty Organization
(SEATO)
Southern Baptist Convention
Soviet Union, dissolution of the
space exploration
Spain
Sri Lanka
St. Lawrence Seaway
student movements (1960s)
suburbanization, U.S.
Sudanese civil wars (1970–present)

Suharto, Haji Mohammad
Sukarno, Ahmed
T
Taiwan (Republic of China)
Taliban
Tamil Tigers
Tashkent Agreement
Tlatelolco massacre (1968)
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre
Teresa of Calcutta, Mother
terrorism
Thatcher, Margaret
Third World/Global South



Tiananmen Square massacre
Tibetan Revolt (1959)
Tito, Marshal
Togo
Torrijos, Omar
Touré, Ahmed Sékou
Trudeau, Pierre
Turabi, Hassan ‘abd Allah alTurkey
U
Uganda (1950–present)
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates (UAE)
United Arab Republic (UAR)
United Nations

U Nu
U.S.-Japan Mutual Defense Treaty
U.S. relations with China (Nixon)
U.S.-Republic of Korea Mutual Defense
Treaty
U.S.-Taiwan Mutual Defense Treaty
V
Vajpayee, Atal Bihari
Vatican II Council (1962–1965)
Velasco Ibarra, José

List of Articles
Vietnam, Democratic Republic of
Vietnam, Republic of
Vietnam War
Vo Nguyen Giap
Vorster, B.J.
W
Wajed, Sheikh Hasina
Warsaw Pact
Watergate scandal
Wen Jiabao (Wen Chia-pao)
Western Saharan War
World Bank
World Trade Center, September 11, 2001
Y
Yahya Khan
Yeltsin, Boris
Yemen
Yoshida Shigeru

Yugoslavia, breakup and war in
Z
Zapatistas
Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai)
Zia, Khaleda
Zia-ul-Haq, Mohammad

xiii



List of Contributors
Marsha E. Ackermann
Eastern Michigan University

Collin Boyd
Eastern Michigan University

Julie Eadeh
U.S. Department of Sate

Mohammed Badrul Alam
Miyazaki International College

Anna Brown
Independent Scholar

Brian M. Eichstadt
Eastern Michigan
University

Samar Attar
Independent Scholar

Keith Bukovich
Eastern Michigan University

Melanie A. Bailey
Centenary College

Nathalie Cavasin
Waseda University, Japan

John H. Barnhill
Independent Scholar

Elizabeth C. Charles
Independent Scholar

Katie Belliel
Independent Scholar

Stephen B. Clark
Independent Scholar

Melissa Benne
St. Charles Community College

Christopher M. Cook
University of Toronto

Timothy Paul Erdel
Bethel College
Theodore W. Eversole
Ivybridge Community
College
David M. Fahey
University of Miami, Ohio
Chino Fernandez
Independent Scholar

Brett Bennett
Indiana University

Justin Corfield
Geelong Grammar School

Richard M. Filipink, Jr.
Western Illinois
University

Sarah Boslaugh
Washington University, St. Louis

Steven Dieter
Royal Military College of Canada

Anke Finger
Independent Scholar
xv

xvi

List of Contributors

Dan Fitzsimmons
Independent Scholar

Soo Chun Lu
Independent Scholar

Uta Kresse Raina
Temple University

Scott Fitzsimmons
University of Calgary

Eric Martone
Waterbury Public Schools

Michael A. Ridge
University of Iowa

John Haas
College of the Canyons

John M. Meyernik
Eastern Michigan
University

Thomas Robertson
Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Jean Shepherd Hamm
East Tennessee State University
Laura J. Hilton
Muskingum College
Alphine W. Jefferson
Randolph-Macon College
Nicholas Katers
University of Wisconsin
Emilian Kavalski
University of Alberta
Randa A. Kayyali
George Mason University
Andrew Kellett
University of Maryland

Heather K. Michon
Independent Scholar
Patit Paban Mishra
Sambalpur University
Scott C. Monje
Independent Scholar
Diego I. Murguía
Buenos Aries University
Caryn E. Neumann
Ohio State University
Mitchell Newton-Matza

University of St. Francis
Mari Nukii
Independent Scholar

Brian Kolodiejchuk
Missionaries of Charity
(India)

Viktor Pal
University of Tampere

Andrej Kreutz
University of Calgary

David Miller Parker
California State University

Bill Kte’pi
Independent Scholar

Chris Pennington
University of Toronto

Norman C. Rothman
University of Maryland
Curtis R. Ryan
Appalachian State University
Hisham M. Sabki
Eastern Michigan University
Steve Sagarra

Independent Scholar
Anthony Santoro
University of Heidelberg
Nicholas J. Schlosser
University of Maryland
Lucy Scholand
Independent Scholar
Michael J. Schroeder
Eastern Michigan University
James E. Seelye, Jr.
University of Toledo
Caleb Simmons
Eastern Michigan University

Kathleen Legg
Colorado State University

Julia Pitman
Colorado State University

Olena V. Smyntyna
Mechnikov National University,
Ukraine

Jenna Levin
Independent Scholar

R. G. Pradhan
Sambalpur University

Robert N. Stacy
Independent Scholar

Thomas A. Lewis
Independent Scholar

Luca Prono
Independent Scholar

Janice J. Terry
Eastern Michigan University

Karl Loewenstein
University of Wisconsin

Babak Rahimi
University of California

Ashley Thirkill-Mackelprang
University of Washington




List of Contributors

Ryan Touhey
University of Waterloo

Rian M. Wall

University of Calgary

Taymiya R. Zaman
University of Michigan

Dallace W. Unger, Jr.
Colorado State University

John Walsh
Shinawatra University

Ramzi Abou Zeineddine
George Mason University

Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur
Eastern Michigan University

R. Dennis Walters
Independent Scholar

Verónica. M. Ziliotto
Buenos Aires University

Sathyaraj Venkatesan
Independent Scholar

Mark F. Whitters
Eastern Michigan University

Magdalena Zolkos

Independent Scholar

Matthew H. Wahlert
Miami University, Ohio

Jake Yap
Loyola School of Theology (Manila)

xvii



Chronology
1950 USSR and China Sign Pact
China signs a 30-year Treaty of Friendship with the
Soviet Union.

1952 King George VI Dies
King George VI of Great Britain dies on February 6.
Elizabeth is crowned queen.

1950 North Korea Invades the South
The Korean War begins with an attack on June 24
made by North Korean forces across the 38th parallel
dividing North and South Korea.

1952 Mau Mau Begin Terrorist and Nationalist Actions
A state of emergency is declared by the British governor of Kenya as the Mau Mau begin an open uprising
against British rule.

1950 Truman Announces National Emergency
To respond to the strain on economic and military
resources caused by the Korean War, U.S. President
Truman announces a National Emergency.

1952 King Farouk Abdicates
Young army officers, disgusted by widespread corruption in Egypt, stage a revolt against King Farouk.
The revolt is led by General Mohammed Naguib and
Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser.

1951 King Abdullah Is Assassinated
King Abdullah of Jordan (formerly Transjordan) is
assassinated while praying at the Al-Aqsa Mosque in
Jerusalem.
1951 H-Bomb
On May 12, the United States detonates a hydrogen
bomb on a Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific.
1951 First Electronic Computer
The Remington Rand Corporation unveils the first
commercial digital computer, called the UNIVAC.

1952 Revolt in Bolivia
A revolt takes place in Bolivia when the Movimento
Nacional Revolucionario is deprived of the election
of its leader as president.
1952 Polio Vaccine Is Invented
A vaccine against the disease polio is developed by
Jonas Salk.
1952–57 First Five-Year Plan in People’s Republic of China
follows the Soviet model.

xix


xx

Chronology

1953 Korean Armistice
On July 27, the signing of an armistice between the
United Nations and North Korea ends the fighting of
the Korean War.

1955 Military Coup in Argentina
President Juan Perón of Argentina is ousted by the
military. Following the death of his wife, Eva, he loses
much of his support.

1953 Stalin Dies
Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union, dies at the
age of 73. Stalin is succeeded by Georgy Malenkov
and, later, Nikita Khrushchev.

1956 Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) Launches 100 Flowers Campaign
Intellectuals in China are punished for criticizing the
Chinese Communist Party

1954 U.S.–South Korea Mutual Defense Treaty
The United States signs a military accord with South
Korea.

1956 Soviet Troops March into Hungary
Rioting against the Soviets erupts throughout Hungary.
Soviet troops are called in to put down the revolt.

1954 Dien Bien Phu
On May 7, Dien Bien Phu falls to Communist Vietminh forces, and with it so do French hopes of victory
in Vietnam.

1956 Tunisia and Morocco Become Independent
Large-scale opposition to French rule forces the
French to grant independence to Morocco.

1954 Geneva Accords
The Geneva Accords end the French war in Indochina. Under the terms, the country is divided into
a communist north and noncommunist south. Laos
and Cambodia also become independent.

1956 Sudan Becomes Independent
Sudan had been under joint Egyptian-British rule.
The Sudanese vote for independence, and on January
1, the country’s independence is declared.

1954 SEATO Is Formed
In an additional collective security alliance, modeled on
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, eight nations
form the South East Asia Treaty Organization.

1956 Suez War
After sustained terrorist attacks launched from Egyptian territory, Israel, in coordination with Britain and
France, attack and capture the Sinai Peninsula from

Egypt. At the same time, Britain and France seize the
Suez Canal, which has been nationalized by Egypt.

1954 Republic of China–U.S. Mutual Defense Treaty
The United States provides the Republic of China
protection against the People’s Republic of China.

1957 Common Market Is Formed
An economic union is formed by six European countries.

1954 Revolt in Algeria
The National Liberation Front (FLN) begins a revolt
against French rule.

1957 Britain Grants Independence to Malaysia
Malaysia is granted independence from British colonial rule and becomes a centralized federation with a
constitutional monarchy.

1954 Segregation Is Ruled Illegal
The U.S. Supreme Court, in the case of Brown v. Board
of Education, rules that segregation is unconstitutional.
1954 U.S. Backs Coup in Guatemala
The Guatemalan government of Jacobo Arbenz Guzman is overthrown by military forces led by Colonel
Carlos Castillo Armas. Armas receives direct support
from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency.
1955 Bandung Conference of Nonaligned Nations
A conference is held in Bandung, Indonesia, under
People’s Republic of China and India’s leadership.

1957 Sputnik Is Launched

On October 4 the Soviet Union launches the first artificial satellite into space.
1957–75 Second Indochina War
A war of national liberation in the wake of World
War II is fought by nationalist Vietnamese against
French, American, and Chinese forces.
1957 Military Dictatorship Ends in Venezuela
A nine-year military dictatorship in Venezuela is ousted in 1957. Large-scale rioting leads to its fall.



1958 Imre Nagy Is Executed in Hungary
The Hungarian Communist regime executes Imre
Nagy, the leader of the Hungarian revolution of 1956.
1958 Egypt and Syria Join United Arab Republic
Gamal Abdel Nasser successfully negotiates the merger of Egypt and Syria into the United Arab Republic.
1958 U.S. Troops Land in Lebanon
President Dwight Eisenhower orders 5,000 U.S.
Marines to Lebanon to help maintain order after
the ouster of the pro-Western Lebanese government,
and the revolution in Iraq brings down a pro-British
regime.
1958–60 Mao Zedong’s Great Leap Forward
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) launches an economic
and social plan with the goal of transforming mainland
China into a modern communist society.
1959 Singapore Gains Independence
Singapore becomes an independent state in the British
Commonwealth on June 3.
1959 Uprising in Tibet
Fighting breaks out between Communist Chinese

troops and the population in Lhasa, who are rebelling
against Communist rule. Dalai Lama flees to India.
1959 Castro Seizes Power in Cuba
On January 1, Fidel Castro marches into Havana
after Cuban dictator Batista flees.
1960 Syngman Rhee Is Ousted
President of South Korea Syngman Rhee is ousted by
student protests.
1960 Sino-Soviet Split
An ideological split develops between Communist
China and the Soviet Union. Armed border conflict
occurs between the two nations.
1960 African Independence
Niger, Mauritania, Mali, French Congo, Chad, and
Madagascar all become independent.

Chronology

xxi

is created, with Joseph Kasavubu as president and
Patrice Lumumba as premier. A civil war subsequently breaks out when Moise Tshombe declares Kantaga
Province independent.
1961 Kennedy Is Inaugurated
President John Kennedy gives a brief but stirring inaugural speech that signifies the birth of a new era.
1962 Agreement Establishes Malaysia Federation
An agreement is reached on the establishment of a
Malaysian federation comprising Malaysia, Singapore, Sarawak, Brunei, and British Borneo.
1962 Border War Between China and India
Battles break out between the two countries over disputed territory.

1962 Burundi Independence
Burundi was a part of Belgian Mandated Territory.
It petitions the United Nations for full independence,
which is granted in 1962.
1962 Algeria Is Granted Independence
On July 1 Algerians vote overwhelmingly for independence from France. On July 3 Algeria officially declares
its independence.
1962 Environmental Movement Is Launched
Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring is published in
September. By describing the effects of the use of pesticides and other chemicals on the environment, Carson helps launch the environmental movement.
1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
The Soviets secretly place medium-range missiles in
Cuba. When the U.S. government finds out, it blockades Cuba. The Soviets pull out the missiles, ending
the crisis.
1963 Kenya Declares Independence
On December 12, Great Britain grants Kenya independence within the Commonwealth.

1960 Nigerian Independence
On October 1, Nigeria becomes independent.

1963 OAU Is Founded
Representatives of 30 of the 32 independent nations
of Africa meet in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to form the
Organization of African Unity (OAU).

1960 Belgian Congo Independence
On June 30, an independent Republic of the Congo

1963 Nuclear Test Ban Agreement
The first test ban agreement between the United States

xxii

Chronology

and the Soviet Union is ratified by the Senate on October 10. The agreement bans the above-ground testing
of nuclear weapons.

1965 Rhodesia Declares Independence
Rhodesia declares its independence from Great Britain, in defiance of the British government.

1963 March on Washington, D.C.
Two hundred thousand people participate in the largest nonviolent demonstration ever held to support the
passage of civil rights legislation.

1966 Botswana Gains Independence
On September 30 Botswana, formerly called the Bechuanaland Protectorate, becomes independent.

1963 President Kennedy Is Assassinated
On November 22 while visiting Dallas, Texas, President Kennedy is shot and killed by Lee Harvey
Oswald.
1964 China Explodes A-Bomb
On October 16 the Chinese explode their first atomic
weapon.
1964 Nikita Khrushchev Is Ousted
Nikita Khrushchev is ousted as leader of the Soviet
Union and is succeeded by Leonid Brezhnev.
1964 Tonkin Gulf Resolution
The U.S. Congress passes the Tonkin Gulf Resolution,

which gives the president the authorization to “take
all necessary steps and measures to repel any armed
attack against the forces of the United States and to
prevent further aggression.” It leads to increased U.S.
military involvement in the Vietnam War.
1964 Civil Rights Act of 1964
After a long fight the civil rights legislation of 1964
is passed. It gives the U.S. federal government broad
powers to fight racial discrimination.
1965 War Escalates in Vietnam
In March the United States initiates the first sustained
attacks against North Vietnam, in an action named
Rolling Thunder.
1965 Indo-Pakistani War
The war is the second skirmish between India and
Pakistan over control of Kashmir.
1965 Gambia Gains Independence
On February 18 Gambia becomes an independent
country.
1965 Singapore Becomes Independent
Singapore secedes from Malaysia and gains independence.

1966 Lesotho Gains Independence
On October 4, the British colony of Basutoland
becomes independent, and is renamed Lesotho.
1966 Sukarno Resigns
Sukarno resigns as president of Indonesia, after a
failed coup. He is succeeded by General Suharto.
1966 Nigerian Civil War
In January a series of insurrections in the Nigerian

army brings chaos to the country.
1966 Great Proletarian Revolution
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) launches another effort
to reform Chinese society.
1966 National Organization of Women Is Founded
The National Organization of Women is founded in
the United States by Betty Friedan, who becomes its
first president.
1967 ASEAN Is Formed
The Association of South-East Asian Nations
(ASEAN) is formed by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand to aid economic
growth, progress, and cultural development, and to
promote peace in Southeast Asia.
1967 Military Coup in Greece
The Greek military stages a coup against the civilian
government. All moderate and leftist politicians are
arrested. When King Constantine refuses to support
the military, he is sent into exile.
1967 Six-Day War
After being threatened with attack, Israel attacks
its Arab neighbors. In six days it gains victory over
Egypt, Jordan, and Syria.
1967 Antiwar Protests
Amid growing opposition to the war in Vietnam,
large-scale antiwar protests are held in New York,
San Francisco, and other U.S. cities.



1967 Che Guevera Is Killed in Bolivia

Ernesto “Che” Guevera is killed by Bolivian troops
hunting down Bolivian rebels.
1968 Rioting in France
French students take to the streets, bringing Paris to
a virtual standstill. Fighting breaks out between the
students and the police.
1968 “Prague Spring” in Czechoslovakia
Alexander Dubcˇek becomes first secretary of the
Communist Party in Czechoslovakia; his reforms are
crushed by Soviet-led Warsaw Pact troops.

Chronology

xxiii

1970 Four Are Killed at Kent State
American campuses erupt in protest against the Vietnam War. At Kent State University, in Ohio, National
Guardsmen kill four unarmed protesters.
1970 Salvador Allende Becomes President of Chile
Salvador Allende Gossens is elected president of Chile.
He is the first Marxist ever elected in free elections.
1971 Communist China Joins UN, Replacing Taiwan
On October 25 the United Nations approves the
membership of Communist China, replacing Taiwan.

1968 Martin Luther King, Jr., Is Assassinated
On April 4, a lone assassin kills Dr. Martin Luther
King, Jr., America’s leading civil rights activist.

1971 Idi Amin Seizes Power in Uganda

In January, while Ugandan President Milton Obote is
out of the country, Colonel Idi Amin stages a coup to
oust the president.

1968 Robert Kennedy Is Assassinated
Robert Kennedy, brother of the late President John F.
Kennedy, is killed on June 5, after winning the Democratic primary for the presidency in California.

1972 Arab Terrorists Attack Israeli Olympic Team
Palestinian terrorists, who are members of the Black
September Organization, attack the Israeli team at
the 1972 Summer Olympics.

1969 Non-Proliferation Agreement Is Signed
The United States and the Soviet Union sign the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, which pledges the
two nations would not divulge secret information
that would allow additional countries to build nuclear weapons.

1972 Nixon Visits China
On February 21, 1972, President Richard Nixon
arrives in Beijing for a seven-day stay. Although no
major agreements are reached during the summit, its
occurrence ushers in a new era of diplomacy for the
United States.

1969 Clashes on Soviet-Chinese Border
In March the ideological rift between the Soviet Union
and Communist China deteriorates into fighting along
the border. Thirty Soviet soldiers are killed in one clash

on a small, uninhabited island in the Ussuri River.

1973 U.S. Completes Withdrawal from Vietnam
On January 27 the United States and North Vietnam
sign the Paris peace accords. Under the terms of the
accords, U.S. troops withdraw from Vietnam.

1969 War Between Honduras and El Salvador
Rioting after a lost soccer match leads to a brief war
between Honduras and El Salvador.
1969 Apollo 11
Apollo 11, with Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins,
and Edwin Aldrin, Jr., lifts off for the Moon on July
16. Four days later Neil Armstrong sets foot on the
Moon.
1970 War in Vietnam Spreads to Cambodia
On April 30 President Richard Nixon announces that
U.S. troops would join with South Vietnamese troops
to invade the border area of Cambodia and eliminate
Communist sanctuaries.

1973 Severe Drought
A seven-year drought in sub-Saharan Africa brings
starvation to over 100,000 people in the countries
of Chad, Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, and
Burkina Faso.
1973 Fourth Arab-Israeli War
On October 6, the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur, the
Egyptians and the Syrians launch a surprise attack
against Israel to retake territory occupied since 1967.

1973 Allende Is Killed in Coup
A military coup, purportedly supported by the U.S.
Central Intelligence Agency, deposes President Allende of Chile and replaces him with Augusto Pinochet
Ugarte.


xxiv

Chronology

1974 Military Government of Greece Resigns
The military junta in Greece resigns, turning control
of the government over to Constantine Karamanlis.
Martial law is lifted, and elections are held.
1974 Military Coup in Portugal
A leftist military coup takes place in Portugal. It unseats
the right-wing dictatorship in power for 40 years.
1974 India Explodes Nuclear Device
On May 18 the Indians detonate a nuclear bomb in
an underground explosion.
1974 Emperor Haile Selassie Is Deposed in Ethiopia
The 44-year reign of Haile Selassie comes to an end
when he is deposed by the army.
1974 President Nixon Resigns
On August 8, 1974, Richard Nixon becomes the first
president in U.S. history to resign. Nixon resigns as
the House of Representatives is poised to vote on the
articles of impeachment against him. He is succeeded
by Gerald Ford.
1974 Soyuz-Apollo Mission

The meeting of the American Apollo and the Soviet
Soyuz on July 19, 1975, marks the first cooperative
space mission between the United States and the Soviet Union.
1975 Helsinki Accords
Thirty-five nations sign the Helsinki Accords. The
accords recognize the borders of Europe as they had
been at the end of the World War II, thus recognizing
Soviet domination of the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania).
1975 Franco Dies
On November 20 Francisco Franco dies. His death
ends a dictatorship that had lasted since the Spanish
civil war.
1975 Pol Pot in Cambodia
On April 17, Communist forces capture Phnom Penh,
the capital of Cambodia. The new Communist regime
is headed by Pol Pot, who commits genocide in Cambodia.
1975 Communists Defeat South Vietnam
On April 30 North Vietnamese Communist forces
capture Saigon, ending the Vietnam War.

1975 Mozambique Gains Independence
Portugal grants independence to Mozambique on
June 25.
1975 Angola Independent
Angola declares its independence from Portugal. Two
separate governments are proclaimed.
1975 King Faisal Is Assassinated
King Faisal ibn Abd-al-Aziz of Saudi Arabia is assassinated by a family member.
1976 Mao Zedong Dies
Chairman Mao dies, the Cultural Revolution ends,

and the Gang of Four is ousted.
1977 First Elections Are Held in Pakistan
The first general elections held under civilian rule take
place on March 7.
1978 Chiang Ching-kuo Is Elected President
Chiang Ching-kuo is elected president of the Republic
of China, beginning democratization.
1978 Sandinista Guerrillas Seize Hostages
Sandinista guerrillas capture the National Palace in
Managua, Nicaragua. They seize 1,500 hostages,
including members of the legislature.
1978 Deng Xiaoping in Power
Deng Xiaoping comes to power in China and begins
economic reforms.
1978 John Paul II Is Elected Pope.
John Paul II is the first Pole to be elected pope.
1979 SALT II
The SALT II Accord is reached in June, allowing both
the United States and the Soviet Union to build up
to 2,250 missiles, of which 1,320 could be MIRVD
(Multiple Independent Re-entry Vehicles).
1979 U.S. and China Establish Relations
In January 1979 the United States and Communist
China establish formal diplomatic relations.
1979 Vietnamese-China War
In January 1979 Vietnamese troops capture Phnom
Penh in an attempt to overthrow the government
of Pol Pot. In response, the Chinese invade North
Vietnam.

1979 Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Is Hanged
A military coup led by General Zia unseats President
Bhutto in Pakistan. Bhutto is charged with corruption
and sentenced to death.
1979 Soviets Invades Afghanistan
Soviet troops pour into Afghanistan to support Hafizullah Amin, who has recently unseated Mohammed
Taraki. The Soviets quickly send 40,000 troops but
are unable to put down the rebellion launched by
Taraki loyalists.
1979 Idi Amin Is Overthrown
The despotic rule of Idi Amin comes to an end when
a joint force of Ugandan rebels and Tanzanian troops
enters the Ugandan capital of Kampala. Amin flees to
Saudi Arabia.
1979 War Between Somalia and Ethiopia
On August 8 Somalia invades Ethiopia, the latest
chapter in the ongoing dispute over the Ogaden.
1979 Southern Rhodesia Becomes Zimbabwe
The white-controlled government, under Ian Smith,
successfully holds against majority rule until 1976.
Robert Mugabe becomes president of Zimbabwe.
1979 Shah of Iran Is Ousted
On January 16, the shah leaves Iran for exile. One
week later, the Ayatollah Khomeini returns from exile
and forms an Islamic revolutionary government.
1979 Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel
On March 26, in Washington, D.C., a peace agreement is signed between Egypt and Israel, brokered by
U.S. President Jimmy Carter.

1979 Militants Seize U.S. Embassy
Angered by the arrival of the shah in the United States
for medical treatment, militants attack and seize the
American embassy in Tehran. Forty-nine embassy
employees are held hostage for 444 days.
1979 Sandinistas Revolution Triumphant
A multi-class insurrection against the Somoza dictatorship results in the coming to power of the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, initiating the 11-year Sandinista
revolution (1979–90).
1979 Civil War in El Salvador
Civil war breaks out in El Salvador. A military coup

Chronology

xxv

unseats the incumbent President Carlos Humberto
Romero.
1980 Strikes Across Poland
Polish workers, led by Lech Wałe¸sa, strike the Gdan´sk
shipyards. The workers win a major victory when the
government agrees to demands made by the newly
formed Solidarity Trade Union to legalize unions as
well as affirm the right to strike.
1980 Gang of Four on Trial
The Gang of Four, consisting of Jiang Qing (Mao’s
fourth wife) and other important leaders in the Cultural Revolution, go on trial in China. The Gang of
Four fell from power after Mao Zedong’s death in
1976.
1980 Libyan Troops Intervene in Chad Civil War
Civil war breaks out in Chad between the forces of

President Goukouni Oueddei and Prime Minister
Hissène Habré.
1980 Iraq-Iran War
Iraq invades Iran. The war lasts until 1988, and it is
estimated that almost one million people die.
1980 Leftists Seize Embassy in Colombia
Members of the Colombian April 19th movement
take over the Dominican Republic’s embassy during
a reception.
1981 Mitterrand Is Elected French President
François Mitterrand is elected as the first French
socialist president in a surprise win over incumbent
Valéry Giscard d’Estaing.
1981 Martial Law in Poland
Martial law is imposed in Poland by Polish leader
General Wojciech Jaruzelski in an attempt to repress
the Solidarity movement.
1981 Anwar Sadat Is Assassinated
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat is assassinated by
Muslim extremists who oppose his peace agreement
with Israel and the increasingly repressive regime in
Egypt.
1981 Reagan Arms Buildup
President Ronald Reagan proposes a $180 billion
expansion of the American military over the next six
years.