Encyclopedia of volcanoes

Encyclopedia of


According to Greek Mythology, the giant Typhon is buried under Etna volcano. Whenever the giant stirs, the volcano
erupts violently. Eighteenth century print. (See The History of Volcanology, p. 15.)


Encyclopedia of

Editor-in-Chief

Haraldur Sigurdsson
University of Rhode Island, U.S.A.

Associate Editors

Bruce F. Houghton
Institute of Geology and Nuclear Science, New Zealand

Stephen R. McNutt
Alaska Volcano Observatory and University of Alaska Fairbanks, U.S.A.

Hazel Rymer
Open University, United Kingdom

John Stix
McGill University, Canada

Foreword by

Robert D. Ballard

ACADEMIC PRESS
A Harcourt Science and Technology Company

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San Francisco

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Academic Press to Supply Copyright Page


Contents

ARTICLE INDEX

xi

Melting the Mantle

CONTRIBUTORS

xiii

Paul D. Asimow

FOREWORD

xix

Migration of Melt

xxi

Plate Tectonics and Volcanism

The Editors
GUIDE TO THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

69

Martha J. Daines

Robert D. Ballard
PREFACE

55

89

Michael R. Perfit and Jon P. Davidson

xxiii
Composition of Magmas

Introduction

115

Nick Rogers and Chris Hawkesworth

1

Haraldur Sigurdsson

Origin of Magmas
The History of Volcanology

15

133

Timothy L. Grove

Haraldur Sigurdsson

Volatiles in Magmas

149

Paul Wallace and Alfred T. Anderson, Jr.
P A R T I

Origin and Transport of Magma

Physical Properties of Magmas

Mantle of the Earth

Magma Chambers

171

Frank J. Spera

41

Bruce D. Marsh

Raymond Jeanloz

v

191


vi
Rates of Magma Ascent

C ONTENTS

207

331

Charles B. Connor and F. Michael Conway

Malcolm J. Rutherford and James E. Gardner

Plumbing Systems

Basaltic Volcanic Fields

219

Flood Basalt Provinces

Charles R. Carrigan

Peter R. Hooper

Magma Ascent at Shallow
Levels

Submarine Lavas and
Hyaloclastite

237

345

361

Rodey Batiza and James D. L. White

Claude Jaupart

Seamounts and Island Building

383

Ralf Schmidt and Hans-Ulrich Schmincke

Subglacial Eruptions

403

John L. Smellie

P A R T I I

Eruption
Earth’s Volcanoes and
Eruptions: An Overview

249

Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert

Sizes of Volcanic Eruptions

Explosive Volcanism
263

David M. Pyle

Volcanic Episodes and Rates
of Volcanism

P A R T I V

Magmatic Fragmentation
271

Haraldur Sigurdsson

421

K. V. Cashman, B. Sturtevant, P. Papale, and
O. Navon

Phreatomagmatic Fragmentation 431
Meghan Morrissey, Bernd Zimanowski, Kenneth
Wohletz, and Ralf Buettner

Hawaiian and Strombolian
Eruptions
P A R T I I I

447

S. Vergniolle and M. Mangan

Effusive Volcanism

Vulcanian Eruptions

463

Meghan M. Morrissey and Larry G. Mastin

Basaltic Volcanoes and
Volcanic Systems

283

George P. L. Walker

Lava Flows and Flow Fields

Plinian and Subplinian
Eruptions

291

Raffaello Cioni, Paola Marianelli,
Roberto Santacroce and Alessandro Sbrana

307

Surtseyan and Related
Phreatomagmatic Eruptions

477

Christopher R. J. Kilburn

Lava Domes and Coulees
Jonathan H. Fink and Steven W. Anderson

Lava Fountains and
Their Products
John A. Wolff and Janet M. Sumner

495

James D. L. White and Bruce Houghton

Phreatoplinian Eruptions
321

B. F. Houghton, C. J. N. Wilson,
R. T. Smith, and J. S. Gilbert

513


C ONTENTS

Volcanic Plumes

527

Volcanism on Venus

Steven Carey and Marcus Bursik

L. S. Crumpler and Jayne C. Aubele

Pyroclast Transport
and Deposition

Volcanism on Mars
545

James R. Zimbelman

555

Cryovolcanism in the Outer
Solar System

Colin J. N. Wilson and Bruce F. Houghton

Pyroclastic Fall Deposits
B. F. Houghton, C. J. N. Wilson, and
D. M. Pyle

Pyroclastic Surges and Blasts

vii
727
771

785

Paul Geissler

571

Greg A. Valentine and Richard V. Fisher

Ignimbrites and Block-and-Ash
Flow Deposits

P A R T V I

581

A. Freundt, C. J. N. Wilson, and
S. N. Carey

Lahars

Volcanic Interactions
Volcanic Gases

601

803

Pierre Delmelle and John Stix

James W. Vallance

Geothermal Systems
Debris Avalanches

617

Tadahide Ui, Shinji Takarada, and Mitsuhiro
Yoshimoto

Volcaniclastic Sedimentation
around Island Arcs

Manfred P. Hochstein and
Patrick R. L. Browne

643

Deep Ocean Hydrothermal Vents 857
David A. Butterfield

663

Jon Davidson and Shan De Silva

Scoria Cones and Tuff Rings

835

627

Peter W. Lipman

Composite Volcanoes

Fraser Goff and Cathy J. Janik

Surface Manifestations of
Geothermal Systems with
Volcanic Heat Sources

Steven Carey

Calderas

817

Volcanic Lakes

877

Pierre Delmelle and Alain Bernard

683

Dirk Vespermann and Hans-Ulrich Schmincke

Mineral Deposits Associated
with Volcanism

897

Noel C. White and Richard J. Herrington

P A R T V

Extraterrestrial Volcanism

P A R T V I I

Volcanic Hazards
Volcanism on the Moon

697

Paul D. Spudis

Volcanism on Io
Rosaly Lopes-Gautier

709

Volcanic Ash Hazards
to Aviation
T. P. Miller and T. J. Casadevall

915


viii
Volcanic Aerosol and Global
Atmospheric Effects

C ONTENTS

931

Michael J. Mills

Hazards from Pyroclastic Flows
and Surges
945

Ground Deformation, Gravity,
and Magnetics

Setsuya Nakada

Gas, Plume, and Thermal
Monitoring

Lava Flow Hazards

John Stix and He´le`ne Gaonac’h

957

Donald W. Peterson and Robert I. Tilling

The Hazard from Lahars and
Jo¨kulhlaups

Synthesis of Volcano
Monitoring
973

1121

John B. Murray, Hazel Rymer, and
Corinne A. Locke

1141

1165

Stephen R. McNutt, Hazel Rymer, and John Stix

Kelvin S. Rodolfo

Hazards of Volcanic Gases

997

Glyn Williams-Jones and Hazel Rymer

Volcanic Tsunamis

1005

James E. Bege´t

Volcanic Seismicity

1015

Stephen R. McNutt

Impacts of Eruptions on
Human Health

Volcano Warnings
Volcanic Crises Management

Peter J. Baxter

1199

Servando De La Cru`z-Reyna, Roberto Meli P.,
and Roberto Quaas W.

Volcanic Hazards and
Risk Management
1035

1185

Christopher G. Newhall

1215

Russell Blong

Risk Education and Intervention 1229

Volcanic Contributions to the
Carbon and Sulfur Geochemical
Cycles and Global Change
1045

David Johnston and Kevin Ronan

Michael A. Arthur

The Ecology of Volcanoes:
Recovery and Reassembly of
Living Communities

P A R T I X

1057

Economic Benefits and
Cultural Aspects of Volcanism

1083

Exploitation of Geothermal
Resources

Ian W. B. Thornton

Volcanism and Biotic
Extinctions
Michael R. Rampino and Stephen Self

1243

Stefa´n Arno´rsson

Volcanic Soils

1259

Chien-Lu Ping
P A R T V I I I

Volcanic Materials in Commerce
and Industry
1271

Eruption Response
and Mitigation

Jonathan Dehn and Stephen R. McNutt

Seismic Monitoring

Stephen R. McNutt

1095

Volcanoes and Tourism
Haraldur Sigurdsson and Rosaly Lopes-Gautier

1283


C ONTENTS

Archaeology and Volcanism

1301

APPENDIX 1: COMMON UNITS AND
CONVERSION FACTORS

1361

1315

APPENDIX 2: CATALOG OF HISTORICALLY
ACTIVE VOLCANOES ON EARTH

1365

Stephen L. Harris

Volcanoes in Art
Haraldur Sigurdsson

Volcanoes in Literature
and Film
Haraldur Sigurdsson and Rosaly Lopes-Gautier

ix

Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1385

INDEX

1389

1339


This
.
Page Intentionally Left Blank


Article Index

Archaeology and Volcanism
Basaltic Volcanic Fields

1301

Geothermal Systems
Ground Deformation, Gravity,
and Magnetics

331

Basaltic Volcanoes and
Volcanic Systems

283

Calderas

643

Composite Volcanoes

663

Composition of Magmas

115

817
1121

Hawaiian and Strombolian Eruptions

447

Hazard from Lahars and
Jo¨kulhlaups

973

Hazards from Pyroclastic Flows
and Surges

945

Hazards of Volcanic Gases

997

Cryovolcanism in the Outer
Solar System

785

History of Volcanology

Debris Avalanches

617

Ignimbrites and Block-and-Ash
Flow Deposits

Deep Ocean Hydrothermal Vents

857

Impacts of Eruptions on Human Health 1035

Earth’s Volcanoes and Eruptions:
An Overview

249

Ecology of Volcanoes: Recovery and
Reassembly of Living Communities

Introduction

Gas, Plume, and Thermal Monitoring

581

1

Lahars

601

Lava Domes and Coulees

307

Lava Flow Hazards

957

Lava Flows and Flow Fields

291

Lava Fountains and Their Products

321

Magma Ascent at Shallow Levels

237

1057

Exploitation of Geothermal Resources 1243
Flood Basalt Provinces

15

345
1141

xi

xii

A RTICLE I NDEX

Magma Chambers

191

Volatiles in Magmas

149

Magmatic Fragmentation

421

Volcanic Aerosol and Global
Atmospheric Effects

931

Volcanic Ash Hazards to Aviation

915

Mantle of the Earth

41

Melting the Mantle

55

Migration of Melt

69

Volcanic Contributions to the Carbon
and Sulfur Geochemical Cycles and
Global Change

1045

Volcanic Crises Management

1199

Mineral Deposits Associated
with Volcanism

897

Origin of Magmas

133

Phreatomagmatic Fragmentation

431

Volcanic Episodes and Rates
of Volcanism

271

Phreatoplinian Eruptions

513

Volcanic Gases

803

Physical Properties of Magmas

171

Volcanic Hazards and Risk Management 1215

Plate Tectonics and Volcanism

89

Plinian and Subplinian Eruptions

477

Plumbing Systems

219

Pyroclast Transport and Deposition

545

Pyroclastic Fall Deposits

555

Pyroclastic Surges and Blasts

571

Rates of Magma Ascent

207

Risk Education and Intervention

1229

Scoria Cones and Tuff Rings

683

Seamounts and Island Building

383

Seismic Monitoring

1095

Sizes of Volcanic Eruptions

263

Subglacial Eruptions

403

Submarine Lavas and Hyaloclastite

361

Surface Manifestations of Geothermal
Systems with Volcanic Heat Sources

835

Surtseyan and Related
Phreatomagmatic Eruptions
Synthesis of Volcano Monitoring

495
1165

Volcanic Lakes
Volcanic Materials in Commerce
and Industry

Volcanic Plumes

877
1271
527

Volcanic Seismicity

1015

Volcanic Soils

1259

Volcanic Tsunamis

1005

Volcaniclastic Sedimentation Around
Island Arcs
Volcanism and Biotic Extinctions

627
1083

Volcanism on Io

709

Volcanism on Mars

771

Volcanism on the Moon

697

Volcanism on Venus

727

Volcano Warnings

1185

Volcanoes and Tourism

1283

Volcanoes in Art

1315

Volcanoes in Literature and Film

1339

Vulcanian Eruptions

463

Contributors

RODEY BATIZA
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
Submarine Lavas and Hyaloclastite

ALFRED T. ANDERSON, JR.
University of Chicago
Chicago, Illinois, USA
Volatiles in Magmas
STEVEN W. ANDERSON
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona, USA
Lava Domes and Coulees
STEFA´N ARNO´RSSON
University of Iceland
Reykjavik, Iceland
Exploitation of Geothermal Resources
MICHAEL A. ARTHUR
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
Volcanic Contributions to the Carbon and Sulfur
Geochemical Cycles and Global Change
PAUL D. ASIMOW
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
Palisades, New York, USA
Melting the Mantle

JAYNE AUBELE
New Mexico Museum of Natural History and
Science
Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
Volcanism on Venus

PETER J. BAXTER
Cambridge University
Cambridge, England, UK
Impacts of Eruptions on Human Health
JAMES E. BEGE´T
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
Volcanic Tsunamis
ALAIN BERNARD
Universite Libre de Bruxelles
Brussels, Belgium
Volcanic Lakes
RUSSELL BLONG
Macquarie University
North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
Volcanic Hazards and Risk Management
PATRICK R. L. BROWNE
University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand
Surface Manifestations of Geothermal
Systems with Volcanic Heat Sources

xiii

xiv

C ONTRIBUTORS

RALF BUETTNER
Universita¨t Wu¨rzburg
Wu¨rzburg, Germany
Phreatomagmatic Fragmentation

SERVANDO DE LA CRUZ-REYNA
Instituto de Geofı´sica UNAM, C University
Mexico City, Mexico
Volcanic Crises Management

MARCUS I. BURSIK
State University of New York, Buffalo
Buffalo, New York, USA
Volcanic Plumes

MARTHA J. DAINES
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
Migration of Melt

DAVID A. BUTTERFIELD
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington, USA
Deep Ocean Hydrothermal Vents

JON P. DAVIDSON
University of California, Los Angeles
Los Angeles, California, USA
Composite Volcanoes
Plate Tectonics and Volcanism

STEVEN N. CAREY
University of Rhode Island
Narragansett, Rhode Island, USA
Ignimbrites and Block-and-Ash Flow Deposits
Volcaniclastic Sedimention Around Island Arcs
Volcanic Plumes
CHARLES R. CARRIGAN
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Livermore, California, USA
Plumbing Systems
THOMAS J. CASADEVALL
U.S. Geological Survey
Reston, Virginia, USA
Volcanic Ash Hazards to Aviation
KATHARINE V. CASHMAN
University of Oregon
Eugene, Oregon, USA
Magmatic Fragmentation
RAFFAELLO CIONI
Universita di Pisa
Pisa, Italy
Plinian and Subplinian Eruptions
CHARLES B. CONNOR
Southwest Research Institute

San Antonio, Texas, USA
Basaltic Volcanic Fields
F. MICHAEL CONWAY
Arizona Western College
Yuma, Arizona, USA
Basaltic Volcanic Fields
LARRY S. CRUMPLER
New Mexico Museum of Natural History
and Science
Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
Volcanism on Venus

JONATHAN DEHN
Alaska Volcano Observatory
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
Volcanic Materials in Commerce and Industry
PIERRE DELMELLE
Universite´ de Montre´al
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Volcanic Gases
Volcanic Lakes
JONATHAN H. FINK
Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona, USA
Lava Domes and Coulees
RICHARD V. FISHER
University of California, Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara, California, USA
Pyroclastic Surges and Blasts

ARMIN FREUNDT
GEOMAR Research Center
Kiel, Germany
Ignimbrites and Block-and-Ash Flow Deposits
HE´LE`NE GAONAC’H
Universite´ de Quebec, Montre´al
Montre´al, Quebec, Canada
Gas, Plume, and Thermal Monitoring
JAMES E. GARDNER
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
Rates of Magma Ascent
PAUL GEISSLER
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona, USA
Cryovolcanism in the Outer Solar System


C ONTRIBUTORS

JENNIE S. GILBERT
Lancaster University
Lancaster, England, UK
Phreatoplinian Eruptions
FRASER GOFF
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
Geothermal Systems
TIMOTHY L. GROVE
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
Origin of Magmas
STEPHEN L. HARRIS
California State University, Sacramento
Sacramento, California, USA
Archaeology and Volcanism
CHRIS J. HAWKESWORTH
Open University
Milton Keynes, England, UK
Composition of Magmas
RICHARD J. HERRINGTON
Natural History Museum
London, England, UK
Mineral Deposits Associated with Volcanism
MANFRED P. HOCHSTEIN
University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand
Surface Manifestations of Geothermal Systems with
Volcanic Heat Sources
PETER R. HOOPER
Washington State University
Pullman, Washington, USA
Flood Basalt Provinces
BRUCE F. HOUGHTON
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences
Wairakei Research Center, New Zealand
Phreatoplinian Eruptions
Pyroclastic Fall Deposits
Pyroclast Transport and Deposition
Surtseyan and Related Phreatomagmatic Eruptions

CATHY J. JANIK
U.S. Geological Survey
Menlo Park, California, USA
Geothermal Systems
CLAUDE JAUPART
Institut de Physique du Globe
Paris, France
Magma Ascent at Shallow Levels

RAYMOND JEANLOZ
University of California, Berkeley
Berkeley, California, USA
Mantle of the Earth
DAVID JOHNSTON
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences
Wairakei Research Center, New Zealand
Risk Education and Intervention
CHRISTOPHER R. J. KILBURN
University College
London, England, UK
Lava Flows and Flow Fields
PAUL KIMBERLY
U.S. National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, DC, USA
End Paper Map
PETER W. LIPMAN
Volcanic Hazards Team
U.S. Geological Survey
Menlo Park, California, USA

Calderas
CORINNE A. LOCKE
University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand
Ground Deformation, Gravity, and Magnetics
ROSALY LOPES-GAUTIER
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Pasadena, California, USA
Volcanism on Io
Volcanoes and Tourism
Volcanoes in Literature and Film
MARGARET MANGAN
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
U.S. Geological Survey
Hawaii National Park, USA
Hawaiian and Strombolian Eruptions
PAOLO MARIANELLI
Universita di Pisa
Pisa, Italy
Plinian and Subplinian Eruptions
BRUCE D. MARSH
Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland, USA
Magma Chambers
LARRY G. MASTIN
Cascades Volcano Observatory
U.S. Geological Survey
Vancouver, Washington, USA
Vulcanian Eruptions

xv


xvi
STEPHEN R. MCNUTT
Alaska Volcano Observatory
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
Seismic Monitoring
Synthesis of Volcano Monitoring
Volcanic Materials in Commerce and Industry
Volcanic Seismicity
ROBERTO MELI P.
Instituto de Geofı´sica UNAM, C University
Mexico City, Mexico
Volcanic Crises Management
THOMAS P. MILLER
Alaska Volcano Observatory
U.S. Geological Survey
Anchorage, Alaska, USA
Volcanic Ash Hazards to Aviation
MICHAEL J. MILLS
University of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado, USA
Volcanic Aerosol and Global Atmospheric Effects
MEGHAN M. MORRISSEY
Colorado School of Mines
Golden, Colorado, USA
Phreatomagmatic Fragmentation
Vulcanian Eruptions

C ONTRIBUTORS

MICHAEL R. PERFIT
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida, USA
Plate Tectonics and Volcanism
DONALD W. PETERSON
U.S. Geological Survey
Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
Lava Flow Hazards
CHIEN-LU PING
University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
Volcanic Soils
DAVID M. PYLE
University of Cambridge
Cambridge, England, UK
Pyroclastic Fall Deposits
Sizes of Volcanic Eruptions
ROBERTO QUAAS W.
Instituto de Ingenierı´a UNAM, C University
Mexico City, Mexico
Volcanic Crises Management
MICHAEL R. RAMPINO
New York University
New York, NY, USA
Volcanism and Biotic Extinctions

JOHN B. MURRAY

Open University
Milton Keynes, England, UK
Ground Deformation, Gravity, and Magnetics

KELVIN S. RODOLFO
University of Illinois at Chicago
Chicago, Illinois, USA
Hazard from Lahars and Jo¨kulhlaups

SETSUYA NAKADA
Earthquake Research Institute
University of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japan
Hazards from Pyroclastic Flows and Surges

NICHOLAS W. ROGERS
Open University
Milton Keynes, England, UK
Composition of Magmas

ODED NAVON
Hebrew University
Jerusalem, Israel
Magmatic Fragmentation
CHRISTOPHER G. NEWHALL
University of Washington
U.S. Geological Service
Seattle, Washington, USA
Volcano Warnings
PAOLO PAPALE

Universita di Pisa
Pisa, Italy
Magmatic Fragmentation

KEVIN RONAN
Massey University
Palmerston North, New Zealand
Risk Education and Intervention
MALCOLM J. RUTHERFORD
Brown University
Providence, Rhode Island, USA
Rates of Magma Ascent
HAZEL RYMER
Open University
Milton Keynes, England, UK
Ground Deformation, Gravity, and Magnetics
Hazards of Volcanic Gases
Synthesis of Volcano Monitoring


C ONTRIBUTORS

ROBERTO SANTACROCE
Universita di Pisa
Pisa, Italy
Plinian and Subplinian Eruptions

RICHARD T. SMITH
University of Waikato
Hamilton, New Zealand

Phreatoplinian Eruptions

ALESSANDRO SBRANA
Universita di Pisa
Pisa, Italy
Plinian and Subplinian Eruptions

FRANK J. SPERA
Institute for Crustal Studies
University of California, Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara, California, USA
Physical Properties of Magmas

RALF SCHMIDT
GEOMAR Research Center
Kiel, Germany
Seamounts and Island Building
HANS-ULRICH SCHMINCKE
GEOMAR Research Center
Kiel, Germany
Scoria Cones and Tuff Rings
Seamounts and Island Building
STEPHEN SELF
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
Volcanism and Biotic Extinctions
LEE SIEBERT
U.S. National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, DC, USA

Earth’s Volcanoes and Eruptions: An Overview
HARALDUR SIGURDSSON
University of Rhode Island
Narragansett, Rhode Island, USA
Introduction
History of Volcanology
Volcanic Episodes and Rates of Volcanism
Volcanoes and Tourism
Volcanoes in Art
Volcanoes in Literature and Film
SHAN DE SILVA
Indiana State University
Terre Haute, Indiana, USA
Composite Volcanoes
TOM SIMKIN
U.S. National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, DC, USA
Earth’s Volcanoes and Eruptions: An Overview
JOHN L. SMELLIE
British Antarctic Survey
Cambridge, England, UK
Subglacial Eruptions

PAUL D. SPUDIS
Lunar and Planetary Institute, NASA
Houston, Texas, USA
Volcanism on the Moon
JOHN STIX
McGill University

Montre´al, Quebec, Canada
Gas, Plume, and Thermal Monitoring
Synthesis of Volcano Monitoring
Volcanic Gases
BRAD STURTEVANT
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, California, USA
Magmatic Fragmentation
JANET M. SUMNER
University of Liverpool
Liverpool, England, UK
Lava Fountains and Their Products
SHINJI TAKARADA
Geological Survey of Japan
Sapporo, Japan
Debris Avalanches
IAN THORNTON
La Trobe University
Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
The Ecology of Volcanoes
ROBERT I. TILLING
U.S. Geological Survey
Menlo Park, California, USA
Lava Flow Hazards
TADAHIDE UI
Hokkaido University
Sapporo, Japan
Debris Avalanches
GREG A. VALENTINE
Los Alamos National Laboratory

Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
Pyroclastic Surges and Blasts

xvii


xviii
JAMES W. VALLANCE
McGill University
Montre´al, Quebec, Canada
Lahars
SYLVIE VERGNIOLLE
Institut de Physique du Globe
Paris, France
Hawaiian and Strombolian Eruptions
DIRK VESPERMANN
GEOMAR Research Center
Kiel, Germany
Scoria Cones and Tuff Rings
GEORGE P. L. WALKER
University of Bristol
Gloucester, England, UK
Basaltic Volcanoes and Volcanic Systems
PAUL J. WALLACE
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas, USA
Volatiles in Magmas
JAMES D. L. WHITE
University of Otago
Dunedin, New Zealand

Submarine Lavas and Hyaloclastite
Surtseyan and Related Phreatomagmatic
Eruptions
NOEL C. WHITE
BHP Minerals Exploration
London, England, UK
Mineral Deposits Associated
with Volcanism

C ONTRIBUTORS

GLYN WILLIAMS-JONES
Open University
Milton Keynes, England, UK
Hazards of Volcanic Gases
COLIN J. N. WILSON
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences
Wairakei Research Center, New Zealand
Ignimbrites and Block-and-Ash Flow Deposits
Phreatoplinian Eruptions
Pyroclastic Fall Deposits
Pyroclast Transport and Deposition
KENNETH WOHLETZ
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
Phreatomagmatic Fragmentation
JOHN A. WOLFF
Washington State University
Pullman, Washington, USA
Lava Fountains and Their Products

MITSUHIRO YOSHIMOTO
Hokkaido University
Sapporo, Japan
Debris Avalanches
BERND ZIMANOWSKI
Universita¨t Wu¨rzburg
Wu¨rzburg, Germany
Phreatomagmatic Fragmentation
JAMES R. ZIMBELMAN
National Air and Space Museum
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, DC, USA
Volcanism on Mars


Foreword

understand this mighty undersea mountain range and
the important role its volcanic and tectonic processes
played in the then newly evolving concept of plate tectonics and seafloor spreading.
I vividly remember traveling with Haraldur to
his native country of Iceland, which sits astride the
Ridge. There we scaled one volcano after another,
including Surtsey, Eldfell, and Krafla. That introduction to terrestrial volcanism prepared me for the many
years I would spend investigating undersea volcanic processes.
Those efforts eventually led to the discovery of hydrothermal vents in 1977 and the exotic life forms that live
on the internal energy of the Earth through a process
we now know as chemosynthesis. That effort was followed in 1979 with our discovery of high-temperature
‘‘black smokers’’ and a clearer understanding of the
chemistry of the world’s oceans.

Since that time the study of volcanism has expanded
rapidly, branching out to embrace many fields of research. As a result, the study of volcanism is no longer
an isolated field of research but one closely linked to
other disciplines and areas of research including the
chemistry of the world’s oceans and atmosphere, the
creation of important mineral assemblages, the role volcanism has played in the origin of life as well as its

If one could drain the world’s oceans and remove their
sediment cover, one would quickly realize that the majority of the Earth’s surface is covered with lava flows.
Although the human race has lived in close contact with
volcanic activity since our early origins in the African
Rift Valley, only recently have we begun to comprehend
how volcanically active our planet really is. Even more
recently, exploration of our solar system shows us that
volcanism has played and continues to play an important
role in the early genesis and subsequent evolution of
both the planets and the moons within our solar system
and beyond.
Given our growing awareness of the importance of
volcanism to the past, present, and future history of
Earth and its celestial partners, the publication of the
Encyclopedia of Volcanoes is clearly needed and appropriate
at this time. Thanks to the efforts of Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Haraldur Sigurdsson and his highly qualified Associate Editors and contributing authors, the Encyclopedia
of Volcanoes is drawn from a vast and enlarging data
base.
I was first introduced to volcanoes by Dr. Sigurdsson
in the early 1970s. At the time, I was preparing for
the first manned exploration of the Mid-Ocean Ridge
during Project FAMOUS. This was a critical time in

the earth sciences when our community sought to better

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F OREWORD

negative impact upon biological evolution, and most
recently its impact upon mankind itself.
The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes has been an immense
undertaking involving the collective efforts of over 100
international experts on the subject, resulting in a 1000page volume broken down into 82 chapters.
Clearly, this volume is the most comprehensive presentation on this subject, a work important to those in

the field as well as to others seeking a broader understanding of this subject.

DR. ROBERT D. BALLARD
PRESIDENT, INSTITUTE FOR EXPLORATION
AND EMERITUS OF THE WOODS HOLE
OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION


Preface

The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes is a complete reference
guide, providing a comprehensive view of volcanism on
the Earth and on the other planets of the Solar System
that have exhibited volcanic activity. It is the first attempt to gather in one place such a vast store of knowledge on volcanic phenomena.

The volume addresses all aspects of volcanism, ranging
from the generation of magma, its transport and migration, eruption, and formation of volcanic deposits. It also
addresses volcanic hazards, their mitigation, the monitoring of volcanic activity, and economic aspects and, for
the first time, analyzes several specific cultural aspects of
volcanic activity, including the impact of volcanic activity
on archaeology, literature, art, and film. To compose a
single volume that is a complete reference for such a farranging phenomenon is indeed a daunting task.

time-honored custom of Denis Diderot and Jean
D’Alembert of recruiting the leading experts in each
branch of volcanology and related fields to author the
chapters that lie outside the expertise of the editors.
When Diderot and D’Alembert began to compile information for their monumental 21-volume Encyclope´die
(1751-1765), they went to the carpenters, the masons,
the embroiderers, and the other experts for help with
the specific terms and concepts, in order to get all the
technical details right. Thus they secured an article for
the Encyclope´die, penned by the pioneer field volcanologist Nicholas Desmarest (1725-1815), on the volcanic
origin of columnar basalt. Similarly, the editors of the
Encyclopedia of Volcanoes have recruited the recognized
authorities in each field or speciality of volcanology to
contribute chapters to this volume. Thus this volume is
the product of over 100 volcanologists, petrologists, and
other scientists who have specialized knowledge about
volcanoes and related processes.

Arrangement of Content
When the editors began to develop the fundamental
structure of this Encyclopedia, we were faced with two
choices: either constructing a dictionary-like volume

composed of defined terms, arranged in alphabetical
order, or following a thematic approach, where the multitude of volcanic processes are defined, described, and
elaborated in a series of chapters. We have adopted the
latter approach in this volume.
To provide our readers with the best possible treatment of volcanic processes, we have adopted the

Sectional Plan
In this volume, the principal aspects of volcanic activity
are dealt with in 82 chapters, divided between nine major
parts. An introduction to each part written by the editors
is provided to give a general perspective of the topics
and processes contained in that part. Each chapter cov-

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xxii

P REFACE

ers one fundamental volcanic process in depth and stands
alone as a comprehensive overview of the phenomenon
in question. Nevertheless, the sequence of major parts
and their chapters is intended to be directional and
evolutionary, as far as possible, following magma from
its place of deep origin to the surface of the Earth.
Thus in the first part, the volume commences with
12 chapters on the principal source regions of magmas,
the mantle of the Earth, melting processes, magma generation, and transport and geochemical evolution of
magmas, as they rise into the Earth’s crust. The second

part addresses the fundamental aspects of distribution
of volcanism in space and time and the range in the
scale of volcanic eruptions, in terms of magnitude and
intensity. In the three subsequent parts, chapters address
the various styles of eruption of magmas, namely, effusive (lavas) versus explosive, and the multitude of types
of volcanic deposits that result.
Part V provides comprehensive overviews of volcanic
activity on other members of the Solar System, namely,
on the Moon, Io, Mars, and Venus and the unusual
cryovolcanism on the Galilean satellites of Jupiter. Extraterrestrial volcanology is probably the area of volcanologic research that will experience the greatest growth
in the future, as space exploration continues to provide
new discoveries in other worlds. In Part VI the interactions of volcanism with hydrosphere and atmosphere are
discussed, as well as formation of those mineral deposits
that owe their origin to volcanic processes. The impact
of volcanoes on society is explored in Part VII, where the
various types of volcanic hazards are discussed. Volcano
monitoring is treated in Part VIII, along with the mitigating measures that have been developed to counteract volcanic disasters. In the final section of the Encyclopedia,
a variety of economic benefits accruing from volcanism
are described, and the volume closes with four chapters
on the cultural aspects of volcanism and its impact on archaeology, art, literature, and film.

Conventions of Style
In this volume, we have adopted the convention of using
lowercase in the spelling of those adjectives that describe volcanic processes, such as surtseyan and plinian.
As this volume is intended for the general reader,
such distracting paraphernalia as references or footnotes
have been dispensed with as much as possible. Instead,
a section of Further Readings, containing a list of half
a dozen or more major texts on the subject matter, is

provided at the end of each chapter for those interested
in the chief sources.

Appendixes
Two appendixes are included in the volume. Appendix
1 consists of a series of tables that give common scientific
and mathematical units and conversion factors. It also
provides a variety of numerical data on the Earth.
Appendix 2 is a table of active volcanoes on Earth,
as compiled by Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert of the
Smithsonian Institution. A listing containing all the volcanoes on Earth, with data on their eruptions, is beyond
the feasibility of this work, as this list alone would equal
this volume in length. The editors have therefore opted
to list only historically active volcanoes, i.e., the volcanoes whose eruptions have been witnessed and documented, totaling 550 in number. The oldest eruption
in this list is therefore the plinian eruption of Vesuvius
in Italy on 24 August in 79 A.D. This selection of the
historical period is admittedly somewhat arbitrary, as
the ‘‘historical period’’ varies greatly in length from
place to place on Earth. In Europe and Japan the historical record of volcanism extends back over one thousand
years, whereas in New Zealand and North and South
America, for example, it is merely a matter of a few
centuries, because written records in these regions begin
generally with European settlement.
In Appendix 2 the historically active volcanoes are
listed in alphabetical order, and their locations are given
in terms of longitude and latitude. The tabulation also
includes all of their historic eruptions.

Acknowledgments
The number of people who have assisted the authors

and editors in the creation of this volume is literally in
the hundreds. A list of those we especially thank is given
in the Acknowledgments section at the end of the
volume.
We single out here, however, the following staff members at Academic Press for their outstanding work: the
project’s sponsoring editor, Frank Cynar, who bears the
responsibility for recruiting the editors of this volume;
the project manager, Cathleen Ryan; and the production
editor, Jacqueline Garrett.
THE EDITORS


Guide to the Encyclopedia

The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes is a complete reference
guide to this subject, including studies of the origin
and transport of magma, of eruptions, and of effusive
volcanism and explosive volcanism. Other sections of
the work discuss extraterrestrial volcanism, volcano interactions, volcanic hazards, eruption response and mitigation, and economic and cultural aspects of volcanism.
Each article in the Encyclopedia provides a scholarly
overview of the selected topic to inform a broad spectrum of readers, from researchers to the interested general public.
In order that you, the reader, will derive the maximum
benefit from the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, we have provided this Guide. It explains how the book is organized
and how information can be located.

readers to choose their own method for referring to the
work. Those who wish specific information on limited
topics can consult the A-to-Z Article Index (see p. xi) and
then proceed to the desired topic from there. On the
other hand, readers who wish to obtain a full overview of

a larger subject can read the entire series of articles on
this subject from beginning to end; e.g., Eruptions. In
fact, one can even read the entire Encyclopedia in sequence, in the manner of a textbook (or a novel), to obtain the ideal view of the complete subject of volcanoes.

Article Format
Each article in the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes begins at the
top of a right-hand page, so that it may be quickly
located. The author’s name and affiliation are displayed
at the beginning of the article. The text of the article
is organized according to a standard format, as follows:

Organization
The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes consists of 82 individual
articles arranged in a thematic manner; that is, the placement of a given article is based on its content and not
on its alphabetical wording. Articles on related topics
are placed together in sequence.
Each article is a full-length treatment of the subject
at hand. Thus the Encyclopedia’s format will allow its

•
•
•
•
•
•

xxiii

Outline
Glossary

Defining Statement
Body of the Article
Cross-References
Bibliography


xxiv

G UIDE TO THE E NCYCLOPEDIA

Outline

Cross-References

Each article in the Encyclopedia begins with an outline
that indicates the general content of the article. This
outline serves two functions. First, it provides a brief
preview of the text, so that the reader can get a sense
of what is contained there without having to leaf through
all the pages. Second, it serves to highlight important
subtopics that will be discussed in the article. For example, the article ‘‘Volcanic Plumes’’ begins with the subtopic ‘‘Generation of Volcanic Plumes.’’
The outline is intended as an overview and thus it
lists only the major headings of the article. In addition,
extensive second-level and third-level headings will be
found within the article.

Articles in the Encyclopedia contain references to other
articles. These cross-references appear at the end of the
text for the article. They indicate related articles that
can be consulted for further information on the same

topic, or for information on a related topic. For example,
the article ‘‘History of Volcanology’’ has cross-references to ‘‘Archaeology and Volcanism,’’ ‘‘Earth’s Volcanoes and Eruptions: An Overview,’’ ‘‘Mantle of the
Earth,’’ ‘‘Origin of Magmas,’’ ‘‘Plate Tectonics and Volcanism,’’ ‘‘Volcanoes in Art,’’ and ‘‘Volcanoes in Literature and Film.’’

Further Reading
Glossary
The Glossary contains vocabulary terms that are important to an understanding of the article and that may be
unfamiliar to the reader. Each term is defined in the
context of the particular article in which it is used. Thus
the same term may appear as a Glossary entry in two
or more articles, with the details of the definition varying
slightly from one article to another. The Encyclopedia
includes approximately 500 glossary entries.
The following examples are glossary entries that appear with the article ‘‘Flood Basalt Provinces.’’
hotspot An area in the Earth’s upper mantle that is hotter
than the ambient temperature.
picrite A volcanic rock with a large proportion of the magnesium-rich mineral olivine.

Defining Statement
The text of each article in the Encyclopedia begins with
a single introductory paragraph that defines the topic under discussion and summarizes the content of the article.
It thus serves the purpose of a brief abstract of the article.
For example, the article ‘‘Pyroclastic Surges and Blasts’’
begins with the following defining statement:
The recognition that volcanic explosions could
produce density-driven currents that flow rapidly
away from the vent, devastating the landscape and
leaving thin pyroclastic deposits and ash dunes,
was an important step towards our current understanding of volcanic systems. Deposits left by these
pyroclastic surges are a key in interpreting the

eruptive history of a volcano and in predicting the
hazards a volcano might pose for the future.

The Further Reading section appears as the last element
in each article. This section lists other sources outside
the Encyclopedia that will aid the reader in locating
more information on the topic at hand.
The entries in this section are for the benefit of the
reader, to provide references for further research or
browsing on the given topic. Thus they consist of a
limited number of entries. They are not intended to
represent a complete listing of all the materials consulted
by the author or authors in preparing the article. The
Further Reading section is in effect an extension of the
article itself, and it represents the author’s choice as to
the best sources available for additional information.

Index
The Subject Index for the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes contains more than 3800 entries, arranged alphabetically.
Reference to the general coverage of a topic appears as
a marginal entry, such as an entire section of an article
devoted to the topic. References to more specific aspects
of the topic then appear below this in an indented list.

Encyclopedia Website
The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes maintains its own editorial
Website on the Internet at:
/>This site provides complete information about the
contents of the Encyclopedia. For information about
other current Academic Press reference works, such as

the Encyclopedia of the Solar System, go to:
/>