The utilization of dietary local feed resources for Moo Lath pig in Laos

HUE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

BOUNLERTH SIVILAI

THE UTILIZATION OF DIETARY LOCAL FEED
RESOURCES FOR MOO LATH PIG IN LAOS

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN AGRICULTURE

HUE, 2019


HUE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

BOUNLERTH SIVILAI

THE UTILIZATION OF DIETARY LOCAL FEED
RESOURCES FOR MOO LATH PIG IN LAOS

SPECIALIZATION:

ANIMAL SCIENCE

CODE:

62620105

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN AGRICULTURE

SUPERVISORS: 1. ASSOC.PROF.DR. NGUYEN QUANG LINH
2. ASSOC.PROF. DR. DU THANH HANG

HUE, 2019
2


DECLARATION
I declared that this thesis is my original research works. It is a scientific research
which overall data presented in this thesis are contributed truly and righteously. The
research works was done under the guidance of Professors in Hue University and
collaborative professional researchers. All acceptation is evidently indicated to the best of
immense knowledge that they have been published in Journal of Livestock Research for
Rural Development (LRRD).
Hue, April 2019

Bounlerth SIVILAI

I


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This thesis describes research on the improving and utilization of forage- based
diets for Moo Lath pigs in Laos, I wish to thank Mekong Basin Animal Research
Network (Sida/MEKARN II) project and University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue
University for financial support of experiments and the course works in Vietnam.
This thesis based on the efforts of many people. In the first place, I would like to
thank all those persons who contributed to obtaining the data and the texts of the various
chapters. Without their help this thesis would never been written. Especially, I would like
to express my sincere thanks to Professor Nguyen Quang Linh, Professor Thomas Reg

Preston, who always open the gates to scientific research. I am also grateful for their
supervision and guidance of my research. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to
Professor Du Thanh Hang, who supervised the data analysis. It would be nice to thank for
all of lecturers and researchers in Hue with hospitality while my staying in Hue city. I am
grateful to Dr. Lampheuy Kaensombath and professor R.A. Leng for their contributions
and helping.
My sincere thanks also goes to Dr. Kieu Borin, regional coordinator of the
Sida/MEKARN II project for any support and make the PhD program possible and Dr.
Chive Phiny for the budgets for travelling and allowances. Dr. Vanthong Phengvichit and
Dr. Daovy Kongmanila the country coordinators for providing the immense suggestion
on study condition and financial report as well as accountants in National Agriculture and
Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI) for arrangement research funds conveniently. Also
thank my colleagues, friends and teachers in Department of Livestock and Fishery,
Faculty of Agriculture (FAG), National University of Laos for their kindly supports. My
lovely students and their friends whom helped in field works with forage collecting,
experiments and sample preparing analysis.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for all their kind regards,
encouragement and love. Most of appreciation to my wife Linh Thamavong for her
patience, effort working hard and taking care for our family during my studying. Special
thank to my mother for her support, loving and devotion to my three children during
studying time. Great thanks to my sister Boakeo Phaisilai and her husband, my younger
sister Boasone Sivilai and my uncles’ family for their help in looking my mother,
supporting me spiritually throughout studying, writing thesis and my life in generally.

II


ABSTRACT
The research was objected to investigate the effect of ensiled taro foliage
combined with banana pseudo stem as basal diets, using by-product of rice distillers or

brewers’ grains, and biochar as feed additive supplemented in the diet of native Moo Lath
Lao pig. Four experiments were conducted to comprising on the thesis.
The first experiment (Chapter 2): Four pigs were used in the experiment with 30
kg  2.63 kg LW. An experiment was arranged in a 4*4 Latin Square Design with diet
levels of ensiled banana pseudo stem of 0, 5, 10 and 15% replacing ensiled taro foliage
and soybean meal. Apparent digestibility of DM and CP, daily N retention and biological
value (BV), all declined linearly as ensiled banana-pseudo stem replaced ensiled taro
foliage. It is appeared that the BV of the protein in the ensiled taro foliage was superior to
combination of ensiled banana pseudo stem and soybean meal.
In the second experiment (Chapter 3): A small amount of either rice distillers’ byproduct (RDB) and brewers’ grain (BG) were added in the ensiled forage-based diet. Six
female native Moo Lath pigs (29.3  2.3 kg LW), fed a basal diet of ensiled banana
pseudo-stem, ensiled Taro foliage and broken rice were allocated to a 3*3 double Latin
Square Design. Three treatments were BG 4%, RDB 4% or no supplement (CTL). Both
supplements improved feed intake, digestibility and N retention, with indications of
greater responses in N retention and in the biological value of the protein for the rice
distillers’ by-product. It is suggested that the beneficial effect of both supplements may
have been due to the presence of β-glucan, a component of the cell wall of both cereal
grains and yeasts, that is shown to have immunological, health-benefiting effects in
animal.
In the third experiment (Chapter 4): The supplements would bring similar benefits
during the stage of pregnancy and lactation in Moo Lath gilts. Twelve native Moo Lath
pig gilts (80.8 ± 3.9 kg LW) were used in the experiment. Three dietary treatments in a
completely randomized design with 4 replications were: CTL: No supplement; RDB 4%
or BG 4% in diet DM basis. The pig gilts gained more body weight during gestation, and
were heavier at the end of lactation, when their diet was supplemented with 4% BG or
4% RDB. The litter sizes from dams supplemented with 4% RDB were heavier at birth,
and at weaning, and grew faster than litters from un-supplemented gilts. Supplementation

III

of BG4% or RDB 4% appeared to have no effect on piglet mortality at birth or during
lactation, nor on live weights of piglets at birth or weaning, and did not affect overall feed
DM intake. However, DM feed conversion was improved by 60% when the Moo Lath
gilts were supplemented with 4% RDB.
In the fourth experiment (Chapter 5): The study was to evaluate the effect of
biochar compare with rice distillers’ by-product fed a forage diet on growing pigs.
Twenty native Moo Lath pigs (15.8 ± 1.3 kg LW) were housed in individual concrete
pens. There were four dietary treatments arranged as a completely randomized design.
The treatments (% in diet DM) were: no additive (CTL), 4% rice distillers’ by-product
(RDB), 1% biochar (BIO) and the combination of RDB and BIO (RDB+BIO). The
growth rate tended to be better (p=0.089) and feed conversion was improved
(p=0.048) for both additives, fed separately or together, when compared with the control
diet. There were no benefits from combining both additives compared with feeding each
one separately.
Keywords: Local forage, prebiotic, additive feed, indigenous pig, biological
value, growing, pregnancy-lactation, piglets

IV


DEDICATION

To my family with my respectful gratitude: Parents, my wife (with daughter and son),
older and younger sisters
ແດ່ຄອບຄົວທີ່ແສນເຄົາລົບຮັກຂອງຂ້ອຍ: ພໍ່ແມ່, ພັນລະຍາ
(ພ້ອມດ້ວຍລູກສາວ ແລະ ລູກຊາຍ),
ເອື້ອຍ ແລະ ນ້ອງສາວ

V

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................. I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................. II
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... III
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... V
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................VI
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................IX
LIST OF FIGURES ...........................................................................................................XI
LIST OF ABBRIVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ............................................................ XIV
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1
1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ............................................................................ 1
2 .AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ............................................................ 4
2.1. Aims of the thesis ................................................................................................. 4
2.2. Objectives of the thesis ......................................................................................... 4
3 .HYPOTHESES OF THE RESEARCH ....................................................................... 4
4 .INNOVATION CONTRIBUTED OF THE DISSERTATION .................................. 5
REFERENCE ...................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 10
1.1. PIG PRODUCTION IN SMALLHOLDER OF LAOS ......................................... 10
1.1.1. The role of pig production ............................................................................... 10
1.1.2. Pig population and consumption ..................................................................... 10
1.2. CURRENTLY TYPICAL PIG FARMING IN LAOS ........................................... 11
1.2.1. Smallholder pig farming .................................................................................. 12
1.2.2. Semi-intensive pig production ......................................................................... 15
1.2.3. Commercial scale pig production .................................................................... 16
1.3. Feeds and feeding practical management in smallholder pig farms ....................... 17
1.3.1. Feeds derived from agricultural by-products................................................... 17
1.3.2. Green plant materials as feeds for pigs ............................................................ 18

1.3.3. Feeds derived from leftover materials ............................................................. 18
1.4. CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITY IN SMALLHOLDER FARMS ............ 18
1.4.1. Main problem in smallholder pig production .................................................. 18
1.4.2. Opportunity improvement of pig productivity ................................................ 19

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1.5. ALTERNATIVE USE OF LOCAL FEED RESOURCES FOR PIGS .................. 20
1.5.1. Taro foliage (Colocasia esculenta) .................................................................. 20
1.5.2. Banana pseudo stem (Musa spp) by-product................................................... 22
1.6. UTILIZATION OF FORAGE-BASED DIET FOR PIGS ..................................... 23
1.6.1. Taro as protein sources for pigs ....................................................................... 23
1.6.2. Effect of taro foliage on apparent digestibility and N retention in pigs .......... 23
1.6.3. Effect of taro foliage on growth performance of pigs ..................................... 24
1.6.4. Effect of taro foliage replacing by banana pseudo stem in pig diets ............... 25
1.7. GRAIN FERMENTED BYPRODUCTS AS SUPPLEMENT FEED FOR PIGS . 27
1.7.1. Rice distillers( Khi-Lao) by-products .............................................................. 27
1.7.2. Brewery grain( Khibeer )by-product ............................................................... 29
1.8. UTILIZATION OF GRAIN FERMENTATION BYPRODUCTS ........................ 32
1.8.1. Use of rice distillers’ by-product or brewers’ grains as protein sources ......... 32
1.8.2. Effect of rice distillers’ by-product or brewers’ grains as supplement feeds .. 33
1.8.3. The use of biochar as a feed additive in animals ............................................. 33
1.9. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF PIGS ............................................................... 34
1.9.1. Dietary protein requirement ............................................................................. 34
1.9.2. Dietary energy requirement ............................................................................. 35
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 36
CHAPTER 2: EFFECT OF REPLACING ENSILED TARO FOLIAGE (COLOCASIA
ESCULENTA) WITH ENSILED BANANA PSEUDO STEM (MUSA SPP) AND
SOYBEAN MEAL ON INTAKE, DIGESTIBILITY AND NITROGEN RETENTION

IN MOO LATH PIGS ....................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 3: A LOW CONCENTRATION OF RICE DISTILLERS’ BYPRODUCT OR
OF BREWERS’ GRAINS ON DIGESTIBILITY AND NITROGEN RETENTION IN
NATIVE MOO LATH PIGS FED ENSILED BANANA PSEUDO-STEM (MUSA SPP)
AND ENSILED TARO FOLIAGE (COLOCASIA ESCULENTA) ................................... 58
CHAPTER 4: EFFECT OF A LOW CONCENTRATION OF RICE DISTILLERS’
BYPRODUCT, OR OF BREWERS' GRAINS ON GROWTH RATE AND FEED
CONVERSION DURING PREGNANCY AND LACTATION OF NATIVE MOO
LATH GILTS AND THEIR PROGENY .......................................................................... 70

VII


CHAPTER 5: EFFECT OF RICE DISTILLERS’ BYPRODUCT AND BIOCHAR AS
ADDITIVES WITH A FORAGE-BASED DIET FOR GROWING AND FEED
CONVERSION OF NATIVE MOO LATH PIGS ............................................................ 83
GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................................ 95
1. GENERAL DISCUSSION ........................................................................................ 95
2. CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................... 97
3. IMPLICATIONS FUTURE RESEARCH................................................................. 98
3.1. Implications ........................................................................................................ 98
3.2. Future research.................................................................................................... 98
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 99
LIST OF PUBLISHED SCIENTIFIC PAPERS ............................................................. 102

VIII


LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 10

Table 1.1. Number of livestock products and meat consumption in 2017 ............ 11
Table 1.2. Classification of phenotype characteristics and reproductive performance of
native pigs distributed in smallholder farm conditions in Lao PDR ................................ 13
Table 1.3. Composition of taro plant in different parts of studying (% DM basis) ........ 21
Table 1.4. Composition (g/kg CP) of EAA in the leaves of taro compared to
soybean meal .......................................................................................................... 21
Table 1.5. Oxalate contents in taro (total, soluble and insoluble oxalate) ............. 21
Table 1.6. Nutrients content of banana stalk in fresh matter ................................. 22
Table 1.7. Chemical composition of the ingredients, the fermented mixture and
the residue .............................................................................................................. 27
Table 1.8. Chemical composition and gross energy of rice distillers’ by-product
(% in DM basis) ..................................................................................................... 28
Table 1.9. Crude protein (% in DM) and amino acid composition (g/16 g N) of
rice distillers’ by-products ..................................................................................... 28
Table 1.10. Amino acid components in rice distillers’ by-product and ideal protein
(g/16 g N) ............................................................................................................... 29
Table 1.11. nutritional table of fresh brewers’ grains ............................................ 31
CHAPTER 2: EFFECT OF REPLACING ENSILED TARO FOLIAGE (COLOCASIA
ESCULENTA) WITH ENSILED BANANA PSEUDO STEM (MUSA SPP) AND
SOYBEAN MEAL ON INTAKE, DIGESTIBILITY AND NITROGEN RETENTION
IN MOO LATH PIGS ....................................................................................................... 49
Table 2.1. Chemical composition of the ingredients in the diets ........................... 52
Table 2.2. Experimental diets and chemical composition ..................................... 52
Table 2.3. Mean values for feed intake and apparent digestibility of diets ........... 53
Table 2.4. Effect of ensiled banana pseudo-stem and taro foliage on N balance and
retention in Moo Lath pigs ..................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER 3: A LOW CONCENTRATION OF RICE DISTILLERS’ BYPRODUCT OR
OF BREWERS’ GRAINS ON DIGESTIBILITY AND NITROGEN RETENTION IN
NATIVE MOO LATH PIGS FED ENSILED BANANA PSEUDO-STEM (MUSA SPP)
AND ENSILED TARO FOLIAGE (COLOCASIA ESCULENTA) ................................... 58

Table 3.1. Proximate composition of diet ingredients ........................................... 62
Table 3.2. Composition of diets (DM basis) .......................................................... 62
IX


Table 3.3. Mean values for DM intake and % CP of the diet consumed by Moo
Lath pigs without (CTL) or with supplements of BG or RDB .............................. 63
Table 3.4. Mean values for apparent digestibility by Moo Lath pigs fed diets
without (CTL) or with supplements of BG or RDB .............................................. 64
Table 3.5. Mean values for N balance by Moo Lath pigs fed diets with or without
(CTL) supplements of BG or RDB ........................................................................ 65
CHAPTER 4: EFFECT OF A LOW CONCENTRATION OF RICE DISTILLERS’
BYPRODUCT, OR OF BREWERS' GRAINS ON GROWTH RATE AND FEED
CONVERSION DURING PREGNANCY AND LACTATION OF NATIVE MOO
LATH GILTS AND THEIR PROGENY .......................................................................... 70
Table 4.1. Composition of experimental diets (% DM basis)................................ 71
Table 4.2. Proximate analysis of diet ingredients .................................................. 74
Table 4.3. Mean values for live weight (kg) of Moo Lath gilts at conception,
before and after parturition and weaning ............................................................... 74
Table 4.4. Mean values for changes in weight of Moo Lath gilts supplemented
during pregnancy with 4% of rice distillers’ by-product or 4% brewers’ grains... 75
Table 4.5. Mean values for weight of litters from Moo Lath gilts supplemented
during pregnancy with 4% of rice distillers’ by-product or 4% brewers’ grains... 76
Table 4.6. Numbers of piglets born and surviving to weaning supplemented with
4% of rice distillers’ by-product or 4% brewers’ grains ........................................ 77
Table 4.7. Mean weights (g) of piglets at birth and 28 day weaning
supplementation of the diet with brewers’ grains, rice distillers’ by-product ....... 77
Table 4.8. DM feed intake from conception to weaning of Moo Lath
gilts supplemented with 4% brewers’ gains or 4% rice distillers’ by-product ...... 78
Table 4.9. Effect of supplementing with 4% brewers’ gains or 4% rice distillers’

by-product on DM feed conversion (kg/kg) .......................................................... 78
CHAPTER 5: EFFECT OF RICE DISTILLERS’ BYPRODUCT AND BIOCHAR AS
ADDITIVES WITH A FORAGE-BASED DIET FOR GROWING AND FEED
CONVERSION OF NATIVE MOO LATH PIGS ............................................................ 83
Table 5.1. Proximate composition of diet ingredients ........................................... 87
Table 5.2. Composition of experimental diets ....................................................... 87
Table 5.3. Mean values for change live weight, feed intake and conversion for
Moo Lath pigs fed rice distillers’ by-product, biochar or both .............................. 88

X


LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 10
Figure 1.1. Number of pigs in Laos from 2013-2017 ............................................ 11
Figure 1.2. Lao name - Moo Chid (Moo Markadon or Moo Boua) ...................... 14
Figure 1.3. Lao name - Moo Lath .......................................................................... 14
Figure 1.4. Lao name - Moo Nonghad or Moo Hmong......................................... 14
Figure 1.5. Lao name - Moo Deng or Moo Berk ................................................... 14
Figure 1.6. Traditional rice distillers’ by-product production in Laos .................. 29
CHAPTER 2: EFFECT OF REPLACING ENSILED TARO FOLIAGE (COLOCASIA
ESCULENTA) WITH ENSILED BANANA PSEUDO STEM (MUSA SPP) AND
SOYBEAN MEAL ON INTAKE, DIGESTIBILITY AND NITROGEN RETENTION
IN MOO LATH PIGS ....................................................................................................... 49
Figure 2.1. Effect of increasing level of ensiled banana pseudo stem replacing
taro foliage on apparent DM digestibility in Moo Lath pigs ................................. 54
Figure 2.2. Effect of ensiled banana pseudo stem ................................................. 54
and taro foliage on CP digestibility in Moo .......................................................... 54
Lath ........................................................................................................................ 54
Figure 2.3. Effect of ensiled banana pseudo stem and taro foliage on CF

digestibility in Moo Lath pigs ............................................................................... 54
Figure 2.4. Effect of ensiled banana pseudo stem replacing ensiled taro foliage on
N retention in Moo Lath pigs ................................................................................ 55
Figure 2.5. Effect of ensiled banana pseudo-stem replacing taro foliage on N
retained as % of N digested in Moo Lath pigs ...................................................... 55
CHAPTER 3: A LOW CONCENTRATION OF RICE DISTILLERS’ BYPRODUCT OR
OF BREWERS’ GRAINS ON DIGESTIBILITY AND NITROGEN RETENTION IN
NATIVE MOO LATH PIGS FED ENSILED BANANA PSEUDO-STEM (MUSA SPP)
AND ENSILED TARO FOLIAGE (COLOCASIA ESCULENTA) ................................ 58
Figure 3.1. Metabolism cage for faces and urine collection .................................. 60
Figure 3.2. Chopped banana pseudo-stem ............................................................. 61
Figure 3.3. Rice distillers' by-product ................................................................... 61
Figure 3.4. Brewers' grains .................................................................................... 61

XI


Figure 3.5. Effect of rice distillers’ by-product and brewers’ grain on DM intake
by Moo Lath pigs ................................................................................................... 64
Figure 3.6. Effect of rice distillers’ by-product and brewers’ grain on apparent
digestibility of DM by Moo Lath pigs ................................................................... 64
Figure 3.7. Effect of rice distillers’ by-product and brewers’ grains on apparent
digestibility of crude protein by Moo Lath pigs .................................................... 64
Figure 3.8. Effect of rice distillers’ by-product and brewers’ grains on apparent
digestibility of crude fiber by Moo Lath pigs ........................................................ 64
CHAPTER 4: EFFECT OF A LOW CONCENTRATION OF RICE DISTILLERS’
BYPRODUCT, OR OF BREWERS' GRAINS ON GROWTH RATE AND FEED
CONVERSION DURING PREGNANCY AND LACTATION OF NATIVE MOO
LATH GILTS AND THEIR PROGENY .......................................................................... 70
Figure 4.1. Rice distillers’ by-product ................................................................... 73

Figure 4.2. Gilts and piglets during lactation ........................................................ 73
Figure 4.3. Effect on live weights of Moo Lath gilts at conception, parturition and
weaning of supplementation with 4 % RDB or 4% BG ........................................ 75
Figure 4.4. Mean values for changes in weight of Moo Lath gilts during
pregnancy............................................................................................................... 75
Figure 4.5. Loss of weight of Moo Lath gilts during lactation .............................. 75
Figure 4.6. Effect of supplementation with 4% brewers’ gains or 4% rice
distillers’ by-product on litter weight at birth ........................................................ 76
Figure 4.7. Effect of supplementation with 4% brewers’ gains or 4% rice
distillers’ by-product on litter weight at weaning .................................................. 76
Figure 4.8. Effect of supplementing with 4% brewers’ gains or 4% rice distillers’
by-product on weight gain of their litters from birth to weaning .......................... 76
Figure 4.9. Effect on litter weight of piglets weaned of supplementing with 4%
brewers’ gains or 4% rice distillers’ by-product.................................................... 78
Figure 4.10. Effect on DM feed conversion of the piglets weaned supplementing
with 4% brewers’ gains or 4% rice distillers’ by-product ..................................... 78
CHAPTER 5: EFFECT OF RICE DISTILLERS’ BYPRODUCT AND BIOCHAR AS
ADDITIVES WITH A FORAGE-BASED DIET FOR GROWING AND FEED
CONVERSION OF NATIVE MOO LATH PIGS ............................................................ 83

XII


Figure 5.1. The biochar was the residue from rice husks used as fuel in a gasifier
stove ....................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 5.2. Effect of additives (DM basis) of rice distiller’s by-products (4%) and
biochar (1%) on DM intake of Moo Lath pigs ...................................................... 88
Figure 5.3. Effect of additives (DM basis) of rice distiller’s by-product (4%) and
biochar (1%) on live weight gain of Moo Lath pigs .............................................. 89
Figure 5.4. Effect of additives (DM basis) of rice distiller’s by-product (4%) and

biochar (1%) on DM feed conversion of Moo Lath pigs....................................... 89

XIII


LIST OF ABBRIVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
AA

Amino acid

ADF

Acid detergent fiber

ADG

Average daily gain

BG

Brewers’ grains

BR

Broken rice

CF

Crude fiber

CP

Crude Protein

CV

Covariance

DE

Digestible energy

DLF

Department of Livestock and Fishery

DM

Dry Matter

EAA

Essential Amino Acid

EE

Ether Extract

FW

Final Weight

GDP

Gross domestic production

GE

Gross energy

HCN

Hydrogen Cyanide

LPHC

Lao Population and Housing Census

LSB

Lao Statistic Bureau

MAF

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry

ME

Metabolizable energy

N

Nitrogen

NDF

Neutral detergent fiber

NRC

National Research Council

OM

Organic Matter

P

Phosphorus

RDB

Rice distillers’ by-product

SD

Standard deviation

T

ton

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

XIV


INTRODUCTION
1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Livestock production plays a significant role as source of food and of cash income
for smallholder farmers in rural areas in Laos. There were 3.7 million pigs in Laos (DLF,
2017). Most of the pig mainly production in Laos is produced under traditional conditions
with approximately 75% in rural smallholder pig farms (Souriyasack, 2011). The typical
smallholder pig farm relies on a scavenging system for forages and left-over food with
little or no supplementation. Supplementary energy-rich feeds are rice bran, broken rice,
maize and cassava root, but usually the price makes them out of reach of poor farmers.
The only sources of protein that farmers can afford are green plant material and natural
vegetables. These feed resources are not available in all seasons and are imbalanced
nutritionally, with lack of protein being the major issue. The classical sources of protein
used in pig production such as fish meal and soybean meal are almost exclusively
imported and out of reach of smallholder farmers. The results are low productivity (Stür
et al., 2010) with growth rates often less than 100 g/day (Phengsavanh et al., 2010). This
means a production cycle of 1.5 to 2 years to reach market weight of 60 to 70 kg
(Phengsavanh and Stür, 2006). The reproductive performance of sows is marked by
depressed litter size, a high mortality of piglet and outbreaks of disease.
The only options so far available to most smallholder farmers are to make better
use of the locally available feed resources and/or to introduce protein-rich plants that are
easy to grow such as the perennial leguminous forage Stylosantheses guiensis

(Phengsavanh and Stür, 2006). For these reasons the two feed resources chosen for this
research were banana pseudo stem (Musa spp) as source of energy and the Taro plant
(Colocasia esculenta) as the source of protein.
Banana pseudo stems (BPS) from the banana tree are distributed in Laos, as
bananas are widely grown for production of fruit for family consumption and sale. The
total harvest area of banana trees in Laos was estimated to be 28,600 ha, with yields of 42
tonnes of fruit/ha (MAF, 2017). The stem of the banana trees is referred to as a “pseudo
stem” as it appears to be held erected by water, not by lignified fiber as in most trees.
After the fruit is harvested this pseudo-stem is either left to rot on the ground or is

1


occasionally harvested, chopped into small pieces and fed to pigs, ducks and chickens
(Tien et al., 2013).
Banana pseudo stem has 8.5% lignin in DM, more than twice that in rice straw
(4.5%). However, a more detailed analysis using Light Microscopy, Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) and Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) revealed major
differences in anatomical characteristics, with the fiber in banana pseudo stem presenting
a tubular structure which would facilitate the movement of water within the stem (Li et
al., 2010). It is not known if such a structure is what facilitates the process of chopping
the stem with a knife as is done traditionally, usually by women. But it would explain the
high content of water in the stem of about 94%, the major nutritional constraint to banana
pseudo stem would appear to be the low level of protein about 3-4% in DM (Floulkes et
al.,1978). However, an unusual finding was reported presence of 3% of soluble sugars in
the liquid fraction which means that almost half of the reported 6% of DM in the banana
pseudo stem is present as soluble sugars (Dao Thi My Tien et al., 2010). These have not
been identified but the fact that the pseudo stem ensiles readily the pH falling from 4.5 to
3 within 5 days, confirms that they are readily fermentable (Dao Thi My Tien et al.,
2010).

Taro foliage (Colocasia esculenta) as the source of protein, as taro was found in
natural habitats where water is stored, near river banks, streams and ponds in Laos. It was
reported that the planted area was 11,335 ha with average root yield of 10.7 tonnes/ha
(MAF, 2017). In the study reported by Kaensombath and Frankow-Lindberg (2012) the
forage biomass yield at root harvest was 1,483 kg/ha of DM, provide 260 g/kg of protein;
the tuber DM yield was 2,732 kg/ha.
Taro leaves are rich in protein (about 20% in DM) with a balance of essential
amino acid close to that in an “ideal” protein (Rodríguez et al., 2006). The petioles are
rich in sugars which facilitate ensiling the combined leaves and petioles to give a feed
with 14-15% CP in the DM (Malavanh et al., 2008; Giang et al., 2010; Hai et al., 2013).
Many experiments have demonstrated that ensiled taro foliage can be fed as a source of
protein for pigs (Toan and Preston, 2010; Chittavong et al., 2012; Kaensombath and
Lindberg, 2012; Hang et al., 2015). The limitation to the use of taro foliage in diets for
pigs is the presence of oxalates which form crystalline insoluble salts that cause irritation

2


in the mouth of pigs when the foliage is consumed fresh. However, this problem can be
resolved by ensiling the taro before feeding (Hang et al., 2011).
Probiotics and prebiotics, as legislation to forbid use of antibiotics as growth
promoters is increasingly being enforced so as to prevent development of resistant strains
of organisms that are pathogenic to humans. The two approaches to safeguarding animal
health and/or improving productivity are to replace antibiotics with either beneficial
microorganisms (probiotics) such as Lactobacilli and yeasts that enhance the normal
microbial flora in the animals’ digestive system or with additives (prebiotics) that provide
habitat for microbial communities in the form of support structures for biofilms, or
specific nutrients that support the proliferation of beneficial micro-organisms. In the
former category Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus spp. have been effective
organisms in binding a wide range of mycotoxins (Gallo et al., 2015). In the latter

category are compounds such as β-glucan that are present in the walls of cereals such as
barley and rice, and of yeasts. These appear to be released in natural processes such as
occur in the alcoholic fermentation of barley and rice and subsequent distillation to give
beer and rice wine.
The byproducts from these processes such as brewers’ spent grains’ and rice
distiller soluble (“Hem” in Vietnam, “Khi Lao” in Laos and “Bar Rao” in Cambodia) fed
at low levels in the diet (4 to 5% as DM) were shown to protect cattle (Phanthavong et al.,
2016; Sengsouly and Preston 2016; Binh et al., 2017) and goats (Binh et al., 2018) from
HCN toxicity caused by cyanogenic glucosides present in foliage of “bitter” varieties of
cassava.
Biochar, the by-product from the carbonization of fibrous residues at high
temperatures of 500-1000 °C was originally identified as an ameliorating agent in soils
and as a vehicle for sequestering atmospheric carbon (Lehmann, 2007) with associated
beneficial effects on crop and plant growth (Lehman and Joseph, 2015; Preston, 2015). In
pigs and chickens, it has been shown to be effective as an agent to facilitate the
degradation of phytotoxins and mycotoxins (Gallo et al., 2015; Prasai et al. 2017), as well
as providing habitat that enhances activities of microbial communities (Leng, 2017).

3


2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
2.1. Aims of the thesis
The aims of present research was to investigate the utilization of local feed resources
as forage-based diets and supplementation of grains’ fermentation by-products as additive
feed to develop feed and feeding practical management with improving growth
performance for native Moo Lath pigs in rural smallholder farms of Laos.
2.2. Objectives of the thesis
The objectives of the research was to determine a local available forage of banana
pseudo stem and taro foliage as basal diet and grain by-products as supplement feeds on

growth performance and reproduction of native Moo Lath pig in smallholder of Laos. The
specific objectives in each chapter was stated as bellows:
1) Paper 1 (Chapter 2): To determine the effect of replacing ensiled taro foliage with
ensiled banana pseudo stem in different proportion on feed intake, nutrient
digestibility and nitrogen retention for native Moo Lath pigs in Laos
2) Paper 2 (Chapter 3): To investigate the effect of a low concentration of rice
distillers’ by-product or brewers’ grains on digestibility and nitrogen retention in
native Moo Lath pigs fed ensiled taro foliage and ensiled banana pseudo-stem as
forage-based diets
3) Paper 3 (Chapter 4): To continuously test with a low concentration of rice
distillers’ by-product or brewers’ grains when they were similar affected on
growth rate and feed conversion during pregnancy and lactation of native Moo
Lath gilts and their progeny fed ensiled taro foliage and ensiled banana pseudostem as forage-based diets
4) Paper 4 (Chapter 5): To evaluate the effect of rice distillers’ by-product and
biochar as additives to a forage-based diet on growing and feed conversion of
native Moo Lath pigs in Laos
3. HYPOTHESES OF THE RESEARCH
The researches were hypothesis that ensiled taro foliage combined with banana
pseudo stem could be used as forage-based diet and rice distillers’ by-product or brewers’
grains in term of the biochar could be potential source of local prebiotic/probiotic to be
improve the growth performance and better support for reproductive performance during
pregnancy-lactation and progeny of native Moo Lath pig gilts in Laos.

4


1) Paper 1 (Chapter 2): Ensiled taro foliage as protein sources combined with ensiled
banana pseudo stem will be contributed suitable inclusive in the diet supporting
for digestibility and biological value and could be included as foliage based-diet
improving growth performance for native Moo Lath pigs

2) Paper 2 (Chapter 3): Small amounts (4% of diet DM) of either brewers' grains or
rice distillers' by-product (Khilao) supplemented in foliage based diets would
support increased growth rate in local Moo Lath pigs.
3) Paper 3 (Chapter 4): Small amounts (4% of diet DM) of either brewers' grains or
rice distillers' by-product supplements would bring similar benefits during the
pregnancy-lactation and progeny of native Moo Lath pig gilts
4) Paper 4 (Chapter 5): Supplementation of biochar in a forage-based diet would be
affected on growth performance and feed conversion of native Moo Lath pigs and
to compare it with rice distillers’ by-product already shown to be effective as a
prebiotic in diets of Moo Lath pigs
4. INNOVATION CONTRIBUTED OF THE DISSERTATION
The innovation of this dissertation is the use of low concentrations (4% of diet
DM) of agro-industrial by-products such as brewers’ grains, rice distillers’ residues and
addition of biochar (1% of diet DM) as additives feed that appear to act as “prebiotics”,
enhancing the growth and feed conversion of indigenous Moo Lath pigs fed on local feed
resource of ensiled foliage of Taro (Colocasia esculenta) and banana pseudo-stem (Musa
spp). Rice distillers’ residue (Khilao) is a by-product of artisanal rice wine production
widely available in rural areas of countries in SE Asia. Biochar is the residue after
carbonization of rice husks in gasifier stoves used in rural households to produce gas for
cooking. The carbon in biochar is in close association with phenolic compounds making
it resistant to microbial oxidation, thus when recycled to soil in animal excreta, it will act
as a mechanism for sequestering atmospheric carbon.

5


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