Nghiên cứu thăm dò ý kiến từ giảng viên và sinh viên tiếng anh về nhận thức và thực hiện dạy học tự chủ tt tiếng anh

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HUE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

LE THANH NGUYET ANH

SUMMARY OF THE THESIS

EFL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS AND
PRACTICES REGARDING LEARNER AUTONOMY:
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY AT A VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY IN
THE MEKONG DELTA

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THESIS IN THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

HUE, 2019


This study was completed at:
University of Foreign Languages – Hue University
Supervisor 1: Dr. Trương Bạch Lê
Supervisor 2: Assoc. Prof. Đỗ Minh Hùng, PhD

Reviewer 1: Assoc. Prof. Tôn Nữ Mỹ Nhật, PhD
Reviewer 2: Assoc. Prof. Lê Phạm Hoài Hương, PhD
Reviewer 3: Dr. Nguyễn Gia Việt

This dortoral dissertation will be defended in the Thesis Examination Council of Hue
University at 04 Lê Lợi Street, Hue City at …….a.m/p.m on ……./……/……….

This dissertation can be found in the National Library and library of University of
Foreign Languages – Hue University.


Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the research
Learner autonomy (LA) is originated from European education (Benson, 2006) and
whether it is suitable for Asian learning style (Pennycook, 1997) is both Western educators’
and Asian educators’ concern. Therefore, this is a challenge to the Vietnamese Ministry of
Education and Training (MOET) as well as educators.
For Mekong Delta, the Decision No.1033/QĐ-TTg, 30 June 2011 issued by the Prime
Minister on developing education, training, and vocational training in Mekong Delta in the
period 2011 – 2015 brought hopes for a breakthrough in enhancing the labors’ education and
quality (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2011). However, after five years this Decision was
conducted, the quality of education and training in Mekong Delta was still lower than other
regions in Vietnam (Đỗ Nam, Tân Thành, & Phùng Dũng, 2017), and this area has been a
“depression” in Vietnamese education, especially in teaching and learning English.
Although there has been a lot of research about LA conducted around the world in many
ways and a variety of studies of EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices towards learner
autonomy in Western nations, Asian ones, and Vietnam such as Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012b),
and Dogan and Mirici (2017) as well as EFL students’ perceptions and practices regarding LA
in Asian contexts generally and in Vietnam particularly (i.e. Chan, Spratt, & Humphreys, 2002;
Đặng Tấn Tín, 2012), their results have yet to be comprehensively generalised and final
conclusions have yet to be made. Up to now, there have been one thesis of LA (Trịnh Quốc
Lập, 2005) and an article about this field (Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016) conducted in Cần Thơ
University, in Mekong Delta, Vietnam.
The research was conducted at the Faculty of Foreign Language Education at a university

in the Mekong Delta, South of Vietnam. Most of the students who were attended English majors
at Foreign Language Education Faculty at the University obtained their weak background in
English, especially the freshmen. Up to the time this study starting to be conducted in 2014,
there had not yet been any research related to LA for both teachers and students carried out in
this faculty, although Dong Thap University (DTU) had run for nearly 15 years. Hence, the
present study made an attempt to clarify this as well as to provide more insights about LA in
the views of Vietnamese-speaking EFL teachers and students.
1.2 Aims of the research
First, this study aims to understand how Vietnamese EFL teachers perceive LA and
express it in their teaching practice. Second, it explores students’ understanding of LA and the
ways they learn English autonomously. Lastly, it investigates the relationship between the EFL
teachers’ and the EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA.
1.3 Research questions
1. What are EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices of LA?
2. What are EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA?

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3. What are the relationships between EFL teachers’ and EFL students’ perceptions and
practices of LA?
1.4 Research significance
First, the present study provides necessary insights into models of LA from local EFL
teachers and EFL students’ perspectives in learning environments in a rural area in Mekong
Delta, South of Vietnam. Second, understanding teachers’ and students’ practices of LA in EFL
learning environment contributes to a LA profile for the local context in Vietnam. Third, the
current study contributes more knowledge to LA field which is provided in Chapter Two.
1.5 Organization of the thesis
Chapter One is introduction. Chapter Two is literature review. Methodology is in Chapter
Three. Chapter Four is findings and discussion. Chapter Five is conclusion and implications.

Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Learner autonomy
2.1.1 Definition of learner autonomy
LA was primitively defined as the “ability to take charge of one’s own learning” by Holec
(1981, p.3) and up to now this definition has been cited in LA literature most.
2.1.2 Roles of learner autonomy
In the last three decades LA is still an interesting topic and has an extremely powerful
effect on language teaching and learning (Benson, 2006; Blidi, 2017). One more major reason
for continuing exploring and developing LA at tertiary education is for the purpose of life-long
learning for both teachers and students.
2.1.2.1 Learner autonomy in Asian EFL higher education
Recently, a large number of studies about the benefits of LA and the importance of
fostering LA in foreign/second language education in Asian context have been conducted. This
shows the positive role of LA in this field in Asian university settings. Cakici’s findings (2017)
showed that LA was highly valued by participants, and they were willing to take more
responsibilities for and make decisions about their own language learning.
2.1.2.2. Learner autonomy in Vietnamese EFL higher education
Trịnh Quốc Lập (2005, p.17) indicates that one of the goals of English Language Teachers
training programs in Vietnamese universities is LA development. Đặng Tấn Tín (2012, pp.2627) shows that LA “directly contributes to both processes and outcomes of learning activities”,
helps “students to face the challenge of technical difficulties”, and “is especially important for
knowledge construction and sustainable learning in today’s globalized world”.
2.2 Learner autonomy in foreign language education
2.2.1 Learner autonomy as ability
Holec (1981, p.3) defines LA as “ability to take charge of one’s own learning. Thus, LA is
the ability to proceed to learning independently and consciously. Dickinson (1994) makes these
LA cognitive abilities of language learners clearer through being able to recognize the

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objectives of what they learn in the classroom, plan their own learning goals, choose a suitable
type of learning strategies, and manage and evaluate their implementation of learning strategies.
2.2.2 Learner autonomy as responsibility
All of the above definitions of LA imply that language learners should take responsibility
for their learning. Holec (1981, p.3) also mentions that LA is that “to take charge of one’s
learning is to have, and to hold, the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of
this learning”. Taking LA as responsibility also means developing a set of behaviors and skills
which Benson and Voller (1997, p.2) classify into five main components: to “study entirely on
their own”; form “a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning”;
activate their “inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education”; implement their
“responsibility for their own learning”; and “determine the direction of their learning”.
2.2.3 Learner autonomy as cognitive processes
Wenden (1991, p.15) believes that autonomous learners are the ones who “have acquired
the learning strategies, the knowledge about learning, and the attitudes that enable them to use
these skills and knowledge confidently, flexibly, appropriately and independently of a teacher”.
She argues that to develop LA, knowledge about learning strategies (cognition, selfmanagement), knowledge about language learning (metacognition), and knowledge about
learner attitudes are essential. Harris (2003, p.4) states that “metacognition is concerned with
guiding the learning process itself and so includes strategies for planning, monitoring and
evaluating both language use and language learning; key elements in developing autonomy”.
2.2.4 Learner autonomy in lifelong learning
Thomson (1996, p.78) indicates that language learning is “a life-long endeavor”. Borg and
Al-Busaidi (2012b, p.3) hold that LA “prepares individuals for lifelong learning”. LA is
learners’ lifelong learning process after they graduate from university. According to Blidi
(2017), the development of lifelong learning is deemed to strongly impact on policies of
education and trends in teaching and learning in Europe as well as in the globe because it is
considered as the solution to connect education products and the important and essential things
of social economy.
2.2.5 Learner autonomy as cultural challenge
LA has been considered as a concept affecting language teaching and learning in
different settings, and culture has become an important factor in relation to its suitability and

effectiveness. LA has been considered as a cultural characteristic in Western countries versus
Asia countries. Ho and Crookall (1995) show that Asian learners, consisting of Vietnamese
learners, have the same strong beliefs of social relations and relational hierarchy in the
classrooms. Đặng Tấn Tín (2010) states that influenced by the Asian culture, the common
philosophy of Vietnamese education practice is more absorbing and memorizing and less
experimenting and creating knowledge. In Mekong Delta, LA seems to be one of the big
challenges. Hồ Sỹ Anh (2018) indicates that only 12% of Mekong Delta people graduated from

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high school to university in 2014, which was the lowest rate in comparison with other regions
in Vietnam.
2.2.6 Learner autonomy in this study
Based on above analyzed definitions of LA and sociocultural conditions in Mekong Delta
in the South of Vietnam, in the current study, LA is redefined as language learners’ cognition,
ability to take responsibility for their own learning by setting learning goals, planning,
practising, monitoring and assessing their autonomous learning processes through teachers’
guide and orientation, as well as their lifelong learning.
2.3 Aspects of learner autonomy
2.3.1. Technical aspect of learner autonomy
According to Benson (1997, p.19), technical aspect of LA is clearly shown as “the act of
learning a language outside the framework of an educational institution and without the
intervention of a teacher”. He emphasizes the physical situation for autonomous learners to take
and develop their responsibility for their own learning. He uses positivism for this aspect
because he believes that “knowledge is a more or less accurate reflection of objective reality”
(Benson, 1997, p.20).
2.3.2. Psychological aspect of learner autonomy
Psychological aspect relates to learners’ attitudes and awareness ability when they have
their responsibility for their own study. Benson (1997, p.19) defines psychological aspect of

LA as “a capacity – a construct of attitudes and abilities – which allows learners to take more
responsibility for their own learning”. The psychological perspective starts to be clearer as
Little (2003) connects Holec’s definition (1981) and his in order to concretize that autonomous
students have full perceptions regarding and understand their courses’ goals, approve their
responsibility, actively plan study and conduct their learning activities, and usually assess their
learning effects.
2.3.3. Political aspect of learner autonomy
Political aspect of LA is based on critical theory and focuses on learners’ “control over
the processes and content of learning” (Benson, 1997, p.19). This version of LA is the
approaches that permit learners to manage both their own learning and the institutional settings.
It seems to be learners’ rights in learning. Also, critical theory emphasizes the social contexts
and the form of LA as access, control, power, and ideology (Pennycook, 1997) which are looked
for in particular locations, circumstances, groups, institutions, and socioeconomic positions.
2.3.4. Sociocultural aspect of learner autonomy
Basing on Benson’s three aspects of LA (1997), Oxford (2003) introduces one more aspect
of LA into her framework that is sociocultural perspective. This perspective emphasizes social
interaction in shaping learners’ cognition and language development. Oxford (2003) bases
herself on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (1978) to form this aspect of learner autonomy
through environmental stimulation and social interactions with learning environments where
people’s cognition has developed.

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2.4 Perceptions and practices
2.4.1 Perceptions
McShane and Von Glinow (2010, p.68) defines “perception is the process of receiving
information about and making sense of the world around us”. People have intention of bringing
meaning and significance, judgments and analyses, values, objectives to their actions.
The concept of language teachers’ perception is defined by Borg (2006) as teachers’

cognition of what they consider, are familiar with, and believe. Basing on Borg and AlBusaidi’s questionnaire (2012b), Benson’s views (2011), and Little’s views (1991, 1999),
Xhaferri, Waldispuhl, Xhaferri, and Eriksson-Hotz (2015, p.13) list ten concepts which are used
as a framework to explore beliefs about LA, namely technical views, psychological views,
social views, political views on LA, the role of the teacher in LA, the relevance of LA to diverse
cultural contexts, age and LA, language proficiency and LA, the implication of LA for teaching
methodology, and the relationship of LA to effective language learning.
Learners’ perceptions of LA are an important issue for both educators and learners
themselves investigated by a number of language researchers. White (1995, p.209) states that
only when learners have developed their “understanding of the nature of language learning, and
of his/her role in that process”, can they gain ability to practice LA.
2.4.2 Practices
Dewey (1904) states that practice work is “an instrument in making real and vital
theoretical instruction; the knowledge of subject-matter and of principles of education”.
Teachers’ practices of LA relate to the ways they instruct their students doing LA
activities. Brown (1994, p. 124) claims that instructing students how to study is an important
duty for teachers. Additionally, ten strategies are identified and mentioned in Benson’s study
(2016) to help teachers foster their students’ LA.
Regarding students’ practices of LA, Holec (1981, p.3) clarifies students’ LA ability and
responsibility for their learning through five vital actions to practice LA, namely “determining
objectives, defining content and progressions, selecting methods and techniques to be used,
monitoring procedure of acquisition, and evaluating what has happened”. Littlewood (1999)
gives a model of three features: language acquisition, learning approach, and personal
development, and develops definition of learner autonomy in two levels of proactive autonomy
and reactive autonomy.
2.4.3 Relationship between perception and practice of learner autonomy
Discussing the interaction between perception and practice, Bodenhausen and Hugenberg
(2009, p.14) indicate that “perception is linked to action in some fairly obvious ways”. They
illustrate the connection of input, perception, cognition, and action in a diagram:

5

Target

perception

cognition

action

Figure 2.1: The interaction of perception, cognition, and action
(Bodenhausen & Hugenberg, 2009, p.15)
The figure 2.1 shows that one’s perception through his or her cognition guides his or her action
and the action, then, impacts on perception.
Teachers’ perceptions are a crucial part in teaching practice because they straightly
influence teachers’ selection of objectives and activities. Buchmann (1986) shows that
objectives of education may shape teachers’ beliefs regarding what is suitable for teaching and
teachers’ conceptions about their professional role. Conceptions of their role, in turn, shape
their teaching practice.
According to Horwitz (1987), learners’ beliefs can affect their attempts in learning new
languages and decide what they do. Moreover, Riley (1996, p.128) shows that learners’ beliefs
strongly influence their language learning process more than their teachers’ stimulation on them
because “it is their beliefs that hold sway over their motivation, attitudes, and learning
procedures”.
2.5 Assessing as learning in learner autonomy
2.5.1 Assessment as learning as an indispensable segment of LA
According to Earl and Katz (2006, p.41), assessment as learning (AaL) is “an active
process of cognitive restructuring that occurs when individuals interact with new ideas”. In this
process, students are “the critical connectors between assessment and learning”. Similarly,
Berry (2008, p.47) states that this approach offers students’ learning responsibility, urges

students to learn in depth, and focuses on “assessment as a process of metacognition for
students”.
2.5.2 Teachers’ role
In assessment as learning, teachers play the crucial role, including “designing instruction
and assessment that allow all students to think about, and monitor, their own learning” (Earl &
Katz, 2006, p.42). Likewise, Berry (2008) states that teachers’ role in AaL is to plan their
teaching with the opportunities, which helps students self-assess and peer-assess their learning.
Furthermore, teachers should observe and assess learners’ practices of LA, and then they may
have a teaching plan to support their students to develop autonomy. Besides, teachers have to
self-assess their instruction of LA activities.
2.5.3 Learners’ role
To become the active, involved and critical assessors in assessment as learning, students
are like ones with personally analyzing, evaluating, and critically considering what they
implement in learning. Then, they can adjust, adapt, or change their present study goals, and

6


plan their new learning objectives. Therefore, students are the connectors between teaching and
learning (Berry, 2008). Furthermore, Gardner (1999) considers self-assessment as an important
element to look back and decide learners’ level of knowledge and skills.
2.6 Previous studies on EFL teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices of LA
In the Western, Dogan and Mirici’s study’s results (2017) showed that there was a
missing link between teachers’ perceptions and practices of LA. Teachers felt it hard to involve
students in making decisions on their own language learning. Besides, Balcikanli (2010)
indicated that the student teachers possessed a clear understanding of LA. However, it was
difficult to involve themselves in making decisions on some aspects such as choosing time and
place of a class, or in selecting materials in learning because they were not allowed.
In Asia, Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012b) showed that the teachers had positive perceptions
towards the notion of LA and its advantages for language students. However, the participants

shared difficulties which they met were fixed curriculum, students’ weak LA experience,
students’ demotivation, students’ trust in their teachers, students’ learning English out of
classes, students’ aim in passing exams, etc. In Iran, Azizi’s findings (2014) showed that
students believed in some LA activities they and their teachers shared duty together. Yet, some
other students perceived that they had to take certainly responsibility for conducting them. In
some others, students thought that their teachers took responsibility, especially the activities
related to methodological aspects, study planning, activity control.
In Southeast Asia, Keuk and Heng (2016) showed that the Cambodian EFL teachers
admitted that it was hard for EFL teachers to apply the current curriculum, learning resources,
desirable level of LA in practice, and they did not have enough necessary knowledge and skills
to conduct studies of LA. In addition, Tapinta (2016) revealed that Thai EFL teachers had a
strong belief in developing LA. They also recognized the role of them as facilitators in students’
learning process.
Furthermore, in Vietnam, Nguyễn Thanh Nga’s results (2014) indicated that overall
teachers did not have full understandings of the concept and did not enhance LA due to many
factors such as difficult conditions of their teaching settings, and the strict courses. Especially,
they did not know how to foster LA. In addition, Đặng Tấn Tín (2012) indicated that the
participants had positive perceptions of initiating learning opportunities as well as of the vital
role of technology to help their learning. However, he stated that “the relationship between
perception and performance of LA is not strong [...]. Learners cannot always do what they want
to do for their learning even though they understand that it is necessary and useful to do so”
(Đặng Tấn Tín, 2012, p.184).
2.7 Summary
This chapter presents an overview of definitions, aspects, perceptions, and practices,
self-assessment of LA in literature in previous studies.

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Chapter Three METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research approach: Mixed methods research
It is a large number of complexities surrounding learner autonomy that appeals a multiple
research approach rather than a single one in order to raise the degree of confidence in
responding the three research questions in this study. Thus, the present research employed a
mixed methods research, typified by a process of combining and analyzing both qualitative and
quantitative data (Creswell, 2014; Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007) to gain “greater
depth of understanding and corroboration of findings” (Johnson et al, 2007, p.124). In this
research, exploratory study of mixed methods design was opted because the aim of this research
kind was to find “what is happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess
phenomena in a new light” (Robson, 2002, p.59).
3.2 Research participants
3.2.1 Teacher participants
A total of 20 Vietnamese-speaking EFL teachers in the Foreign Language Education
Faculty, (DTU in the Mekong Delta), voluntarily took part in the interview. It should be noted
that by the time the current study was conducted, none of them had attended any workshops or
training programs exclusively on EFL students’ LA.
3.2.2 Student participants
There were 285 current English majors in Foreign Language Education Faculty at the
university, volunteering to complete the questionnaire. Of 285 participants, 60 voluntary
students responded to interview questions. It should be noted that none of them have yet to
attend any training programs exclusively on EFL students’ LA.
3.3 Data collection methods
3.3.1 Interviews
3.3.1.1 In-depth interviews
Using in-depth interview, the researcher can explore “as much depth as possible the
respondent’s experiences, views, or feelings” and obtain “the richness of insight” (Richards,
2009, p.185). Similarly, Saunders et al (2009, p.321) talk about the advantages of in-depth
interview as investigating the general field in depth and the participants given a chance “to talk
freely about events, behaviors, and beliefs in relation to the topic area”.
3.3.1.2 Group interview

Group interview has a lot of benefits which have been researched by many researchers on
the world (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992; Watts & Ebbutt, 1987). First, using group interview helps
researchers develop and obtain a wider set of answers from interviewees through their own
stories than in individual ones. Next, it brings to researchers diverse thoughts or ideas. And
then, it saves time because the interviewer can interview a group of people at the same time.
Psychologically, when interviewed in groups, students will not be asked alone and can be
stimulated to remind them of more ideas relating to the topic while they are listening to their
friends’ story.

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3.3.1.3 Interview for teachers
Teacher interviewing questions were divided into three parts: definitions and role of LA,
teachers’ reflections about applying LA in their teaching, teachers’ evaluation of their EFL
students’ autonomous level and their self-assessment of instructing and organizing LA
activities for their students.
3.3.1.4 Interview for students
EFL students’ interview questions were designed with three parts: their perceptions
towards definitions of learner autonomy and its role in higher education, their reflections of
what they have done after class, and their evaluation of their own LA ability.
3.3.2 Questionnaire
Questionnaire is an effective tool to collect information data and save time for informants
to answer. Kumar (2011, p.141) indicates the benefits of questionnaire that “it is less
expensive”; “it offers greater anonymity”.
Questionnaire developing process
For the current study, the unbalanced five-point Likert-type scale (5) was used because a 5point Likert-type scale was widely accepted as a proxy interval level of measurement in line
with common practice in educational research (Dornyei, 2003).
The questionnaires were grown in four steps: 1. piloting, 2. revising, 3. testing again and
getting feedback, and 4. including feedback into a final version of the questionnaire. The

researcher looked back qualitative data carefully, and based on the theories in LA for language
learners in literature, empirical studies, and mixing previous questionnaires in this field such as
Chan et al (2002), Dafei (2007), Sakai and Takagi (2009), Duruk and Kecik (2014), and Talley
(2014), to formulate a new questionnaire. Perception, setting goal, and planning study sections
were not adapted from previous studies because they were not suitable for purpose of the
present research. Therefore, the rest items were designed and developed due to interview results
and literature review.
3.4 Research procedure
3.4.1 Pilot study
In this stage, only quantitative pilot questionnaire was conducted.
3.4.2 Main study
Stage 1
20 EFL teachers were interviewed individually about thirty minutes. At first, the guide
interview questions were designed in English. But, when conducting the interview, the
researcher used Vietnamese version to instruct the participants to tell their story in Vietnamese.
The author used two digital recorders (one is a mobile phone and another is a recorder)
simultaneously to record all the interviews.
Students joined in interview in 12 groups of five. They took turn to tell their own
autonomous learning life while their friends were listening. They could support their details
later they forgot during interview time. Each group shared their own story in one hour.

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Additionally, two kinds of recorders were used, and, of course, the place where the interviews
took place was quiet.
Stage 2
In this period, 285 EFL majors voluntarily answered the questionnaire. They responded
all questions in Vietnamese version after class or at break. Then, all their responses were
collected. After that, the researcher used SPSS software to analyze data.

3.4.3 Coding questionnaire and interview data
In Phase 1, qualitative data were recorded and administered by the researcher. Every
participant was coded for both students and teachers. For instance, students No.1, No.2 were
coded S1, S2, and teachers No.1, No.2 were T1, T2, and so on. For student interview, each
group of five students’ transcription was put and saved in separate file in order. Similarly, every
teacher’s transcription was stored separately.
In Phase 2, after collected, questionnaire was managed and coded by the researcher. Each
finished questionnaire was numbered hand-writtenly in order on the first page. In addition, it
was coded with student year and put in order in the pile.
3.5 Data analysis
3.5.1 Qualitative data analysis
3.5.1.1 Transcribing data
The researcher of this study transcribed her own interviews of EFL teachers and students
from an oral version to a written one in Vietnamese thanks to Miles and Huberman’s
suggestions of twelve planned ways (1994, as cited in Cohen at al) to interpret transcribed and
interview data.
3.5.1.2 Translating data
Interview questions were designed in English and then translated into Vietnamese and
used to ask teachers and students in interview process. After that, the current researcher had to
translate the interviewed data into English to serve the purposes of this research.
3.5.1.3 Data analysis and reconcilement
In the current research, transcribed and translated information from interviews of EFL
teachers and students was analyzed to respond questions 1, 2, and 3. After analyzed, teachers’
views were being compared with students’ ones to find out the similarities and differences in
their perceptions and practices of LA.
3.5.2 Quantitative data analysis
Report information of a survey through questionnaire was used a software program named
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences to code and give statistics. This analysis indicated
the means, standard deviations. Besides, validity and reliability of these statistics were being
paid attention because they “lead to meaningful interpretations of data” (Creswell, 2014, p.

200).

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3.6 Research reliability and validity
Table 3.5: Summary of Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients
Scales

Cronbach's Alpha

Number of Items

Ability and cognition

.700

4

Responsibility

.885

6

Roles of LA

.852

5

Setting goal

.855

7

Planning study

.728

4

LA activities outside the classroom

.899

25

Time and life management

.752

3

Materials and resources

.819

9

Self-assessment

.830

6

Metacognition

.892

17

Perceptions of LA

Practices of LA

Total

86

3.7 Ethical considerations
The EFL teachers and students took part in this research voluntarily, and they had their
own freedom to withdraw from the research whenever they wanted. Besides, all students’
names, who answered the questionnaire, would be protected. Similarly, in the interview, the
teachers’ and the students’ stories about LA were kept in secret and just used exclusively for
the study purposes.
3.8 Summary
This chapter just presented the research design with a mixed methods approach with an
exploratory study with in-depth interview, group interview, and questionnaire. The

participants’ information, and two phases of the research were mentioned.
Chapter Four FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Teachers’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy
4.1.1 Teachers’ perceptions of the concept of learner autonomy
Twenty EFL teachers who were interviewed about their understanding of EFL students’
LA shared a number of ideas in three domains of LA: ability, responsibility, and cognition.
First, one-fifth of teachers stated that EFL students had to have their ability of autonomous
learning in diverse ways. For instance, T1 mentioned that EFL students had to “adjust their
learning actively”, and master “the ways to learn autonomously, and self-research”. In addition,
T17 seemed to understand the concept of LA deeply since she mentioned two LA terminologies,

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namely “proactive autonomy” and “reactive autonomy”. Second, thirteen participants
emphasized students’ “responsibility” for their own learning. For example, T2 perceived they
had to “know what they need, what they do to obtain their learning goals. If EFL students set
up their clear learning goals, they will actively arrange their time, choose a place like the
library to learn autonomously, buy books [...] In general, they try to do what they can do to
gain their good learning results”. Third, three informants focused on EFL students’ LA as
“cognition”, and “self-consciousness” outside the classroom. More specifically, T8 indicated
that “EFL students with a good LA ability do not need to go to classes as one period in class is
fifty minutes and students practice English very little. Instead, they can actively listen to more
English at home, practice speaking to their friends, and writing as well”. In conclusion, all
participants stated their positive perceptions towards the concept of learner autonomy.
4.1.2 Teachers’ perceptions of the role of learner autonomy
All of the participants appreciated the extreme importance of the EFL students’ LA in
learning a foreign language in the integrated time and technology era these days and in their
job in the future as “lifelong learning” of LA. First, six of twenty teachers perceived that LA
helped students learn better in classes and get good learning results. For instance, T1 believed

that “after class the students need to self-research and self-discover knowledge to seek new
things from what they have learnt in class”. Next, T2 talked about the limited time in class in
the credit-education system and emphasized that if EFL students wanted to master the language
skills, they had to allocate their time to practice inside or outside classes to use English fluently.
T8 considered LA played an important role for the EFL students at DTU because their
background in English was lower than others in other universities in Vietnam in general and in
Mekong Delta in particular. Second, one-fourth of teachers expressed one more function of LA:
“It also helps EFL students with lifelong learning spirit”, and learning is the people’s lifelong
activity. T10 said that EFL students had to learn more autonomously to make progress and their
necessary skills such as critical thinking, communication, etc. in the 21 st century should be built.
Finally, twelve teachers mentioned the benefits of LA in students’ future jobs. For instance, T3
believed that if they had good LA ability, “after graduating from DTU, they are more confident
and have LA experience”.
4.1.3 Teachers’ practices of learner autonomy
When asked to talk about the ways to instruct their students to do LA activities, a number
of the teachers reported that they used the same methods. For example, at the beginning of a
course, they designed their detail teaching plans with LA which occupied twenty percent of the
total grade for the subjects they taught. In addition, they gave homework, exercises or
assignments, or questions to students to do at home. Then, they checked whether the students
did their duties. Besides, some of the teachers had their own special ways to hold and instruct
their students to carry out LA, and they are as follows.

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4.1.3.1 Teachers’ stories of organizing learner autonomy activities
T10 – using project-based learning and no homework
For Speaking classes, T10 told students that to speak well they needed to listen very much.
However, in reality, their listening skills were weak, so they had to spend at least one hour or
as much as possible on listening, and learning vocabulary so that those helped them be able to

express their ideas. Besides, they spent time on reading newspapers, books increasing their
social knowledge which helped them have ideas to talk. Specially, she held project-based
learning for them in American Culture and British Culture. They were divided into groups and
almost learning method was LA. With teacher’s instruction, students explored the problem as
they did small research on any topics. After that they reported their result of that research in
groups. She could see LA occupied students’ time in those two subjects.
T13 – using English clubs and the Internet
For Speaking classes, T13 held English clubs for them to practice together. She told them
when they had a chance to meet a foreigner, they should talk to him or her so as to practice
listening and speaking. In Writing classes, she organized some groups on Facebook for them to
post and peer-review their papers. She held another group for those who liked to compose or
create new things. For British Literature classes, she gave some links with stories or poems and
from two to five questions for them to read and answer at home to check their understanding,
and then they wrote a short report to share their ideas after they read in classes. In Listening
classes, she also introduced some websites of short English news such as BBC, VOA, and links
of movies to them. Additionally, she sent a long list of English songs to them to fill in the blanks
and sing to practice both listening and speaking because she thought that singing is a high level
of speaking. For Reading classes, she introduced some short stories collections, websites of
short stories or fables to them so that they could have more vocabulary and train their reading
habit because they could read in Vietnamese and were not familiar with reading in English.
4.1.3.2 Teachers’ achievements of organization and instruction of students’ LA
activities
In this theme, there are two main types of ideas from participants. More specifically, threequarters of the interviewed teachers reported that when students practiced LA outside the
classes such as peer-correction, preparing old and new lessons at home, doing homework or
assignments, they saved time to explain lectures or correct students’ homework, and students
learned faster and better in classes. Besides, through LA activities, teachers could understand
students more and design other ones in the following semester. The rest stated that basing on
the Internet and technology, the teachers and their students had e-communicative environment.
Students used technology well and joined English clubs.
4.1.3.3 Teachers’ difficulties of organization and instruction of students’ LA activities

Three-quarters of teachers stated that they met difficulties because some students were
lazy, passive, unconscious of the importance of LA. They did not have enough time to give
feedback to students’ LA activities in the classroom. They could neither manage nor measure

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their students’ LA at home. Some students felt too much pressure when going to classes because
they were asked to work perfectly. The large-size classes also affected their instructions of LA
activities. A quarter admitted that the teachers did not understand students’ needs to design
suitable LA activities. Moreover, the students were inpatient, and had no free time to learn
autonomously due to their second foreign language and Informatics classes, and extra-activities
as well.
4.1.3.4 Teachers’ assessment of their students’ LA ability
One-fourth of teachers stated that in general, the EFL students’ LA ability was from good
to very good. Additionally, six teachers claimed that their EFL students’ LA ability was
average. Also, three teachers mentioned that from 60% to 70% of EFL students had low LA
ability. Furthermore, three teachers said that it was hard if they assessed them in total, so they
separated them into newcomers and the old ones. Accordingly, the newcomers’ LA ability had
lower than the old ones’.
4.1.3.5 Teachers’ self-assessment about their organization and instruction of students’
LA activities
Most of the interviewed teachers self-assess their organization and instruction of
students’ LA activities very good (3/20) and good (10/20). Meanwhile, four teachers evaluated
their organization and instruction of students’ LA activities just over average. And, the rest said
that they always took responsibility for teaching.
4.2 Students’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy
4.2.1 Students’ perceptions of the concept of learner autonomy
In the interview, 60 participants showed their LA perceptions in three main concepts as
“ability”, “responsibility”, and “cognition”. First, for them, LA means “ability” to analyze their

needs, set up objectives and design clear study plans for gaining high results (3 students), to
arrange time to self-study (3 students), to control and divide time to learn each skill of English
equally (2 students), to balance time to study inside and outside classes, and join other daily
activities (2 students), or learn to know scientific learning methods (1 student). Second, it
involves their “responsibility” to autonomously prepare and search learning materials/resources
before or after classes for better class-participations and understandings, especially English
language skills and culture (3 students), to watch English movies or music to develop new
words (2 students), to practice English with foreigners in case they come across them (3
students), to make groups for self-study (2 students), to actively participate in school extracurriculum activities (2 students), even to consult upper-class students for learning experiences
(1 student), and make reflections on what has been done for reinforcements (1 student). Third,
it also includes their “cognition” towards English learning. More specifically, students should
have passion and enthusiasm in learning autonomously (1 student), be able to control
themselves in all aspects of learning achievements instead of relying totally on instructors (1
student), carry out autonomous learning without waiting for their teachers’ instructions
(1student).

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Quantitative data in this section provide more information about students’ perceptions of LA.
Ability and cognition
Students’ responses to four items and 86.6% of the EFL students have positive perceptions
of ability and cognition in autonomous learning. For example, the statement of having a clear
idea of learning content has the highest mean score of 4.12 from students’ answers. For the
statement of preparing lessons before going to school, the mean score is 4.02 for students’
responses which is the lowest. Besides, the two others obtain the same mean score of 4.06. The
percentage of students who answered negatively in this part was rather low, 5.1 %.
Responsibility
Nearly 90% of students have positive perceptions of their responsibility in learning
language. The mean scores of six items are from 4.11 to 4.28. More specifically, both

statements about looking for English materials as well as usually and actively practicing English
skills gain the mean score of 4.28. The statement about setting learning short-term goals has
the lowest mean score of 4.11. The others have their mean scores from 4.12 to 4.16. Meanwhile,
only 4.3% of students have negative perceptions of this theme.
4.2.2 Students’ perceptions of the role of learner autonomy
When asked about the importance of LA to EFL students during university life and later, all
60 informants (100%) agreed that it was significantly important.
Their typical accounts are “I think autonomy is prerequisite to determine a student’s
learning quality. Through it, students can find more knowledge resources than learning in the
classroom” (S16), “Learner autonomy occupies 90% learning results of students as well as
makes a chance for them to get a job. If we have learner autonomy ability, we will have benefits
at work in the future” (S34), “Up to 80% of English-major students’ success will be determined
by their learner autonomy ability, and even when at work in the future” (S59), “If they [Englishmajor students] do not learn autonomously, not self-research, and not self-find materials on
the Internet, they cannot gain their learning objectives established at the beginning of the
course” (S15).
The findings of the questionnaire showed that 90.9% of them agreed with the importance
of LA in their learning language. For instance, the highest mean score is 4.36 for the statement
of lifelong learning of LA. The statement of LA making students promote has the lowest mean
score of 4.13. The three others have their mean scores which are rather high from 4.23 to 4.34.
However, 3.1% of students responded negatively in this theme.
4.2.3 Students’ practices of learner autonomy
Most of the students had the same ways to learn English outside the classes and looking
for materials, etc. However, some of them possessed their own learning styles in learning
language autonomously.
4.2.3.1 Students’ special LA stories
For S11, she is a sample of doing homework more than other LA activities. She practiced
listening to PET, KET, videos, music much, and watching movies in English. She rarely

15

practiced writing skills, but often did TOEFL reading tests. For Speaking, she imitated English
songs and found some topics to practice. Furthermore, she did homework given by her teachers
and other exercises found by herself. She just set up general goals such as getting A marks or
winning a scholarship. Her long-term goals were to graduate from university in time with a
good Bachelor Certificate and to get a job. Additionally, she could balance her time for her
daily activities and her study; however, she thought she arranged her time for learning
autonomously and other activities unreasonably because she still stayed up late to learn her
lessons. She found materials recommended by her teachers such as englishtips.org, Cambridge
website, Oxford website. Normally, after school, she revised her lessons again and when she
had tests she would review them again.
Meanwhile, S16 is a typical example for practicing Speaking more. He had a study plan at
the middle of the first semester. He practiced Speaking by means of ELSA Speaker and EnglishEnglish dictionaries. He listened to them and repeated. Besides, he watched Mr. Dan’s videos
and listened to English songs but did not understand them completely. When coming across
new words, he looked up them in the dictionary as well as their synonyms, antonyms, and
usages. He said that he was finding the most effective way to learn grammar since he found that
learning grammar by heart was not effective. Therefore, he had to find some tips to memorize
it more deeply. Besides, the time he learned autonomously was not fixed because of his
timetable in classes, daily activities, university or class activities, so he practiced LA about
thirty minutes in the morning, and thirty minutes in the afternoon.
For S36, he seems to be a student using many types of learning resources. He explored
various resources for learning: read BBC news, listen to tapes in textbooks or IELTS books of
Cambridge from volume one to volume nine, use Cambly software to practice speaking three
times a week, and go to the library to read topics, write them, and submit them on Making Mate
web to be corrected. On the contrary, S17 was very conscious of her child-like learning style in
that she watched English videos and repeated, and listened to English stories to relax. And this
is how S22 learned English vocabulary: he wrote one word he did not know, and then omitted
vowels; then wrote many words and did the same. After ten minutes, he remembered vowels
and filled them again. This made him impressive and easy to learn vocabulary. But S23 shared
a different way to learn English vocabulary: she wrote new words on small pieces of paper and

stuck them on the wall so that she could see them to memorize.
4.2.3.2 Students’ achievements of practicing LA activities
All 60 students responded that they achieved a lot. First, they got new knowledge,
websites, and materials (13 students) because they learned what they liked first, and they
understood what they liked faster (6 students). Second, they could memorize lessons more
clearly, deeply, and longer, and what they found when they learned autonomously belonged to
theirs (9 students). Third, they felt learn autonomously at home more comfortably and
effectively than in class (8 students). Next, learning English autonomously made them feel good
and inspired (7 students). Besides, they saw that they actively used their time (8 students), and

16


increased self-consciousness (2 students). They could find which fields they were weak to
improve (5 students), ask their friends (3 students), and summarize their lessons (1 student).
Also, they gained autonomous learning experience (4 students), more effective learning
methods (2 students) and problem-solving skills (4 students).
4.2.3.3 Students’ difficulties of practicing LA activities
Many of the students found that it was hard for them to self-assess their LA assignments
or to ask whom for help. For instance, S27 said that after writing papers/essays, she needed
someone to correct them to help her know where she was wrong, but she had no one. For S31,
she could not learn in groups for four skills of English because she and her friends had different
timetables, while S39 revealed that although she liked to read bilingual stories such as Harry
Potter any time during the day and understand them, she could not answer the questions that
followed. Interestingly, S58 confessed that since there was no one controling her, she easily
neglected her learning duty or plans. Or they were easily attracted by other inducements (17
students) such as chatting, going out with friends, surfing webs, Facebook, Zalo and so on.
Next, some students considered that their alone learning was not effective, especially in
speaking skill (8 students) and their living environment was noisy (3 students). They did not
have enough techniques to search materials in the library (1 student). Or when they wanted to

share or ask something with their friends, they were not available online (1 student).
This part presents data from questionnaire of students’ practices of LA.
4.2.3.4 Setting goals
The results show the mean scores of 7 items are from 3.22 to 3.38. The highest mean score
is activity 17 of 3.38; meanwhile the lowest is the activity 20 of 3.22. There were 44% of
students having positive practices of setting up their learning goals. On the other hand, 19.1%
of them did not show their positive practices in this part.
4.2.3.5 Study plan
The results in “planning study” cluster with four items with their mean scores are from
3.05 (activity 24) to 3.28 (activity 25). The overall practices of this theme show that 37.8% of
students often plan their learning and 23.4% rarely conducted these activities. It cannot deny
that more than 60% of the students have not concerned to make their own study plan.
4.2.3.6 Learner autonomy activities
In this part, the highest mean score is 4.09 of listening to English songs. The mean scores
of activities 27, 28, 31, 32, 38, 44 and 49 are rather low, under 3 (neutral). Even mean score of
item 31 is the lowest, under 2. Overall, only 39.1% of students have positive practices of LA
activities. The percentage of students answering negatively is 27.2%. In other words, a few
students conducted activities 27, 28, 31, 32, 38, 44 and 49. Additionally, more than 60% of the
students have not carried out LA activities yet.

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4.2.3.7 Time management
There are 40.9% of students having positive practices of this part and 22.1% of them do
not. Additionally, the mean scores of three items are from 3.16 to 3.31. This means that over
50% of the students cannot manage their time and their life well.
4.2.3.8 Learning resources
There are 45.6% of informants responding positively. However, 18.8% of them answer
negatively this part. The mean scores of nine items are from 3.02 to 3.65. The highest mean

score of 3.65 is of activity 58. The lowest one of 3.02 is of activity 62. Over 50% of the students
have not explored learning resources well, especially from the library and from their teachers.
4.2.3.9 Metacognition in learning language
The mean scores of 17 items are from 2.82 to 3.88. The highest one of 3.88 is item 72;
meanwhile, the lowest one of 2.82 is item 77. The others are from 2.85 to 3.81, and items 75
and 77 have the mean scores under 3. In addition, there were 47.9% of students answering they
were active in these activities, and 18.2 % of them were not. In short, more than 50% of the
students have not organized those metacognitive activities. In addition, a number of students
have not arranged to practice English frequently and taken important notes in learning English.
4.2.3.10 Students’ self-assessment of learner autonomy
In the interview, participants self-assessed their practices of LA in different levels. Most
of the interviewed students evaluated their LA poor (13/60) or around average (40/60), while
the rest (7/60) self-assessed their LA good.
Quantitative data show information about students’ self-assessment of their practices on
LA. Of 285 students, 43.1% stated that they evaluated their LA activities positively and 16.1%
did not. The highest mean score of 3.71 is of item 67. The lowest one of 3.15 is of item 68. The
rest are from 3.26 to 3.34. Clearly, the degree of students’ self-assessment of their LA activities
is not high. Specially, over 55% of students have not paid attention to this theme.
4.3 Relationships between teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices
4.3.1 Relationship between teachers’ perceptions and practices
There was a certain relationship between teachers’ perceptions and practices. EFL
teachers at DTU had insights into the concepts, aspects, and levels of LA and its crucial role in
learning a foreign language at tertiary education. However, many teachers admitted that they
did not have sufficient measures to check their students’ LA activities outside classes.
Additionally, some teachers perceived the concept of autonomous students in different ways.
For instance, T1 considered LA as self-study and self-research; T9 said that students had to
know LA method. However, teachers did not instruct their students how to learn English
autonomously, how to set goals, and how to make study plans. Furthermore, some teachers’
experience of LA directed their informed and stated beliefs. T4 revealed that he always learned
autonomously when he was young; therefore, he always asked his students to do autonomous

learning in any subjects he taught. Similarly, T10 instructed her students how to learn English
major autonomously.

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4.3.2 Relationship between students’ perceptions and practices
The relationship between students’ perceptions and their practice of LA was clear. This
study indicated that students had positive perceptions of LA and its role. However, there still
exists quite a noted mismatch between what students perceived and what they actually obtained
from LA developments. Most of them did not know how to set up their specific learning goals
at the beginning in the first year or they only established general goals; they easily felt bored
when learning alone. Specially, when they surfed the Internet, they were easily attracted by
social websites. In addition, most of them have not known what websites on the Internet having
reliability to study.
4.3.3 Relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions
Both teachers and students, most of them, had high perceptions of four dimensions of LA
as ability, cognition, responsibility, and lifelong learning as in 4.1.1 and 4.2.1. Specially, both
focused on learners’ LA ability outside the classroom. Additionally, most of the teachers and
students believed in the important role of LA in learning language in higher education and
students’ life after students graduate from university (see 4.1.2 and 4.2.2). These showed that
the relationship between teachers’ perceptions and students’ perceptions was very strong.
However, what teachers thought about students’ LA ability was higher than students’ thought.
Meanwhile, students did not have these thoughts. This showed that teachers emphasized on
students’ metacognition in learning while students only gained cognition of LA. Besides, 5.1%
of students did not have full understanding of ability and cognition of LA; 4.3% of them did
not know their responsibility for autonomous learning; and 3.1% of them did not admit the vital
role of LA in learning in university environment.
4.3.4 Relationship between teachers’ and students’ practices
The relationship between teachers’ practices and students’ practices of LA was clear. The

data mentioned in 4.1.3 and 4.2.3 indicated that all teachers held many LA activities for their
students, and students joined these though some students were lazy and passive, did not do
homework, or did not submit their assignments on time. In addition, the data from questionnaire
showed that the percentage of students who never or rarely set learning goals was 19.1%.
Besides, 23.4% of students never or rarely planned their study; 27.2% of them did not
participate in LA activities; 22.1% of them could not manage their time in learning and their
life; 18.8% of them could not find learning resources; 18.2% of them never or rarely took part
in metacognition activities in learning language; and 16.1% of them did not self-assess their
LA activities. This showed that some students’ LA activities were weak, and the relationship
between teachers’ practices and students’ practices of LA was not strong enough.
4.4 Discussion
4.4.1 Teachers’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy
4.4.1.1 Teachers’ perceptions of learner autonomy
The results of this theme confirmed that the teachers interviewed had positive
conceptualizations of LA as ability, responsibility, self-consciousness and activeness

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(cognition), and lifelong learning in EFL learning. All of the teachers agreed with the key role
of LA for students at higher education and after graduating from the university (i.e. life-long
learning). These results echo those in the previous researches (i.e. Borg & Al-Busaidi, 2012b;
Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016). Yet, the results of this research seem to conflict with prior studies (i.e.
Nguyễn Thanh Nga, 2014; Wang & Wang, 2016) because those researchers found that the EFL
teachers had their weak perceptions of the concept of LA.
Besides, most of the teachers did not mention the influence of the socio-cultural factor on
LA in this university in Mekong Delta context. Additionally, teachers seem not to recognize
their roles in students’ autonomous learning. Besides, the teachers did not talk about AaL as
well as the students’ role in LA learning process.
4.4.1.2 Teachers’ practices of learner autonomy

There were some active signs in their teaching practices of LA. For example, they
organized groupwork/ pairwork or collaborative learning for their students. This is the
classroom feature commonly found in Vietnam setting and particularly in DTU. Groupwork
involves the students in taking responsibilities, making plans and choosing means/tools to fulfill
shared assignments/goals. Thus, a series of relevant groupwork if properly administered is
definitely leading students to the LA target (Harmer, 2007).
However, the teachers did not listen to the students’ needs so that they could consult each
student how to learn English autonomously at home as every of the students could possess his
or her own learning style. Importantly, they did not play their roles as facilitators, helpers,
coordinators, counsellors, consultants, managers, and advisors well. It is understandable when
the teachers did not have any cognition of their role in EFL teaching in the new era and were
not trained about LA as mentioned above.
4.4.2 Students’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy
4.4.2.1 Students’ perceptions of learner autonomy
Most of the students had the insights of LA as ability, responsibility, and cognition in
language learning (at the baseline and higher dimensions of LA). Furthermore, all of them were
aware of the vital role of LA for students in higher education and after they graduated from
university (i.e. life-long learning). Their perceptions of these four dimensions of LA were
interrelated like their teachers’ case. These findings echo those in the previous studies (i.e.
Azizi, 2014; Đặng Tấn Tín, 2012). However, the students did not gain metacognition much.
What they shared indicated that they did not obtain knowledge of language learning, learner
attitudes, and learning strategies (Wenden, 1991). All the students did not show their
perspective of LA in culture; why they learned English unwell; they did not share how the
socio-cultural aspect in their hometown affected their autonomous learning; they did not share
their understanding of assessment as well as its role in LA learning. This is quite understandable
because these things were not taught to the students before.

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4.4.2.2 Students’ practices of learner autonomy
Students were all moving on the right tracks of LA development, despite not at the same
pace and level. This is quite understandable because LA ability is made up of multiple
dimensions and no two students are exactly the same in terms of personal traits, learning styles
and characteristics. Additionally, in the case of the students at DTU, the data showed they still
possessed reactive autonomy like ones somewhere in East Asia (Littlewood, 1999). This echoes
Lê Xuân Quỳnh’s study’s findings (2013). Most of the students came from the rural areas in
Mekong Delta, the South of Vietnam; therefore, they brought their culture to the university.
Based on Scharle and Szabó’s a three-stage model (2000, p.1) of the growth of autonomy as
“raising awareness”, “changing attitudes”, and “transferring roles”, it cannot be denied that EFL
students’ LA activities at DTU just got levels of awareness and involvement of LA. A few
students got level “transferring roles” like modifying and adapting the goals and content of the
learning program. Most of them did not gain the highest level of LA, transferring roles.
4.4.3 Relationships between teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices
4.4.3.1 Relationship between teachers’ perceptions and practices
There is the clear alignment between their perceptions and their teaching practices. The
teachers had insights of the concept of LA. However, there is a missing link between their
positive perceptions of students’ LA ability and their organizing LA activities in teaching
English. They did not deem their roles as helper, consultor, and adviser in their students’
autonomous learning process in promoting students’ LA ability in new autonomous learning
contexts in the 21st century (Riley, 1997, as cited in Benson & Huang, 2008, p.426) because
they did not understand their role in teaching practices of LA fully. In this case, Bodenhausen
and Hugenberg (2009) is right when they state that one’s perception guides his/her actions. This
showed that the teachers did a partial LA in teaching practice in compared with what they
thought about LA. Besides, a few teachers gained LA ability when they were young, and then
their LA experience deviated their announced cognition as mentioned in 4.3.1. This is quite
right with Bodenhausen and Hugenberg’s view (2009) in the opposite direction that one’s
actions will affect again his or her perceptions (see figure 2.1).
4.4.3.2 Relationship between students’ perceptions and practices
Generally, there is a certain alignment between students’ perceptions and practices toward

LA. They had full understanding of LA as well as knew what they should do to learn English
well at university. The findings showed that not all of EFL students were able to understand
what LA was as well as how important it was at university, and there was a distance between
EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA happening. However, there were a few students
who had their own LA experience as S27 and S29. What they reported showed that they knew
the ways to organize their learning. Their effective learning showed that when students had
metacognition skills, they were able to gain the good results in their learning language
(Rolheiser et al, 2000).

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4.4.3.3 Relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions
There was a certain, strong relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions of
LA when both of them showed their full understanding of four dimensions of LA. This seems
to be good and important for teachers because people’s perceptions determine their
performances. Similarly, when students understood their autonomous learning clearly, they
could promote their strengths and enhance their weaknesses (Van Lier,1996, as cited in Jacobs
and Farrel, 2001, p.5). Additionally, when students explored and realized the characters of
autonomous learning and their role in learning process, they could obtain the ability to carry
out LA (White,1995).
4.4.3.4 Relationship between teachers’ and students’ practices
The data of this study showed that the relationship between teachers’ and students’
practices of LA was not strong. Some LA activities which teachers held for students were not
suitable for students as well as did not attract students since teachers did not understand
students’ needs (T2). Besides, some activities which students wanted were that teachers
instructed them in the LA methods. This mismatch happened because as mentioned above
teachers did not understand their role in students’ autonomous learning.
4.4.3.5 The influential factors in relationship between teachers’ and students’
perceptions and practices of learner autonomy

Effects of psychology and cognition
It seemed that the informants just understood what LA was, and did not apply LA activities
effectively. What the EFL students thinking about LA has not become their own intrinsic
motivation in learning English. They seemed not to volunteer and be flexible in their own
learning. This also revealed that despite teachers’ significant efforts there was a gap between
what teachers expected/desired from students and what teachers actually observed in their
students. This problem was reported in previous studies (i.e. Dogan & Mirici, 2017; Nguyễn
Văn Lợi, 2016). Understandably, there is much for teachers to do for LA development, basically
because LA is multi-dimensional and cannot be present in all students after limited time.
Effects of learning environment
EFL students at DTU face a large number of obstacles such as lack of LA skills, learning
conditions, and living conditions. More specifically, they were not fostered LA ability through
self-access learning centres, computer-assisted language learning, distance learning, etc.
(Gardner & Miller, 1999, 2011; Benson, 2006; Morrison, 2008) because DTU did not equip
self-access learning centres, computer-assisted language learning, or digital library for students
to learn autonomously. Besides, the majority of the students came from the poor, rural areas in
Mekong Delta; thus, they did not have a computer or a laptop to serve their learning. At their
boarding houses or at dormitory, there was weak Wifi, and this made them meet some
difficulties in accessing the Internet to search learning resources.

22


Effects of sociocultural challenge
First of all, the biggest gap between teachers’ and students’ practices on LA activities was
that they did not understand each other. Teachers did not investigate students’ needs at the
beginning of each course. Teachers expected that students gained their metacognition in
learning English. Meanwhile, most of the students were confused at the beginning when they
attended university. Second, LA activities which both teachers and students reported lacked the
vital factors of negotiation with and support from teachers outside the classes, peer support and

Collaborative Learner Autonomy. Third, another problem in conducting LA activities was
large-size classes of mixed learning styles. Most teachers taught many large-size classes each
semester; thus, it was really hard for the teachers to assess their students’ LA activities outside
as well as give feedback about their homework/assignments inside the classroom. Finally,
cultural and local factors also influence on teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices of
LA. The students did not care to improve themselves much in learning English; their family did
not investigate their studying appropriately (Đỗ Nam et al, 2017).
4.5 Summary
The current study provided evidence about the EFL teachers’ and students’ perceptions and
practices of LA principles in the Mekong Delta context.
Chapter Five CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS
5.1 Summary
The study was motivated by a concern that students in Mekong Delta gained weak
background of learning English. An exploratory mixed methods study was conducted to
investigate both EFL teachers’ and EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA at a
university in Mekong Delta. Participants consisted of 20 EFL teachers and 285 EFL students at
DTU. Data were collected from questionnaire survey, in-depth interview, and group interview.
Further analyses indicated that teachers and students had insights of LA, but their practices of
LA were lower than their perceptions. Local cultural factors impacted their perceptions and
practices of LA. There were the interrelated relationships between the EFL teachers’ and
students’ perceptions and practices of LA.
5.2 Contributions of the study
5.2.1 Theoretical contributions
The present researcher synthesized a framework of LA in previous studies and developed
two more dimensions of LA as lifelong learning and cultural challenge in this study. The present
study revealed that one of the major perceptions of LA was lifelong learning. Additionally, this
is the study to have teachers’ self-assessment of their teaching practice of LA. Therefore, the
findings from the teachers’ self-assessment about their organizing and instructing LA activities
for their students deem source of information for further research in this field.
5.2.2 Methodological contributions

Some differences in a set of statements in questionnaire and in-depth interview were used.
In questionnaire, the current study has some clusters differing from previous studies, especially

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