Khảo sát về chiến lược học từ vựng tiếng anh của sinh viên không chuyên ngữ tại một trường đại học

VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
*************************

NGUYỄN THỊ THÚY NGÂN

A SURVEY ON ENGLISH VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
OF NON-ENGLISH MAJORED STUDENTS AT A UNIVERISTY
(KHẢO SÁT VỀ CHIẾN LƯỢC HỌC TỪ VỰNG TIẾNG ANH
CỦA SINH VIÊN KHÔNG CHUYÊN NGỮ TẠI MỘT TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

HANOI - 2017


VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
*************************

NGUYỄN THỊ THÚY NGÂN

A SURVEY ON ENGLISH VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
OF NON-ENGLISH MAJORED STUDENTS AT A UNIVERISTY

(KHẢO SÁT VỀ CHIẾN LƯỢC HỌC TỪ VỰNG TIẾNG ANH

CỦA SINH VIÊN KHÔNG CHUYÊN NGỮ TẠI MỘT TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Lê Văn Canh

HANOI - 2017


DECLARATION
I, Nguyen Thi Thuy Ngan, hereby declare that the thesis entitled “A survey on
English VLS of non-English majored students at a university” reports the result of
the study conducted by myself. The thesis is submitted to College of Foreign
Languages-Vietnam National University for Degree of Master in TESOL. I also
state that the substance of the thesis has not, wholly or in part, been submitted for
any degree to any other universities or substitutions.
Hanoi,2017

Nguy n Th Thu Ng n

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my sincere thankfulness to my supervisor, Le
Van Canh, Ph.D. for his persistent consideration, enthusiastic encouragement and
invaluable supervision throughout my process of writing this thesis.

Secondly, I would like to thank all lecturers and the staff of Faculty of Post
Graduate Studies, University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam
National University, Hanoi for their useful lectures, materials, guidance and
enthusiasm during my course.

Thirdly, I am also indebt of the students at Hong Duc University who were
willing to give me valuable information for the survey questionnaire and face-toface interview. My thanks also go to my colleagues who gave me the most
favorable condition to pursue this MA course.

Last but not least, I would like to show my deepest gratitude to my family and
friends who are always supporting me with their sympathy and encouragement.

ii


ABSTRACT

The important roles of learning strategies and vocabulary learning are the
main reasons which prompt the researcher to conduct this study on English
vocabulary learning strategies of non-English majored students at Hong Duc
University. The aim of this research is to study the English VLSs employed by nonEnglish majors, the frequencies of the use of strategies and learners‟ perception of
the helpfulness of those strategies.
The participants of this study was 140 non-English majors at Hong Duc
University, Thanh Hoa, Vietnam. Questionnaires and face-to-face semi-interviews
were the two tools for data collection in this study. The results from data analysis
revealed that students applied all of the 58 VLSs in the questionnaires in their
vocabulary learning at different levels of frequency of use of these strategies.
Moreover, a comparison shows a correlation between the most frequently used
strategies and the most helpful ones.
Based on the findings, the researcher has given some suggestions with the

hope of improving the English vocabulary teaching and learning at Hong Duc
University. The implications include raising the awareness of VLSs of both teachers
and students, teaching students how to use VLSs, and designing vocabulary
exercises and activities for students to practise VLSs in class.

iii


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EFL: English as a first language
L1: First language, native language
L2: Second language
LLSs: Language learning strategies
VLS: Vocabulary learning strategy
VLSs: Vocabulary learning strategies

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LIST OF CHARTS AND TABLES
Chart 1: The use of 6 strategy categories by non-English majors
Table 1: Characteristics of language learning strategies by Wenden and Rubin (1987)
Table 2: Characteristics of language learning strategies by Oxford (1990)
Table 3: Direct language learning strategies
Table 4: Indirect learning strategies
Table 5: What is involved in knowing a word
Table 6: A Taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies
Table 7: Reference to mean score based on Oxford‟s (1990) SILL Profile of results
version 7

Table 8: Vocabulary learning strategy use reported by Hong Duc University nonEnglish majors
Table 9: Frequency of students‟ overall vocabulary learning strategy use
Table 10: Ranking of mean scores for 6 strategy categories
Table 11: Top frequently used vocabulary learning strategies
Table 12: The least frequently used learning strategies
Table 13: The most helpful VLSs as perceived by non-English majors at HDU

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................ i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ ii
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... iv
LIST OF CHARTS AND TABLES ............................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... vi
PART 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................1
1. Rationale ..............................................................................................................1
2. Significance of the Study ....................................................................................2
3. Research Aims and Objectives ............................................................................3
4. Research Questions .............................................................................................3
5. Methods of the Study...........................................................................................3
6. Scope of the Study ...............................................................................................3
7. Design of the Study .............................................................................................4
PART 2: DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................5
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................5
1.1. Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) ..............................................................5
1.1.1. Definitions and Characteristics of Language Learning Strategies ............5
1.1.2. Classifications of Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) ..........................7

1.2. Vocabulary Learning ......................................................................................10
1.2.1. Definitions of Word and Vocabulary ......................................................10
1.2.2. Aspects of Vocabulary Knowledge .........................................................12
1.2.3. Importance of Vocabulary Learning ........................................................13
1.3. Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLSs) ........................................................15
1.3.1. Definitions of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLSs) ..........................15
1.3.2. Classifications of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLSs) .....................16
1.4. Schmitt‟s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies ..............................18

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1.5. Studies on Vocabulary Learning Strategies ...................................................22
1.6. Summary.........................................................................................................24
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................26
2.1. Setting of the Study ........................................................................................26
2.2. The Participants of the Study .........................................................................26
2.3. Data Collection Instruments ...........................................................................27
2.3.1. Questionnaire: (Appendix 1) ...................................................................27
2.3.2. Interviews: (Appendix 3) .........................................................................28
2.4. Data collection procedure ...............................................................................29
2.5. Data analysis procedure ..............................................................................30
2.6. Summary.........................................................................................................30
CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ....................................................31
3.1. Finding from quantitative data .......................................................................31
3.1.1. Vocabulary learning strategy use reported by Hong Duc University nonEnglish majors (Research question 1) ...............................................................32
3.1.2. Frequency of students‟ vocabulary learning strategy use ........................36
3.1.3. The most helpful VLSs as perceived by students (Research question 2) 41
3.1.4. A comparison between the most frequently used strategies and the most
helpful ones (Research question 2) ....................................................................43

3.2. Finding from Qualitative Data .......................................................................43
3.2.1. VLSs to discover the meaning of a new English word in class and
outside class: ......................................................................................................43
3.2.2. Strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encountered ..........45
3.3. Summary.........................................................................................................47
CHAPTER 4: IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS .........................................48
4.1. Implications and suggestions ..........................................................................48
4.2. Summary.........................................................................................................52
PART 3: CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................52
1. Summary of the study ........................................................................................52

vii


2. Limitations of the study and suggestions for further studies ............................54
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................54
APPENDIX 1: ............................................................................................................. I
APPENDIX 2: .......................................................................................................... VI
APPENDIX 3: .......................................................................................................... XI
APPENDIX 4: ......................................................................................................... XII
APPENDIX 5: ........................................................................................................ XIII

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PART 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
In the context of economic globalization, there has been an increasing
demand for the high-quality labour workforce in Vietnam. Among various qualities
that good labourers should have, English proficiency is regarded as a key factor for

successful integration. The importance of English is undeniable as it is the world's
most popular language which is used as mother tongue, second language and
foreign language in many countries all over the world. Almost every sections, such
as education, tourism or cross-border business communication are conducted in
English. Therefore, good English proficiency is an advantage of a labourer in the
labour market and it may contribute to the economic development of a country.
The Vietnamese government has initiated a lot of projects and policies to
improve the quality of teaching and learning English at schools. For instance, in
recent years, the National Foreign Language 2020 (NFL 2020) has been carried out
nationwide with the primary aim to “renovate the teaching and learning of foreign
languages within the national education system” (Socialist Republic of Vietnam,
2008; as cited in Nguyen Ngoc Hung, 2013, p.62). A great amount of time, money
and effort have been invested to retrain English teachers and innovate curriculum,
testing and assessments, teaching methods and teaching technologies. These efforts
all aim at raising teacher‟s quality and learners‟ English proficiency. However,
besides the significant role of policy makers, educational authority and English
teachers, it is students‟ active involvement in their learning that is the most
important factor to improve their English proficiency.
Good learning strategy may have great contribution to the learners‟ success
in language learning. Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary and Robbins (1999) stated:
“differences between more effective learners and less effective learners were found
in the number and range of strategies used, in how the strategies were applied to the
task, and in whether they were appropriate for the task” (As cited in Shiho Chiya,
2003, p.14). It can be inferred that with appropriate learning strategies, students can
learn faster and more effective.
In addition, in developing the students‟ knowledge about English, it cannot
be separated from vocabulary mastery. It is obvious that vocabulary is an important
part of linguistic knowledge. Zimmerman (1997, p.5) indicates: “Vocabulary is
central to language and of crucial importance to the typical language learner”.

1


Fromkin et al (2003) also states: “Knowing a language means knowing the words of
that language”. The more words we know, the better we can convey our thoughts.
Consequently, vocabulary acquisition has always been a fundamental and important
activity in English learning and teaching. The aforementioned important roles of
learning strategies and vocabulary learning are the main reasons which prompt the
researcher to conduct this study to get an insight into this matter.
Besides, the ideas for this study also come from the researcher‟s own
experience as an English teacher for non-English majors at Hong Duc University.
After five years teaching English, I can recognize the deficiency in non-English
majored students‟ vocabulary knowledge, which in turn has bad influence on their
English learning process and achievement. This research, therefore, sets its
objectives to investigate the Vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) used by Hong
Duc University non-English majors as well as their perception of the helpfulness of
those learning strategies. Based on this background knowledge, the researcher also
aims at giving some implications to vocabulary English teaching and learning at
Hong Duc University.
2. Significance of the Study
First and foremost, this thesis provides readers with a good theoretical
background knowledge in terms of VLSs. In the literature section, the writer has
given definitions, characteristics, classifications of the terms related to the research
subject. In addition, the thesis also reviews a lot of previous studies which gives
readers an overview of the research issue.
Secondly, by studying VLS used by non-English majored students, this
thesis provides English teachers at Hong Duc University with better background
about their students‟ vocabulary learning. Teachers can find out the ways their
students learn English vocabulary and which strategies they consider as the most
useful. Based on this background comprehension, English teachers at Hong Duc

University can create a more effective plan and adopt more suitable methods to
teach their students.
Thirdly, the study also makes some suggestions for developing English
curriculum for non-English majored students at Hong Duc University. Based on the
findings of this thesis, curriculum makers for English subjects at Hong Duc
University can consider spending a certain amount of time for teaching learning
strategies in general and VLS in particular when developing the curriculum.

2


Last but not least, this study introduces students with a lot of vocabulary
learning strategies. Students can adopt these strategies to learn English vocabulary
more effectively and in turn improve their English in general.
3. Research Aims and Objectives
The aim of this research is to study the English VLSs employed by nonEnglish majors, the frequencies of the strategies used and learners‟ perception of the
helpfulness of those strategies. Based on the research results on the aforementioned
issues, the study draws out implications to teaching and learning English at Hong
Duc University.
To achieve the above aims, the present study attempts to gain the following
objectives:
− To explore the frequency of VLS use of non- English majors at Hong Duc
University.
− To investigate learners‟ perception of the helpfulness of those learning
strategies.
−

To give implications to English teaching and learning at Hong Duc University.

4. Research Questions

The present study try to answer two research questions as follows:
1. What VLSs do non-English majors at Hong Duc University often use?
2. What are the most helpful VLSs as perceived by Hong Duc University nonEnglish majors? Are there any correlation between the most frequently used
strategies and the most helpful ones?
5. Methods of the Study
This study is a survey research. Questionnaires and face-to-face semiinterviews were the two tools for data collection in this study. Data collected from
questionnaires were analyzed quantitatively via Excel software for mean scores.
Descriptive statistics were also counted for percentage and ranks. Data from
interviews were qualitatively analyzed to complement the information gained by
means of the questionnaires.
6. Scope of the Study
This thesis focuses on a small investigation on VLS of non-English majors at
Hong Duc University, Thanh Hoa, Vietnam. The questionnaires were delivered to
140 non-English majored students. All of the students are speaking English as their

3


foreign language. After that, 10 students were selected randomly for semiinterviews.
7. Design of the Study
The study is divided into three parts.
Part 1: Introduction is concerned with the rationale for the research. In addition, it
presents the significance of the study, the aims and objectives, research questions,
the scope, the methods and the design of the study.
Part 2: Development consists of three chapters.
Chapter 1: Literature review provides an overview of theoretical background
relating to the research topic. Besides, this chapter reviews related studies about
VLS conducted by some famous scholars in the research fields.
Chapter 2: Research Methodology deals with the setting of the study, the
subjects, data collection instruments, data collection procedure and data analysis

procedure.
Chapter 3: Findings and Discussions presents the findings of the research based
on results of the quantitative and qualitative data analysis.
Chapter 4: Implications presents some vocabulary pedagogical implications for
teachers of English and English curriculum developers at Hong Duc University.
Part 3: Conclusion consists of the summary and limitations of the study and
provides some suggestions for further studies.

4


PART 2: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Language Learning Strategies (LLSs)
1.1.1. Definitions and Characteristics of Language Learning Strategies
The term “language learning strategies” (LLSs) has been defined by different
researchers and experts in the second and foreign language field.
According to O‟Malley and Chamot (1990, p.1), LLSs are “special thoughts
or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new
information”. Richards & Platt (1992) share the same idea and give more detailed
on the “intentional” characteristic of LLSs when defining them as “intentional
behavior and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better
help them understand, learn or remember new information” (as cited in Murat
Hismanoglu, 2000). In these two definitions, language learning strategies can be
“observable/ behavioral” (behaviors) or “non-observable/ mental” (thoughts)
(Wenden & Rubin, 1987, pp.7-8). Cohen (1990, p.4) states that LLSs are “processes
which are consciously selected by learners which may result in actions taken to
enhance the learning or use of a second or foreign language through the storage,
retention, recall, and application of information about that language”. According to
this definition, LLSs are considered as “processes” more than only strategies. In

addition, Cohen (1990) insists that LLSs are conscious, rather than unconscious
processes, and they must be chosen by learners themselves.
According to the aforementioned definitions, the primary goals of LLSs are
to attain comprehension, memorization and application of new information about a
language. Tarone‟s (1983), however, held a different viewpoint on the goals of
LLSs. In his definition, LLSs have two main goals that are to “develop linguistic
and sociolinguistic competence in the target language” and “incorporate these into
one‟s interlanguage competence” (i.e. the type of language produced by non-native
speakers in the process of learning a second language or foreign language) (p.67). In
other words, LLSs must aim at developing various competencies in the language.
Oxford seemed to give the most detailed and comprehensive definition of all.
She defines LLSs as “specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students
(often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These
strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new
language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for

5


developing communicative ability” (1992/1993, p.18). In Oxford‟s definition, LLSs
play the role as a facilitator of acquisition, memorization, recall and application of
new language. Besides, achieving learner autonomy and communicative
competence is also the ultimate goal of LLSs according to Oxford.
Besides defining the concept, some researchers also try to clarify their
viewpoints by listing essential characteristics of LLSs. Still, there are different
opinions towards this issue. Table 1 below shows six characteristics of LLSs
proposed by Wenden and Rubin (1987, pp.7-8).
Table 1: Characteristics of language learning strategies
(Adapted from Wenden and Rubin, 1987, pp.7-8)

Characteristics of language learning strategies
1.
2.

They are specific actions or techniques.
They can be observable/behavioural or non-observable/ mental.

3.

They are problem-oriented.

4.
5.
6.

They can contribute directly or indirectly to learning.
They may be consciously employed and became automatized.
They are changeable.

Oxford (1990) offers an expansion for Wenden and Rubin‟s list by stating
twelve key features of LLSs as shown in table 2 below:
Table 2: Characteristics of language learning strategies
(Oxford, 1990, as cited in Chien Kuo Lee, 2010, p.137)
Characteristics of language learning strategies
1. Contribute the main goal, communicative competence.
2. Language learning strategies allow learners to become more self-directed.
3. Expand the role of language teachers.
4. Are problem-oriented.
5. Are specific actions taken by the learner.
6. Involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive.

6


7. Support learning both directly and indirectly.
8. Are not always observable.
9. Are often conscious.
10. Can be taught.
11. Are flexible.
12. Are influenced by a variety of factors.

It can be clearly seen from these two tables that Oxford agrees with all six
key features offered by Wenden and Rubin. However, she also adds more features
with regards to learners‟ autonomy, the expansion of teacher‟s role, the involvement
of other aspects of the learner besides the cognitive, the influence of other factors on
the use of LLSs and their main goal of achieving communicative competence.
In general, researchers have different ways to define LLSs. However, they
almost all agree that LLSs involve goals or purposes, despite the inconsistency
between researchers with regard to this issue. In addition to a wide variety of
definitions, researchers also offer lists of key features as well as different ways to
classify LLSs. In the next section, different taxonomies of LLSs will be discussed in
detail.
1.1.2. Classifications of Language Learning Strategies (LLSs)
As Oxford emphasizes in her book: “There is no complete agreement on
exactly what strategies are; how many strategies exist; whether it is - or ever will be
- possible to create a real, scientifically validated hierarchy of strategies” (1990,
p.17), scholars offer different taxonomies of LLSs. It is due to the fact that
researchers propose strategies which are appropriate for their own research contexts.
This section is concerned with reviewing some classifications of famous scholars in
the field of LLSs as follows:

In the taxonomy proposed by O‟Malley (1985), learning strategies are divided
into 3 groups: metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies and socioaffective
strategies (as cited in Carol Griffiths, 2004). Metacognitive strategies involve
planning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring and evaluating learning.
Cognitive strategies include strategies which are limited to specific learning tasks

7


such as rehearsal, organization, inferencing, summarizing, deducing, imaginary,
transfer and elaboration. Socioaffective strategies refer to social-mediating activity
and interacting with others.
According to Wenden‟s (1991, p.18) taxonomy, language learning strategies
are classified into two main categories, namely, cognitive strategies, i.e. mental
steps or operations learners use to process both linguistic and sociolinguistic content
(p.19); and self-management strategies, so-called “metacognitive strategies” (p.25),
which learners use to oversee and manage their own learning (p.19).
Oxford (1990) developed a more detailed taxonomy of language learning
strategies with two broad classes: direct strategies and indirect strategies. Direct
strategies are the ones that directly involve the processes of memorizing, storing and
contain three sub-categories, namely, memory, cognitive and compensation
strategies. According to Oxford, memory strategies assist students in storing and
retrieving new information; cognitive strategies “enable learners to understand and
produce new language by many different means”; and compensation strategies
“allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge”
(Oxford 1990, p.37). Indirect strategies are further divided into metacognitive,
affective, and social strategies. Metacognitive strategies are those which allow
learners to coordinate the learning process; affective strategies are concerned with
controlling learners‟ emotions; and social strategies “help students learn through
interaction with others” (Oxford 1990, p.135). Totally, these six sub-groups include

19 sets of strategies with a further 62 specific strategies. A summary of Oxford‟s
classification of LLSs is presented in tables 3 and 4 as follows:
Table 3. Direct language learning strategies
( Adapted from Oxford, 1990, pp.18-19)
Memory strategies

Cognitive strategies

Compensation strategies

Creating mental
linkages:

Practicing:

Guessing intelligently:

1. Repeating

1. Using linguistic cues

1. Grouping

2. Formally practicing with
sounds

2. Using other cues

2.

Associating/elaborating and writing systems

8

Overcoming limitations in


3. Placing new words 3. Recognizing and using
into
formulas and patterns

speaking and writing:

a context

4. Recombining

tongue

Applying images and

5. Practicing naturalistically

2. Getting help

sounds:

3. Using mime or gesture

1. Using imagery

Receiving and sending
messages:

2. Semantic mapping

1. Getting the idea quickly

3. Using keywords

2. Using recourses for

4. Representing sounds

receiving

in

and sending messages

memory

Analyzing and reasoning:

Reviewing words:

1. Reasoning deductively

1. Structured reviewing 2. Analyzing expressions
Employing actions:

1. Using physical
response or sensation
2. Using mechanical
techniques

1. Switching to the mother

4. Avoiding communication
partially or totally
5. Selecting the topic
6.Adjusting or
approximating the message
7. Coining words
8. Using a circumlocution or
synonym

3. Analyzing contrastively
(across languages)
4. Translating
5. Transferring
Creating structure for
input and output:
1. Taking notes
2. Summarizing
3. Highlighting

Table 4. Indirect learning strategies
( Adapted from Oxford, 1990, pp.20-21)
Metacognitive strategies

Affective strategies

Social strategies

Centering your learning:

Lowering your anxiety:

Asking questions:

1. Overviewing and linking

1. Using relaxation, deep

1. Asking for

9


with already known
material

breathing, or meditation
2. Using music

clarification or
verification

2. Paying attention

3. Using laughter

2. Asking for correction

3. Delaying speech

Encouraging yourself:

Cooperating with

production to focus on

1. Making positive

listening

statements

Arranging and planning
your learning:

2. Taking risks wisely
3. Rewarding yourself

1. Finding out about

2. Cooperating with
proficient users of the

Taking your emotional

new language

language learning
2. Organizing
3. Setting goals and
objectives

others:
1. Cooperating with
peers

temperature:
1. Listening to your body
2. Using a checklist

Emphasizing with
others:

3. Writing a language

1. Developing cultural

4. Identifying the purpose of learning diary
a language task
4. Discussing your feelings
5. Planning for a language
with someone else
task

understanding
2. Becoming aware of
others‟ thoughts and
feelings

6. Seeking practice
opportunities
Evaluating your learning:
1. Self-monitoring
2. Self-evaluating

1.2. Vocabulary Learning
1.2.1. Definitions of Word and Vocabulary
In this section, the researcher will define two terms “word” and
“vocabulary” as the foundation for better understanding of the term “vocabulary
learning”.

10


Concerning the definition of a word, Bloomfield defines a word by contrasting
it with the morpheme or minimal meaningful unit. According to him, a form which
may occur alone is free and the one which cannot occur alone is bound. For example,
wife, long are free morpheme; –ing, -er are bound morpheme. Bloomfield states:
“Word is a minimum free form” (as cited in Thomas Meier 2012, p.32). This means
that word is “the smallest unit that we can use alone to form an utterance, and it must
consist at least one free morpheme” (as cited in Bernard O'Dwyer 2006, p.45).
However, if we accept this definition, there are words that cannot stand alone as
utterances: for example, the, a, of, etc. To avoid ambiguity, Bernard O'Dwyer (2006,
p.45) gives a more detailed definition in which word is “a free standing form

consisting of one or more morphemes of which one is a lexical base”.
Like Bloomfield, Richards et al. (2010) also define the term word as “the
smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech or writing” (as
cited in Karin C. Ryding 2014, p.41). Howard Jackson (2000, p.60) defines word as
“an uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes and
which typically occurs in the structure of phrases.” According to him, word is
an uninterruptible unit because when elements are added to a word to modify its
meaning, they are never included within that word and are added either at the
beginning as prefixes of the word or at the end as suffixes.
Regarding the definition of vocabulary, Nandy (1994, p.1) defines
vocabulary as “total number of words we know and are able to use”. Likewise,
Nation (1990, p.20) states that vocabulary is "all the words known and used by a
particular person”. Hornby et al. (1984) view vocabulary as “the total number of
words which make up a language; and a range of words known to, or used by a
person”. Schmitt (2011) refers vocabulary to “all the words in a language, the entire
vocabulary of a language” (p.571). Richards et al. (1992) define vocabulary as “a
set of lexemes which includes single words, compound words and idioms”
(p.400).
Based on the aforementioned definitions, we can see a clear distinction
between the notion of word and vocabulary. Word is the smallest linguistic unit that
has meaning and can stand alone in an utterance. Word is a part of vocabulary. In
other words, vocabulary is comprised of a collection of words. Vocabulary consists
of not only single words, but also complex and compound words and idioms.
Vocabulary learning is not just about words; it involves other aspects of vocabulary

11


and strategies how to learn and teach it effectively, which will be discussed in the
next sections.

1.2.2. Aspects of Vocabulary Knowledge
This section is concerned with analyzing various aspects of knowing a word
discussed by scholars.
According to Nation (2001), three kinds of vocabulary knowledge involved
in knowing a word are form, meaning, and use. He states that the form of a word is
comprised of spoken form (i.e. pronunciation a word), written form (i.e. spelling of
a word) and word parts that it is made up of (root and affixes). Knowing meaning of
a word involves knowing what the word means, the concept behind it and its
associations with other words. Regarding the use aspect, learners must be able to
recognize the grammatical functions of a word, its typical collocations and other
constraints on use such as register and frequency.
Nation (2001) also makes a clear distinction between two kinds of
vocabulary: the receptive vocabulary and productive vocabulary (so-called passive
and active vocabulary). He states: “Receptive vocabulary use involves perceptive
the form of a word while listening or reading and retrieving its meaning. Productive
vocabulary use involves wanting to express a meaning through speaking or writing
and retrieving and producing the appropriate spoken or written word form” (p.25).
According to him, the terms receptive and productive “cover all the aspects of what
is involved in knowing a word” (p.26).
The different aspects of knowing a word are summarized in the following
table:
Table 5: What is involved in knowing a word (Adapted from Nation, 2001, p.27)
Note: R = receptive knowledge, P = productive knowledge.
Form

Spoken

Written

R

What does the word sound like?

P

How is the word pronounced?

P

What does the word look like?

R How is the word written and spelled?
Word parts

P

What parts are recognizable in this word?

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R
Meaning

Form

P

What meaning does this word form signal?

and meaning R

What word form can be used to express this meaning?

Concepts

What is included in this concept?

P

and referents R

What items can the concept refer to?

Associations P

What other words does this make people think of?

R
Use

What word parts are needed to express the meaning?

What other words could people use instead of this one

Grammatical P

In what patterns does the word occur?

functions

In what patterns must people use this word?

R

Collocations P
R

What words or types of words occur with this one?
What words or types of words must people use with
this one?

Constraints

P

Where, when, how often people expect to meet this word?

on use

R Where, when, and how often can people use this word?

(register, frequency...)

Similarly, Ur (1996, pp.60-62) believes that knowing a word involves
knowing its: word form (pronunciation and spelling); aspects of meaning
(denotation, connotation, appropriateness, and meaning relationships); grammar;
collocation; and word formation.
To sum up, there are different aspects of knowing a word, namely a part of
word form, meaning, and use. Therefore, learning vocabulary means learning the

form; meaning; and use of the new words.
1.2.3. Importance of Vocabulary Learning
It is widely approved by many scholars that vocabulary plays a crucial role in
communication and language learning. Recognizing the importance of vocabulary,
Zimmerman (1997, p.5) indicates: “Vocabulary is central to language and of crucial

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importance to the typical language learner.” Fromkin et al. (2003) also state:
“Knowing a language means knowing the words of that language”.
First, vocabulary provides a useful and important aid for communication and
expression in the target language. Regarding the role of vocabulary in
communication, Schmitt (2000) affirms: “lexical knowledge is central to
communicative competence and to the acquisition of a second language” (p.55).
Learners think and express their ideas via words; and without a sufficient
vocabulary, they may have difficulties in expressing their thoughts and feelings.
Communication may break down when speakers do not use the right words (Allen
1983, p.5). In contrast, a rich vocabulary may give them a great advantage in
communication as they may feel more confident when interacting with other people
and make them easily understood by the interlocutors. Regarding this issue, Nandy
(1994, p.1) emphasizes: “The more words one is able to use correctly, the better one
will be able to express oneself easily and with self-confidence and to understand the
world one lives in”. In other words, the more words we know, the better we can
convey our thoughts and communicate with other people.
Moreover, vocabulary also plays a vital role in building language
proficiency. Paul Nation (1994, p34) notes: “Vocabulary is not an end in itself. A
rich vocabulary makes the skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing easier
to perform.” Vocabulary is essential to language comprehension. For instance, to
comprehend a text, learners need to know most of the words in that text. Nation

(2001) indicates that to understand a text, readers need to know at least 97% of the
vocabulary in it. Without adequate vocabulary knowledge, a reader will fail to
understand the main content and intended message of a text. Even when he wants to
guess the meaning of a word based on the context, he needs to know the keywords
in that text. Likewise, in writing and speaking skills, a rich vocabulary is the key for
the formation of complete spoken and written texts.
In comparison with grammar, vocabulary is regarded as much more
important by many scholars. Regarding this issue, Flower (2000, p.5) emphasizes:
“Words are the most important things students must learn. Grammar is important,
but vocabulary is much more important”. Similarly, Wilkins (1972, p.111) writes:
“While without grammar, very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary, nothing
can be conveyed”. This can be confirmed by our own experience. For instance, if
we say something with the right words but wrong structures, the listeners are more

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likely to make out our intended message than if we use the wrong words. In other
words, without using the appropriate words, exchanging and understanding
thoughts and ideas in communication are rather impossible. To emphasize the
importance of words beyond grammar, Celce-Murcia and Rosenweig (1989, p.242)
assert “...a good amount of vocabulary – with a minimum of structure – often
makes for better reading comprehension and more efficient survival communication
than near-perfect structure with an impoverished vocabulary of 100 words or less”.
To summarize, it can be concluded that vocabulary is the central of language
learning. It is accepted by scholars to be key to communication and language
comprehension. As a result, vocabulary learning should be put at the central
position and teachers need to explore more effective ways to promote it.
1.3. Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLSs)
1.3.1. Definitions of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLSs)

There are many definitions of VLSs given by different scholars in the
linguistic field.
To generally define VLSs, Nation (2001, p.217) states that VLSs are a
subclass of language learning strategies. He claims that it is not easy to define what
a strategy is, but “a strategy would need to: 1. involve choice, that is, there are
several strategies to choose from, 2. be complex, that is, there are several steps to
learn, 3. require knowledge and benefit from training, 4. increase the efficiency of
vocabulary learning and vocabulary use” (Nation 2001, p.217).
Cameron (2001) defines VLSs as “actions that learners take to help
themselves understand and remember vocabulary.” (Cameron 2001, p.92; as cited in
Fooziyeh Rasouli & Khadijeh Jafari 2016)
Intaraprasert (2004) proposes a more detailed definition of VLSs. He
suggests that VLSs are “any set of techniques or learning behaviours, which
language learners reported using in order to (a) discover the meaning of a new
word, (b) to retain the knowledge of newly-learned words, (c) and to expand their
knowledge of vocabulary” (Intaraprasert 2004, p.53; as cited in Ramin Rahimy &
Kiana Shams, 2012).
Similarly, Catalan (2003, p.56) defines VLSs as “knowledge about the
mechanisms (processes, strategies) used in order to learn vocabulary as well as steps
or actions taken by students (a) to find out the meaning of unknown words, (b) to
retain them in long-term memory, (c) to recall them at will, and (d) to use them in

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