Morphological changes of two lichens’ species as the effect of air pollution in palembang city, indonesia

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

VU SON TUNG

MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES OF TWO LICHENS’ SPECIES AS THE
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION IN PALEMBANG CITY, INDONESIA

BACHELOR THESIS

Study Mode

: Full-time

Major

: Environmental Science and Management

Faculty

: Advanced Education Program Office

Batch

: 2014-2018

Thai Nguyen - 2018


Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry
Degree Program :

Bachelor of Environmental Science and Management

Student name :

Vu Son Tung

Student ID :

DTN1454290035
Morphological changes of Two Lichens’ Species as the

Thesis Title :
Effect of Air Pollution in Palembang City, Indonesia.
Dr. Arinafril, Sriwijaya University, Indonesia
Supervisor (s):

Mr. Do Xuan Luan, Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture
and Forestry.

Supervisor’s
signatures

Abstract:
The aim of this study was to evaluate lactation efficiency as an indicator of air
pollution in Palembang City. Sample locations are selected by random identification
closed to the main road or by means of transport. Ensuring that sample locations are
not too close together will be difficult to accurately reflect the results of the study.
With the large number of vehicles in major cities such as Palembang, there will be
more impact on the specimen, in fact, at peak traffic hours there are often traffic

jams. Two specimens of Flavoparmelia caperata and Caloplaca marina were placed
together in the survey sites to compare the speed and morphological and color
change of each specimen across each survey area. Changes in humidity, temperature,

i


experimental location, and vehicle density all affected the changes in lichens in the
experiment. The results show that the effect of vehicle smoke is not clear on the
lichen, other external factors will reflect more on the change.
Lichens, Flavoparmelia caperata,
Keywords:

Caloplaca marina, Palembang city, air
pollution.

Number of pages:
Date of submission:

21/10/2018

ii


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance and
assistance from many people and I am extremely privileged to have got this all along
the completion of my project. All that I have done is only due to such supervision and
assistance and I would not forget to thank them.

I respect and thank Dr. Arinafil for providing me an opportunity to do the
project work in Sriwijaya University and giving us all support and guidance which
made me complete the project duly. I am extremely thankful to Dr. Arinafil for
providing such a nice support and guidance, although he had busy schedule managing
the corporate affairs.
I owe my deep gratitude to my project guide Mr. Luan, who took keen interest
on our project work and guided us all along, till the completion of our project work by
providing all the necessary information for developing a good system.
I would not forget to remember my friends, who helped me during i was being
the work in Sriwijaya University and for their encouragement and more over for their
timely support and guidance till the completion of my project work.
Thai Nguyen, September, 2018
Sincerely,

Vu Son Tung

iii


TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... viii
PART I: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background and Research rationale ......................................................................... 1
1.2. Research’s objectives ............................................................................................... 2
1.3. Research questions and hypotheses .......................................................................... 2
1.4. Limitations ................................................................................................................ 2
PART II: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 3

2.1. Heavy metals in urban areas ..................................................................................... 3
2.1.1. Heavy metal ........................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2. Source of heavy metals in urban areas .................................................................. 4
2.1.3. Heavy metal from non-exhausted vehicles ........................................................... 6
2.1.4. Road contruction activities .................................................................................... 6
2.1.5. Another source ....................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Lichens...................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.1. General Characteristics .......................................................................................... 8
2.2.2. Physiology of lichens ............................................................................................ 9
2.2.3. Flavoparmelia caperata ........................................................................................ 10
2.2.4. Caloplaca marina ................................................................................................. 11
2.3. Biomonitoring air quality ....................................................................................... 11

iv


2.4. Lichens as Biological Indicators ............................................................................ 13
2.5. Lichens as Bioindicator of air pollution ................................................................. 15
2.6. Morphological response to lichens ......................................................................... 21
2.7. Heavy Metal Accumulation in Flavoparmelia caperata and Caloplaca marina ..... 23
PART III: METHODS ................................................................................................ 25
3.1. Material ................................................................................................................... 25
3.2. Methods .................................................................................................................. 25
3.2.1 Study area ............................................................................................................. 25
3.2.2. Sites selection ...................................................................................................... 26
3.3. Research procedure ................................................................................................ 28
3.3.1. Taking lichens and preparation ........................................................................... 28
3.3.2. Identification of lichens ....................................................................................... 28
3.3.3. Transplant Preparation......................................................................................... 29
3.3.4. Analysis of Changes in Morphology of Lichens ................................................. 29

PART IV: RESULT .................................................................................................... 30
4.1. Environmental factors at the location of the transplant .......................................... 30
4.2. Transportation ......................................................................................................... 31
4.2.1. Transportation in Palembang city........................................................................ 31
4.2.2. Vehicle status in the survey area ......................................................................... 32
4.3. Visual changes in Flavoparmelia caperata and Caloplaca marina ......................... 33
4.3.1. Location 1 ............................................................................................................ 33
4.3.2. Location 2 ............................................................................................................ 34
4.3.3. Location 3 ............................................................................................................ 35

v


4.3.4. Location 4 ............................................................................................................ 35
4.3.5. Location 5 ............................................................................................................ 36
4.3.6. Location 6 ............................................................................................................ 37
4.3.7. Location 7 ............................................................................................................ 37
4.3.8. Location 8 ............................................................................................................ 38
4.3.9. Location 9 ............................................................................................................ 39
4.3.10. Location 10 ........................................................................................................ 39
4.4. Summary of survey results ..................................................................................... 40
PART V: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ........................................................ 41
5.1. Discussion ............................................................................................................... 41
5.2. Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 41
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 42

vi


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Caloplaca marina living on the roof ................................................................9
Figure 2: Flavoparmelia caperata ..................................................................................10
Figure 3: Caloplaca marina ...........................................................................................11
Figure 4: Concept behind the Lichen Community Indicator. ........................................14
Figure 5: Methods Use of lichens as bio indicators ......................................................19
Figure 6: Map of research locations ..............................................................................26
Figure 7: Sample images are placed at one point ..........................................................29
Figure 8: Day 1(left) and day 3(right) ..........................................................................33
Figure 9: Day 0(left) and day 6(right) ...........................................................................34
Figure 10: Day 0 and day 8 ...........................................................................................35
Figure 11: Day 0(left) and day 14(right) .......................................................................35
Figure 12: Day 0 and day 10 .........................................................................................36
Figure 13: Day 0 and day 11 .........................................................................................36
Figure 14: Day 0 and day 25 .........................................................................................37
Figure 15: Day 0 and day 16 .........................................................................................37
Figure 16: Day 0 and day 3 ...........................................................................................38
Figure 17: Day 0 and day 8 ...........................................................................................38

vii


LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Concentration Pb (ɥg/Nm3) in the ambient air of Palembang city ...................5
Table 2: Heavy metal accumulation in some species of lichens in different geographies .... 17
Table 3: Heavy metal accumulation of μg/g dry weight in samples of Flavoparmelia
caperata and Caloplaca marina lichens .......................................................24
Table 4: List of material ................................................................................................25
Table 5: This table gives information on the transplant places .....................................27
Table 6: Environmental factors in the location of the transplant and control area .......30

Table 7: Number of traffics in each area per an hour ....................................................33
Table 8: This table shows the date on the lichens change occurred ..............................40

viii


PART I: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background and Research rationale
Palembang City is the second-largest city on Sumatra after Medan and the
capital city of South Sumatra province of Indonesia. As one of big city in the province,
Palembang is also keeps some of potential destinations in town. One of them are Musi
River which is also becomes the signature icon, together with the well-known Ampera
Bridge. Furthermore, since ancient times, Palembang has been a cosmopolitan port
city which absorbs neighboring, as well as foreign, cultures and influences.
Palembang is located in the tropical rainforest climate with significant rainfall
even in its driest months. The climate in Palembang is often described with "hot, humid
climate with a lot of rainfall throughout the year". The annual average temperature is
around 27.3 °C (81.1 °F). Average temperatures are nearly identical throughout the year
in the city. Average rainfall annually is 2,623 millimeters. During its wettest months, the
city's lowlands are frequently inundated by torrential rains. However, in its driest
months, many peat lands around the city dried, making them more vulnerable
to wildfires, causing haze in the city for months.
After the crisis a decade ago, it has promoted the economic development of
Indonesia. This rapid development of Indonesia is mainly due to fossil fuels, mainly
oil, followed by natural gas and coal. Exploitation of fossil fuels to accelerate
development leads to significant environmental degradation. Air pollution is perhaps
the most serious environmental problem in Indonesia. Industry and transportation are
the main sources of urban air pollution. Moreover, Indonesia did not reach its initial
2005 target for a period of complete exhaustion. As a result, Pb levels along with other

1


pollutants such as CO, NOx, SO2, and total suspended particulates have exceeded or at
least reached the defined air quality standards. Urban air pollution will not be less, but
will certainly be more serious in the future. Unfortunately, the capacity of Indonesian
authorities to manage urban air quality is still very limited and the budget for
improving urban air quality remains low, especially 1% of the total. . That is why
efforts to improve urban air quality management cannot be handled by environmental
managers in Indonesian cities, but outside stimulation in the form of manpower,
Consultancy and equipment along with financial support are very important.
1.2. Research’s objectives
 Measure changes of lichens morphology day by day.
 Measure the number of vehicles at lichens location.
1.3. Research questions and hypotheses
 This study wants to address the following questions:
 How two lichens change in morphology?
 What is the relationship between number of vehicles and changes of lichens
morphology ?
 How differences in lichens morphology in different areas?
1.4. Limitations
 Difficult travel through each set of experiments
 Time to count the car can not be too accurate because of limited time and
limited movement
 Short survey time so the results of the survey may not be able to raise the
accuracy of the test.

2

PART II: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Heavy metals in urban areas
2.1.1. Heavy metal
Heavy metal (heavy metal) is a metal with a density of five or more, with an
atomic number of 22 to 92. This heavy metal group has ± 40 types. Heavy metals are
considered dangerous for health if they accumulate excessively in the body,
accumulation of heavy metals causes’ high concentration in the body. Some of them
can be carcinogenic. Similarly, foodstuffs with high heavy metal content are
considered not suitable for consumption (Ridhowati, 2013). Heavy metal is an
essential element that is needed by every living thing, but some of them (in certain
concentrations) are poisonous. In nature, this element is usually present in dissolved or
suspended substances (bound to solids) and is present as an ionic form. These heavy
metals are in our environment in the form of solid, liquid and gas that can be found in
soil, water and air. Heavy metals can enter the human body generally through good
food from plants (vegetables, fruits) that grow in farmland contaminated with many
heavy metals or from chemicals used in agricultural land. Heavy metals can also
accumulate in the human body because they consume animal meat or fish that are
contaminated with heavy metals. Heavy metals in the atmosphere can reach the soil
and accumulate in plants through dry and wet deposition processes. Dry deposition of
heavy metals and acid compounds in plants increases during dry periods, and stronger
effects are detected after rainfall. In plants, heavy metals accumulated in the leaves
affect chlorophyll, cell membranes, stomata and can inhibit plant growth (Kalaivanan
and Ganeshamurthy, 2016). Deposition refers to the phenomenon where pollutants are

3


transferred from air to the surface of the earth. Sources of pollutants come from motor
vehicle emissions, combustion residues, and sources from industry. Pollutants fall to
the surface in the form of dust or through rain and fog. This process allows pollutants

deposition comes from very distant sources, so it is very difficult to determine specific
sources. Atmospheric deposition is considered the main process that removes
pollutants from the atmosphere and an important source of nutrients and contaminants
for the ecosystem. Elements, especially heavy metals deposited on soil, water and in
plants can cause damage to the environment and human health due to transfer and
accumulation in the food chain (Pan and Wang, 2015). Heavy metal pollution is
emitted into the air in the form of small particles caused by high temperature
expansion. The properties of metals in their movement in the air depend on the
physical and chemical properties of the metal, the size of the particles formed, weather
conditions, changes in wind and wind speed. Metal parikel in the form of aerosols has
a very small settling speed, easily transferred by wind and dissolved with rain water.
2.1.2. Source of heavy metals in urban areas
Metal footprints in urban areas are derived from a variety of human activities,
such as industry, construction activities, vehicle exhaust, building material corrosion,
vehicle parts corrosion, waste disposal, and coal and other fuels. Motor vehicles are a
significant source of heavy metal contamination in urban areas (Yan et al., 2013)
Heavy metals such as Pb is additives used as anti-tapers in motor vehicles. Despite the
use of Pb there has been removed gasoline, traces of heavy metals still found in the air.
Routine measurements conducted at several points of Palembang City indicate that
there has been a decrease of concentration in Pb in air (Table 2.1) although the

4


concentration tends to decrease, the use of some motor vehicle components still uses
Pb metal. Brake wear is the most important source of Pb emissions on the road (Zhang
et al., 2012).
Table 1: Concentration Pb (ɥg/Nm3) in the ambient air of Palembang city
Location

2014

2015

2016

Palembang

0.1727

0.395

0.2274

The main causes of metal pollution in urban areas are sourced from motor
vehicle emissions. Pollution caused by traffic, appears in the form of gas (exhaust
emissions), liquid (leakage) or in solid form. Pollution in solid form is caused by the
corrosion of the metal parts of the vehicle, and the solid particles of emitted gas. Nonexhaust emissions of vehicles, such as tire abrasion, wear of certain parts of vehicles
such as brakes over time contribute to emitting various types of metal pollutants to the
roadside. The brake canvas t contains Fe and Cu, during the brake, friction and heat
generation processes in high emissions Fe and Cu (Zhang et al., 2012). In
vulcanization, Zn is one of the main additives used, therefore tire corrosion can lead to
high Zn emissions. In addition to the metal composition of the brake linings and tires,
other factors such as vehicle size, vehicle acceleration and also road surfaces affect
metal emissions (Olukanni and Adeoye, 2012) The main parts of the vehicle, frame
and body panels consist of Fe (iron) and Al, Abrasion of the component emits Fe and
Al emissions. Iron, copper, zinc, aluminum and other metal metals, for example,
manganese, nickel, titanium, tin, bromine, cadmium and molybdenum are also found
as non-flue emissions.

5


2.1.3. Heavy metal from non-exhausted vehicles
The main sources of non-exhaust vehicular emissions that contribute to road
dust are tire, brake and clutch wear, road surface wear, and other vehicle and road
component degradation. This study is an attempt to identify and investigate heavy
metals in urban and motorway road dusts as well as in dust from brake linings and
tires. Road dust was collected from sections of the A-4 motorway in Poland, which is
part of European route E40, and from urban roads in Katowice, Poland. Dust from a
relatively unpolluted mountain road was collected and examined as a control sample.
Selected metals Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, Fe, Se, Sr, Ba, Ti, and Pd were analyzed using
inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma (ICP)optical emission spectroscopy, and atomic absorption spectroscopy on a range of sizefractionated road dust and brake lining dust (<20, 20–56, 56–90, 90–250, and >250
μm). The compositions of brake lining and tire dust were also investigated using
scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive spectroscopy. To estimate the degree
of potential environmental risk of non-exhaust emissions, comparison with the
geochemical background and the calculations of geo-accumulation indices were
performed. The finest fractions of urban and motorway dusts were significantly
contaminated with all of the investigated metals, especially with Ti, Cu, and Cr, which
are well-recognized key tracers of non-exhaust brake wear. Urban dust was, however,
more contaminated than motorway dust. It was therefore concluded that brake lining
and tire wear strongly contributed to the contamination of road dust.
2.1.4. Road contruction activities
The road is an infrastructure important role that plays a major role in

6


encouraging social and economic activity. However, road construction also resulted in
environmental pollution. Improving road accessibility is Road Construction Activities

one way to prevent congestion through road construction activities. Dust is one of the
hazards generated from construction activities due to the excavation and soil scanning
process. Dust from construction activities contains some metals especially Fe because
most of the road construction materials are Iron Iron mostly used in road construction
as in bridge components, obstacles and concrete. The welding and corrosion work of
the iron part causes iron emissions to the environment (Dam-0, 2015). In addition,
heavy trucks and machines used at construction sites are important factors for
increased metal load from roadside dust due to oil burning, brake wear and tire wear
that produce particulates which are then deposited on the ground (Abah et al, 2013 ).
2.1.5. Another source
Other sources include certain industrial processes, burning, road weathering,
and poor waste management, pesticide use etc. Heavy metal emissions come from
natural sources in the environment including geogenic, industrial, agricultural,
pharmaceutical, domestic waste, and atmospheric sources. Environmental pollution
can also occur through metal corrosion, atmospheric deposition, soil erosion, metal
ions and heavy metal washing, suspension sedimentation and evaporation of metals
from water and soil sources. Natural phenomena such as weathering and volcanic
eruptions have also been reported to significantly contribute to heavy metal pollution.
Industrial sources include metal processing in refineries, coal burning in power plants,
oil burning, plastics, textiles, microelectronics, wood preservation and paper
processing plants (Nagajyoti et al 2010; Widowati et al, 2008).

7


2.2. Lichens
2.2.1. General Characteristics
Lichen is a composite organism consisting of a symbiotic relationship between
one species of fungi and one or more species of algae. Both living organisms are in a
symbiotic relationship where algae provide energy sources through photosynthesis and

fungi provide shelter and protection for algae (Sett and Kundu, 2016). About 20,000
species exist throughout the world, lichens cover eight percent of the earth's surface
growing almost anywhere: on soil, rocks, trees, even on man-made surfaces. Moss can
grow in the most extreme, inhospitable environments, including mountains, deserts
and Polar Regions. Generally lichens grow on trees and semaksem as epiphytes, do not
take nutrients from the surface where they grow, but absorb nutrients from the
atmosphere. Moss can vary in size, color and shape and can change color when it rains
because it absorbs water and produces food energy. This is one of the extraordinary
qualities of moss, maybe even the key to their survival in a harsh climate (Nash III,
2008). Morphological characteristics of lichens which do not have cuticles result in
very high sensitivity of lichens to microclimate changes, especially temperature and
humidity (Garty, 2001). Lichen requires morphological adaptation to compensate for
daily fluctuations in air temperature and humidity to maintain water in the body, for
example by water sacs, water storage cells, dense rhizoid, and folded leaves. In
general, lichens are poikilohidrik organisms whose metabolism depends on the
availability of surrounding water. Moss will grow fast at high humidity and will reduce
its growth rate (dormant) at low humidity conditions. Functional diversity in response
to changing microclimate conditions makes the spread of moss very broad. Lichens
can be found in all climatic conditions in all terrestrial ecosystems and some aquatic
ecosystems (Nash III, 2008).

8


Figure 1: Caloplaca marina living on the roof
2.2.2. Physiology of lichens
The growth of lichens is very slow compared to other organisms. This is caused
by extreme environmental factors, such as temperature, lack of nutrition, radiation and
other inhibiting factors. Generally the annual growth of mosses is in tenths or units of
mm per year. The typical annual radial growth rates for lichens are: 0.5 mm for

crustose, foliose: 2 mm to 5 mm and Fruticosa: 4.8 mm to 11.1 mm (Armstrong,
2004). The photosynthesis process in lichens takes place in photobiotic (algae or
cyanobacteria) and requires carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to make carbohydrates.
This process in which electromagnetic radiation (sunlight) is converted into chemical
energy (sugar). Water is important for transporting material around in lichens and as a
hydrogen source Growth of lichens is very slow compared to other organisms. This is
caused by extreme environmental factors, such as temperature, lack of nutrition,
radiation and other inhibiting factors. Generally the annual growth of mosses is in tenths
or units of mm per year. The typical annual radial growth rates for lichens are: 0.5 mm
for crustose, foliose: 2 mm to 5 mm and Fruticosa: 4.8 mm to 11.1 mm (Armstrong,
2004). The photosynthesis process in lichens takes place in photobiotic (algae or

9


cyanobacteria) and requires carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to make carbohydrates.
This process in which electromagnetic radiation (sunlight) is converted into chemical
energy (sugar). Water is important for transporting material around in lichens and as a
source of hydrogen.
2.2.3. Flavoparmelia caperata
Flavoparmelia caperata: It has 20 cm diam, often forming conspicuous,
extensive patches., ± closely oppressed but becoming somewhat detached towards the
center. Lobes wide 5-13 mm, wavy, rounded at the apices, ± contiguous at the tips but
overlapping at the center, the margins often indented. Upper surface yellow to yellowgreen, occasionally grey-green (in shade), often coarsely corrugate especially towards
the center, pustulate-sorediate. Soredia coarse and granular, occasionally adhering and
forming gnarled lumps. Lower surface black, brown towards apices, rhizomes absent
from a narrow zone along the margin. Ascomata rare, to 8 mm diam, disc red-brown,
the thalline exciple ± sorediate. Ascosporic 15-19(-22) x (-8) 9-10 µm, ellipsoidal.

Figure 2: Flavoparmelia caperata

10


2.2.4. Caloplaca marina
Caloplaca marina: An encrusting yellow-orange to bright orange lichen. The
thallus is composed of small granules or 'islands' of tissue but is never powdery. When
well developed the lichens may be composed of small convex islands of tissue often
with a paler edge. Disc-like, convex and deep reddish orange fruiting bodies occur on
the surface of the thallus. Caloplaca marina is one of several species
of Caloplaca found on rocks at or above high water. Caloplaca thallincola may occur
at the same position but prefers sheltered conditions. Caloplaca thallincola is a lighter
orange with a distinct lobose margin. Caloplaca maritima is also similar but is never
orange and the thallus is composed of more convex, paler, wax-like islands of tissue.
Identification to genus or species level may require simple chemical tests.

Figure 3: Caloplaca marina
2.3. Biomonitoring air quality
Biomonitoring is the use of biological responses by systematically measuring
and evaluating changes in the environment. Biondicators are organisms or biological
responses that indicate the entry of certain substances in the environment (Sujetoviene,

11


2013). A monitoring system with biomonitoring does not cost much because it uses
organisms that are already available in nature. Bioindicators are exposed directly in
nature to reflect the overall environmental system. Therefore, biomonitoring provides
an opportunity for monitoring that is not constrained by expensive tools and limited
samples. In addition, monitoring systems with biomonitoring need not be done

continuously, but can be done periodically.
Biomonitoring using organisms is mostly used as a determination of the
quantity of the presence of contaminants, it can be classified as a sensitive or
accumulative biomonitor. Sensitive biomonitors tend to be optical types and are used
as an integrator of the impact caused by the presence of contaminants, and as a
preventive response in other words as an alarm system for environmental change.
Optical effects that occur such as morphological changes in the sense of behavioral
changes related to the environment and over the changes in aspects of chemical and
physical composition based on the activity of differences in enzyme systems,
photosynthesis and respiration activities. Accumulative biomonitors have the ability to
transfer contaminants into their bodies (inside / tissue layers) and are used as a
measure of the concentration of contaminants present in the environment.
Bioaccumulation is the result of the balance process of combined intake / discharge
biota and into the environment.
Bioindicators are useful in three situations (Conti and Cecchetti, 2001): when
indications of environmental factors are not natural environments that are shifting due
to climate change, 2) where indications of environmental factors are difficult to
measure, for example because the presence of pesticides and residues results in a toxic
effluent content complex and 3) can be measured, as in a factor state where

12


environmental factors are easy to measure but difficult to interpret for example
whether environmental changes that occur based on observations made have
significant ecological factors. The use of biomonitoring methods is stated to be more
efficient than using monitoring technology by relying on mapping ability using highperformance monitor intensity sampling technique. This is because the bioindikator scara
directly tied to the conditions that exist in the environment. Their responses to impacts
changes that occur are more representative of the cumulative effect in function and have a
greater scope of ecosystem diversity than active monitoring technology.

The bioindicator used can be selected based on several factors, including: it can
be easily measured and shows the observed response to the ecosystem; has a specific
response that can predict how species or ecosystems will respond to stress; measure
responses with acceptable accuracy and precision based on knowledge of pollutants
and their characteristics.
These baseline results are of great interest to forest and air managers, serving as
the first large-scale comprehensive assessments of forest health for the study region.
2.4. Lichens as Biological Indicators
Lichens are often likened to canaries in a coal mine because some species are
extremely sensitive to environmental change, a major reason for their popularity as
bioindicators for natural resource assessment (e.g., Nimis et al. 2002). The Forest
Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Program of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service (USFS), includes lichens among a suite of forest health indicators (Stolte et al.
2002) that are monitored nationwide on a permanent sampling grid (Will-Wolf 2005).
Formally known as the FIA Lichen Community Indicator, these data are periodic
surveys of epiphytic (tree-dwelling) lichen communities conducted by specially
trained field crews.

13


The structure of a lichen community in a forest intrinsically provides a wealth
of information about forest health, function, and local climatic conditions
The structure of a lichen community in a forest (eg., species presence and
abundance) intrinsically provides a wealth of information about forest health, function,
and local climatic conditions. Analysts can extract particular properties of the
community data, such as indices of indicator species and community gradients, to
address a wide variety of monitoring questions. At present, the three primary
objectives of the Lichen Community Indicator are to evaluate and monitor
biodiversity, air quality, and climate. Survey data may be directly applied for

biodiversity monitoring, whereas the latter two applications involve multivariate
gradient models

LICHEN
COMMUNITY

CONDITION OF
RESOURCE
Forest productivity,
biodiversity, health.

Indicates

Indicates
Causeeffecet

Causeeffecet
ENVIRONMENTAL
STRESSORS
N- and S-based air
pollutants direct toxicity
and acidifying and fertilizing
effects.

Figure 4: Concept behind the Lichen Community Indicator.

N = Nitrogen

S= Sulfur

14


2.5. Lichens as Bioindicator of air pollution
The lichen shell is very sensitive to air pollution so it can be used as an air
pollutant biomass (Frati et al., 2005). The lichen class is a symbiotic association of
millions of photosynthetic microorganisms (phycobiont) incorporated into the fifth
hypha network (Conti and Cecchetti, 2001). Phycobiont and mycobiont form a very
stable and rigid "micro ecosystem". Therefore, mollusks can survive under extreme
heat or very cold temperatures. The moss cover does not have an epidermis to absorb
nutrients and water from the atmosphere. This explains why a lichen shell can be an air
pollutant. Environmental change causes changes in the diversity of lichens, their
morphology, physiology, genetics, and the ability to accumulate air pollutants. This
sensitivity satisfies the selective elements of biological substances. The use of lichen
scales as biological agents has long been used by mapping out the lichen cover. The
morphology of the moss is not influenced by seasonal factors, so accumulation can
occur throughout the year. Lichen layers often have a long life span, making them used
as permanent precipitants of atmospheric deposition (Conti and Cecchetti, 2001).
There are a large number of factors that can affect the concentration of pollutants
accumulated in the lichen shell. These factors include the inputs of pollutants, their
nature and composition, climatic factors such as components of precipitation,
temperature, wind, drought, and environmental factors. localities such as vegetation,
surface quality and height of the area (Caggiano and Garty, 2001). According to a
study conducted by Giordani (2007), the variability of epiphyte mosses correlated with
average annual precipitation and mean annual temperature. Differences in moss cover
patterns associated with air quality vary widely in many parts of the world. However,

15

the accumulation of metals in the lichen is not only dependent on the availability of the
metal-elemental environment but also in the form of lichen growth and the current
climatic conditions so dependent in geographic location (Majumder et al., 2012). The
results of various studies related to the accumulation of heavy metals in different
lichens are summarized in Table 2.2. All moss covers have different sensitivity to air
pollutants. Sensitive often followed the chain; Crustosa (flat) lichens) industrial parks and near the highway were able to demonstrate sensitivity as heavy
metal bioacumulators (Pandey et al., 2000). The physodes, Parmelia sulcata, and
Xanthoria Parietina are collected in different places such as residential, industrial,
expressway and industrial areas capable of accumulating heavy metals at different
concentrations (Parzych et al., 2016). ). The same study was conducted by Caggiano et
al. (2015) in the oil processing industry using implants of Plastismatia glauca Evernia
prunastri, Ramalina fraxinea, and Pseudevernia furfuracea, also showed a significant
accumulation in each of the ligands.
Lichen is used as a bio indicator or bio monitoring in two ways, namely active
and passive methods, can be seen in (Figure 2.5.). Active bio monitoring includes
exposure of well-defined species under controlled conditions, while passive bio
monitoring refers to chemical observation or analysis of native plants. Active bio
monitoring can be divided into transplants, and the Lichen bags method (Conti and
Concchetti, 2001; Szczepaniak and Biziuk, 2003).

16