South korea a socioeconomic overview from the past to present

Asian Studies Series
Ching-I Tu and Dietrich Tschanz, editors
The Asian Studies Series features cutting-edge research on a range of
topics in Asian and East Asian Studies, including environment and
climate change, green technologies, social stratification, economic
reforms, media and communication, women and gender, and the
urban-rural divide. The series is international and interdisciplinary,
interested in manuscripts focused on contemporary Asia with reference
to its traditions, revealing the continuities and disruptions of change
in the region.
Titles in this series include:
South Korea
Taiwan in Transformation
China’s Nonprofit Sector
China Factors
Imperial Japan’s World War Two: 1931-1945
Interpretation and Intellectual Change
Classics and Interpretations
Power and Prosperity
The Southeast Asian Economic Miracle
Korea in the 1990s
Asian and the Decline of Communism
Culture and Politics in China



Copyright © 2016 by Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, New
­Jersey.
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Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in
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addressed to Transaction Publishers, 10 Corporate Place South, Suite
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This book is printed on acid-free paper that meets the American
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Materials.
Library of Congress Catalog Number: 2016031034
ISBN: 978-1-4128-6397-1 (hardcover)
eBook: 978-1-4128-6368-1
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Schwekendiek, Daniel, 1975- author.
Title: South Korea : a socioeconomic overview from the past to the
present / Daniel J. Schwekendiek.
Description: New Brunswick : Transaction Publishers, [2016] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016031034 (print) | LCCN 2016038529 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781412863971 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781412863681 (eBook)
Subjects: LCSH: Korea (South)--Economic conditions. | Korea
(South)--Social conditions. | Korea (South)--History.
Classification: LCC HC467.965 .S39 2016 (print) | LCC HC467.965
(ebook) | DDC 951.95--dc23
LC record available at />

This book is dedicated to the Korean people.

Contents
List of Figures

ix

List of Tables

xvii

List of Images

xxi

Abbreviationsxxiii
Mapxxvii
Chronologyxxix
Prefacexxxi
Acknowledgmentsxxxv
Part 1. Historical Development of Korea

1



1.1

Korea in Macrohistorical Perspective

1

1.2

Korea in the Era of High Imperialism

7



1.3

Korea under Japanese Colonization

21



1.4

Korea Facing Liberation and Division

32

Part 2. Social Perspectives of South Korea

47

2.1

47



2.2Demography

62



2.3

96

Social Capital

Anthropometry and Gross Nutrition




2.4Metropolization

124

2.5

143

Rural Development

Part 3. Economic Perspectives of South Korea

171



3.1

171



3.2Trade

202



3.3Education

220

3.4

Capitalist Consumerism

257



3.5

Nation Branding

273

Economic Planning

Part 4. Concluding Remarks

299



299

4.1

Paradigmatic Change in South Korea

Part 5. Appendices

303


5.1


Selected Underlying Data Used to
Produce Figures

303



Supplementary Data

320

5.2

References325
Index343


List of Figures
Figure 1.1.1Political development of the Korean
peninsula, eighteenth to twenty-first century
4
Figure 1.2.1The decline of the Korean bureaucracy in
10
the Joseon dynasty, 1596–1798

Figure 1.3.1Persons incarcerated in the Seodaemun
Prison, 1914–1945
25
Figure 1.3.2Sectoral and total growth rates in Colonial
Korea, 1911–1940
26
Figure 1.3.3Rice production, rice export, and rice
consumption in Colonial Korea, 1912–1936
27
Figure 2.1.1Share of draftees in the military and social
services in (West) Germany, 1961–2008
59
Figure 2.2.1Population and population projections of
(South) Korea, 1550–2300
63
Figure 2.2.2Population pyramid by birth year and age
at census in South Korea and in comparative
perspective with North Korea in 2008
65
Figure 2.2.3Aged-, youth-, and nondependency ratios in
South Korea, 1980–2040
66
Figure 2.2.4Sex ratios at birth in South Korea in
comparative perspective with North Korea,
1971–201275
Figure 2.2.5Lifetime abortion-experience rate in South
Korea, 1971–2009
76
Figure 2.2.6Total fertility rates in South Korea in
comparative perspective with North Korea,

1966–200877
Figure 2.2.7Age-specific fertility rates of South Korea
in comparative perspective with North
Korea in 2008
81
ix


South Korea

Figure 2.2.8Age-specific death rates in South Korea in
comparative perspective with North
Korea in 2008
82
Figure 2.2.9Infant-mortality rate in South Korea in
comparative perspective with North Korea,
1960–201083
Figure 2.2.10Total life expectancy at birth in South Korea
in comparative perspective with North Korea,
1960–201084
Figure 2.2.11State of the Korean diaspora in the world by
immigration nation as of 2009
87
Figure 2.2.12Outflow of South Koreans to foreign countries
by selected major destinations and number of
registered South Koreans overseas, 1964–2009 88
Figure 2.2.13Outflow of adoptees from South Korea to
foreign countries, 1953–2009
90
Figure 2.2.14State of the foreign diaspora in South Korea

by emigration country as of 2008
91
Figure 2.2.15Inflow of foreigners by selected immigration
groups to South Korea and number of registered
foreigners from overseas countries, 1990–2012 92
Figure 2.2.16Inflow of North Koreans to South Korea,
1940s–201394
Figure 2.3.1Trend in height of men in South Korea by
birth year, 1954–1980
97
Figure 2.3.2Trend in height of women in South Korea
by birth year, 1954–1980
98
Figure 2.3.3Height trend of zero- to twenty-year-old
males in South Korea by age at measurement,
1965–2005101
Figure 2.3.4Height trend of zero- to twenty-year-old
females in South Korea by age at measurement,
1965–2005101
Figure 2.3.5Weight trend of zero- to twenty-year-old
males in South Korea by age at measurement,
1965–2005102
Figure 2.3.6Weight trend of zero- to twenty-year-old
females in South Korea by age at measurement,
1965–2005102
x


List of Figures

Figure 2.3.7Body mass index trend of eight and seventeenyear-old males in South Korea, 1956–2005
106
Figure 2.3.8Body mass index trend of eight and seventeenyear-old females in South Korea, 1956–2005
107
Figure 2.3.9Overweight rates of adults by gender in South
108
Korea, 1995–2007
Figure 2.3.10Overweight, normal weight and underweight
rates of adults by age group and gender in
109
South Korea in 2007
Figure 2.3.11Daily food intake per capita in grams in South
Korea, 1969–1995
114
Figure 2.3.12Share of proteins, fats and carbohydrates
consumed in South Korea, 1948–1995
115
Figure 2.3.13Share of plant and animal food consumed
in South Korea, 1969–1995
116
Figure 2.3.14Share of total food consumed in South Korea
by food groups, 1969–1995
118
Figure 2.3.15Milk and meat consumption index in South
121
Korea, 1969–1995
Figure 2.3.16Milk-consumption index and share of schools
providing lunches in South Korea, 1975–2010 123
Figure 2.4.1First level intramigration rates in South Korea
in comparative perspective with North Korea,

1965–2009125
Figure 2.4.2Second- and third-level intramigration rates
in South Korea in comparative perspective
with North Korea, 1980–1987
126
129
Figure 2.4.3Urbanization in South Korea, 1944–2008
Figure 2.4.4Population by type of housing in South Korea,
1975–2010130
Figure 2.4.5Housing construction investments on total fixed
capital investments in South Korea, 1953–1998 136
Figure 2.4.6Working hours in South Korea and in
developed nations, 1996–2008
139
Figure 2.4.7Domestic sales of motor vehicles in South
Korea, 1976–2001
140
Figure 2.5.1Content analysis of references to rural
development in major speeches by the
president, 1970–1979
149
xi


South Korea

Figure 2.5.2Total amount of saemaeul undong
investments, 1971–1978
159
Figure 2.5.3Saemaeul undong investments by financial

source, 1971–1978
159
Figure 2.5.4Number of days people volunteered for the
160
saemaeul undong, 1971–1978
Figure 2.5.5Number of volunteers passing the saemaeul
undong leadership program, 1972–1980
162
Figure 2.5.6Power tillers and tractors introduced to farms
in South Korea, 1965–1980
165
Figure 3.1.1GDP per capita in South Korea and the
world, 1945–2010
173
Figure 3.1.2Sectoral and total growth rates in South
179
Korea, 1951–2010
Figure 3.1.3Steel production in South Korea and selected
countries, 1980–2010
182
Figure 3.1.4Ship production in South Korea and selected
countries, 1986–2008
183
Figure 3.1.5Motor vehicle production in South Korea
and selected countries, 1985–2010
185
Figure 3.1.6Electronic merchandise production in South
Korea and selected countries, 1990–2007
187
Figure 3.1.7Mobile phone subscribers in South Korea

189
and selected countries, 2002–2008
Figure 3.1.8Share of households with Internet access
in South Korea and selected countries,
2001–2007189
Figure 3.1.9Share of information and communications
technology (ICT) manufacturing on total
manufacturing, 2000–2006
190
Figure 3.1.10Semiconductor industry in South Korea and
selected countries, 1995–2010
192
Figure 3.1.11Entertainment industry in South Korea,
2005–2009194
Figure 3.1.12 Fan-club members of entertainers in
South Korea as of 2009
195
Figure 3.1.13Domestic and foreign movies released in
South Korea, 1994–2010
197
Figure 3.1.14Production and export of movies from
South Korea, 1993–2010
197
xii


List of Figures

Figure 3.1.15Massive-multiplayer-online gaming industry
in the world, 1997–2013

Figure 3.1.16Market share of popular massive-multiplayeronline games developed by NCSoft, 1997–2013
Figure 3.2.1Import and export development of South
Korea, 1960–2010
Figure 3.2.2Trade balance of South Korea, 1960–2010
Figure 3.2.3Share of major export groups in total exports
from South Korea
Figure 3.2.4Share of major import groups in total imports
to South Korea, 1955–2010
Figure 3.2.5Share of exports from South Korea to Japan
and the United States, 1954–2012
Figure 3.2.6Share of imports from Japan and the United
States to South Korea, 1954–2012
Figure 3.3.1Share of population having attained at least
some formal education in (South) Korea and
the world, 1870–2010
Figure 3.3.2Number of lower education institutes in
South Korea, 1950–2010
Figure 3.3.3Students enrolling in lower education in South
Korea, 1950–2010
Figure 3.3.4Gross enrollment rates in lower education
institutes in South Korea, 1940–2015
Figure 3.3.5Adult literacy rates in South Korea and the
world, 1945–2010
Figure 3.3.6Private expenditures on total education in
South Korea and developed countries in 2000
Figure 3.3.7Private expenditures on lower education in
South Korea and developed countries in 2000
Figure 3.3.8Lower education and higher education
enrollments in South Korea, 1950–2010
Figure 3.3.9Number of higher education institutes in

South Korea, 1950–2010
Figure 3.3.10Students enrolled in higher education in South
Korea, 1950–2010
Figure 3.3.11Gross enrollment rates in higher education
institutes in South Korea, 1980–2015
Figure 3.3.12Private expenditures on higher education in
South Korea and developed countries in 2000

199
201
208
209
215
215
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
228
230
235
236
237
238
239
xiii

South Korea

Figure 3.3.13Indicators of higher education globalization
in South Korea, 1985–2006
240
Figure 3.3.14Number of doctoral degrees conferred in
South Korea, 1990–2010
241
Figure 3.3.15Doctoral degrees conferred in South Korea
242
by discipline, 1990–2010
Figure 3.3.16Rankings of South Korean universities in the
QS-THE World University Rankings,
2004–2008256
Figure 3.4.1Share of advertisements in South Korean
women’s magazines, 1970–2000
261
Figure 3.4.2Prevalence of rational consumption, irrational
consumption and shopping addiction in South
263
Korea and selected countries in 2005
Figure 3.4.3Prevalence of irrational consumption in South
Korea and selected countries in 2005
264
Figure 3.4.4Influence of advertisements on purchases in
South Korea and selected countries in 2005
265
Figure 3.4.5Materialistic values in developed nations as
of 2010

266
Figure 3.4.6Number of new department stores opening
in South Korea, 1963–1997
270
Figure 3.5.1Subranking components in the inaugural
Anholt-GfK Roper Nation Brand Index of 2008 276
Figure 3.5.2Subrankings of South Korean people on
South Korea and the world on South Korea in
the inaugural Anholt-GfK Roper Nation
Brand Index of 2008
278
Figure 3.5.3Subrankings of the Asian region on South
Korea compared to the world in the inaugural
Anholt-GfK Roper Nation Brand Index of 2008 281
Figure 3.5.4Subrankings of the North American region on
South Korea in the inaugural Anholt-GfK
Roper Nation Brand Index of 2008
282
Figure 3.5.5Subrankings of the Western European region
on South Korea in the inaugural Anholt-GfK
Roper Nation Brand Index of 2008
283
Figure 3.5.6Subrankings of the Eastern European region
on South Korea in the inaugural Anholt-GfK
Roper Nation Brand Index of 2008
284
xiv


List of Figures

Figure 3.5.7Subrankings of the Latin American region on
South Korea in the inaugural Anholt-GfK
Roper Nation Brand Index of 2008
Figure 3.5.8Subrankings of the African region on
South Korea in the inaugural Anholt-GfK
Roper Nation Brand Index of 2008
Figure 3.5.9Subrankings of Americans and Germans on
South Korea in the inaugural Anholt-GfK
Roper Nation Brand Index of 2008
Figure 3.5.10Number of Korea-related articles per year in the
American magazine Time, 1948–2013
Figure 3.5.11Number of Korea-related articles per year in the
German magazine Spiegel, 1948–2013
Figure 3.5.12Good news vs. bad news articles in an American
magazine, 1948–2013
Figure 3.5.13Good news vs. bad news articles in a
German magazine, 1948–2013

285
286
289
290
291
291
292

xv

List of Tables
Table 1.1.1GDP per capita in the world, 1500–2010
Table 1.2.1Japan’s gradual annexation of Korea in
the era of high imperialism
Table 1.3.1Political prisons by workforce in Colonial
Korea as of 1937
Table 1.4.1Diplomatic events affecting Korea at
the end of World War II
Table 2.2.1Sex ratios at birth in the world in 2002
Table 2.3.1Height of seventeen to eighteen-year-old
adolescents in South Korea and selected
countries, 1980s–2000s
Table 2.3.2Underweight rates of preschool children
and low-birthweight rates in South Korea
and the world around 2000
Table 2.3.3Overweight rates of adults in South Korea
and selected developed countries, 1995–2008
Table 2.3.4Obesity rates of adults in South Korea and
selected developed countries around 2000
Table 2.3.5Overweight rates of adults by socioeconomic
status in South Korea in 2007
Table 2.4.1Share of residents by province in South
Korea living in apartments in comparative
perspective with North Korea in 2009
Table 2.5.1Rural-urban differences in chronic child
undernutrition in the world around the
year 2000
Table 2.5.2Phases of the saemaeul undong in
South Korea, 1970–2013

Table 2.5.3Share of voters for PARK Chung Hee by
rural and urban residence in 1963
xvii

3
13
24
33
67
99
104
111
112
113
135
145
150
156


South Korea

Table 2.5.4Countries benefiting from saemaeul undong
pilot villages as of 2013
167
Table 2.5.5Countries benefiting from saemaeul
undong training as of 2013
168
Table 3.1.1GDP levels in South Korea and the world,
1945–2001172

Table 3.1.2Leading officials by government position
and army rank in South Korea in 1969
174
Table 3.1.3Timing of year plans in South Korea in
comparative perspective with North Korea
during the Cold War era
175
Table 3.1.4Major phases of year plans in South Korea
during the Cold War era
176
Table 3.1.5Power of the top jaebeol in South Korea,
1977–1987191
Table 3.1.6Korean films and music products
overseas in 2010
196
Table 3.1.7Views of Korean music videos in Europe,
America and Oceania versus the local
198
Korean diaspora in 2011
Table 3.1.8Ranking of popular, massive-multiplayeronline games in the world, 1997–2013
200
Table 3.2.1Major export-promotion incentives,
1950s–1980s205
Table 3.2.2Major exports from South Korea by
commodity group, 1955–2010
210
Table 3.2.3Major imports to South Korea by commodity
213
group, 1955–2010
Table 3.2.4Major export partners of South Korea,

1954–2012216
Table 3.2.5Major import partners of South Korea,
1954–2012217
Table 3.3.1Programme for International Student Assessment
inaugural country rankings of 2000
227
Table 3.3.2Programme for International Student
Assessment Rankings of South Korea and
selected countries, 2000–2012
229
Table 3.3.3Subjective well-being of teenagers in
developed nations around 2009
233
xviii


List of Tables

Table 3.3.4Ranking criteria in the QS-THE World
University Rankings, 2004–2009
244
Table 3.3.5Rankings of higher education institutions
by nation in the inaugural QS-THE World
University Ranking of 2004
245
Table 3.3.6Number of higher education institutes by
share of nations in the inaugural QS-THE
world university ranking of 2004
253
Table 3.4.1Comparison of capitalism and communism

as answers to the industrialization
267
Table 3.5.1Coding of subindicators in the Anholt-GfK
Roper Nation Brand Index
277
Table 3.5.2Country rankings in the inaugural Anholt279
GfK Roper Nation Brand Index of 2008
Table 3.5.3South Korea in the Anholt-GfK Roper
Nation Brand Index, 2008–2013
286
Table 3.5.4Similar country names in the world
293
Table 3.5.5Ranking positions of the top ten nations
in the Anholt-GfK Roper Nation Brand
297
Index, 2008–2014
Table 4.1.1Socioeconomic paradigmatic change in Korea 300
Table 5.1.1Underlying data for figure 1.1.1: political
development of the Korean peninsula,
303
18th to 21st century
Table 5.1.2Underlying data for figure 1.2.1: the decline
of the Korean bureaucracy in the Joseon
dynasty, 1596–1798191
305
Table 5.1.3Underlying data for figure 1.3.1.: persons
incarcerated in the Seodaemun Prison,
1914–1945306
Table 5.1.4Underlying data for figure 2.2.13: outflow
of adoptees from South Korea to foreign

307
countries, 1953–2009
Table 5.1.5Underlying data for figure 2.2.16: inflow
of North Koreans to South Korea, 1940s–2013 309
Table 5.1.6Underlying data for figure 3.1.15:
massive-multiplayer-online gaming industry
310
in the world, 1997–2013

xix


South Korea

Table 5.1.7Underlying data for figure 3.1.16: market
share of popular massive-multiplayer-online
games developed by NCSoft, 1997–2013
310
Table 5.1.8Underlying data for figure 3.4.5: Materialistic
values in developed nations as of 2010
311
Table 5.1.9Underlying data for figure 3.5.9: Number of
Korea-related articles per year in the
American magazine, Time, 1948–2013
312
Table 5.1.10Underlying data for figure 3.5.10: Number
of Korea-related articles per year in the
German magazine, Spiegel, 1948–2013
314
Table 5.1.11Underlying data for figure 3.5.11: good

news vs. bad news articles in an American
316
magazine, 1948–2013
Table 5.1.12Underlying data for figure 3.5.13: good news vs.
bad news articles in a German magazine,
1948–2013318
Table 5.2.1Sources of relevant Korea-related historical
documents320
Table 5.2.2Two forgotten Korean Wars in world history
320
Table 5.2.3Two approaches in population studies
321
Table 5.2.4Core and supplementary nations in the
inaugural Anholt-GfK Roper Nation Brand
322
Index of 2008

xx


List of Images
Image 2.1.1Conformity through the lens of the color of
cars in South Korea
49
Image 2.1.2A trash can on the campus of Seoul National
University57
Image 2.3.1A green food zone sign at a school in
South Korea
110
Image 2.3.2A trolley of a yakureuteu ajumma in

South Korea
123
138
Image 2.4.1Apartment complexes in South Korea
Image 2.4.2High heel inserts for dress shoes sold to
males in the streets of Seoul
141
Image 2.4.3A warning shield for women wearing high
heels found in subway stations in Seoul
142
Image 2.5.1
A saemaeul undong flag in South Korea
152
Image 2.5.2
Greenhouses in South Korea
157
Image 2.5.3
A power tiller in South Korea
164
Image 3.1.1
A doljabi in South Korea
193
Image 3.4.1A shop that is renting luxury goods in
South Korea
272

xxi

Abbreviations
3D workers
dirty, dangerous, difficult workers
Anholt-GfK
Simon Anholt-Gesellschaft fuer Konsumforschung
ASEANAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations
break-boying (“break dancing”)
b-boying
BK21
Brain Korea 21st Century
BMI
body-mass index
Brig.Brigadier
CCTV
closed-circuit television
compact disc read-only memory
CD-ROM
CDMA
code division multiple access
CEO
chief executive officer
CIA
Central Intelligence Agency
DMZ
Demilitarized Zone
DPRKDemocratic People’s Republic of Korea
(or North Korea)
DRAM
dynamic random-access memory
DRC

Democratic Republic of the Congo
EFTA
European Free Trade Association
EU
European Union
FRG
Federal Republic of Germany (or West Germany)
Ffemale
FIFA
Fédération Internationale de Football Association
FTA
Free Trade Agreement
GATT
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDR
German Democratic Republic (or East Germany)
GDP
gross domestic product
GIS
geographic information system
GSM
global system for mobile communications
HCI
heavy and chemical industries
HDI
human development index
ICT
information and communications technology
xxiii

South Korea

IMF
International Monetary Fund
IT
information technology
KAIST
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
KDI
Korea Development Institute
KMIC
Korean Medical Insurance Corporation
KNHANESKorea National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey
KOTRA
Korea Trade-Investment Promotion Agency
Korean pop
K-pop
KRISS
Korean Research Institute for Sciences and Standards
LG
Life’s Good (formerly: Lucky-Goldstar)
Lt.Lieutenant
Mmale
Maj.Major
MMO
massive multiplayer online
n/a
not available

NIEED
National Institute for International Education
OECDOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development
personal computer
PC
PhD
philosophiae doctor
PISA
Programme for International Student Assessment
PL
public law
Pohang Iron and Steel Company
POSCO
PRC
People’s Republic of China
PX
post exchange
QS
Quacquarelli Symonds
Quacquarelli Symonds-Times Higher Education
QS-THE
R&B
rhythm and blues
R&D
research and development
ROK
Republic of Korea (or South Korea)
SNL
Saturday Night Life

Times Higher Education
THE
US
United States of America
United Kingdom
UK
UN
United Nations
UNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization
UNICEF
United Nations Children’s Fund
xxiv