The emergence of EU defense research policy from innovation to militarization

Innovation, Technology, and Knowledge Management

Nikolaos Karampekios
Iraklis Oikonomou
Elias G. Carayannis Editors

The Emergence
of EU Defense
Research Policy
From Innovation to Militarization


Innovation, Technology, and Knowledge
Management

Series Editor
Elias G. Carayannis
George Washington University
Washington, DC, USA


More information about this series at />

Nikolaos Karampekios  •  Iraklis Oikonomou
Elias G. Carayannis
Editors

The Emergence of EU
Defense Research Policy
From Innovation to Militarization

Editors
Nikolaos Karampekios
National Documentation Centre / National
Hellenic Research Foundation
Athens, Greece

Iraklis Oikonomou
Independent Researcher
Athens, Greece

Elias G. Carayannis
School of Business
The George Washington University
Washington, DC, USA

ISSN 2197-5698    ISSN 2197-5701 (electronic)
Innovation, Technology, and Knowledge Management
ISBN 978-3-319-68806-0    ISBN 978-3-319-68807-7 (eBook)
/>Library of Congress Control Number: 2017956210
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This book is dedicated to the “Great
Generation” who fought and died for
freedom and justice during WWII and all
others since and in the future, as freedom is
never free.


Foreword

This is a very timely volume. Important decisions have been made by the member
states of the European Union in order to enhance the Union’s role in military
research. The consequences of these decisions are potentially far reaching but not
yet clear. The contributions to this volume help to understand both the nature of the
changes and the likely effects in a number of technological, economic and political
dimensions.
Until the late 1990s, the legal predecessors of the European Union were seen, in
the famous words of Francoise Duchene, as “civilian powers”. And indeed, they had
nothing to do with military, or even security, matters. That is quite a change to the
vision outlined by the High Representative of the European Union for Foreign
Affairs and Security Policy and the Vice-President of the European Commission

Federica Mogherini in the “Global Strategy” of 2016, further detailed in documents
by the Commission and the Council, such as the Defence Action Plan and the
Implementation Plan on Security and Defence. The “progressive framing of a common Union defence policy” mandated in Article 42 of the Lisbon Treaty was
advancing quickly in 2016 and 2017.
The political process from “purely civilian” to “also military” power Europe is
competently analyzed in various chapters of this volume. It has been marked by
both an underlying secular economic logic and political spurges following international or European major crises. The economic logic follows, as is shown in this
volume, from the contradictions between the impulse of many national policy makers
to protect domestic arms producers on the one hand and the high budgetary costs
and military inefficiencies of such protectionism on the other hand. Major crises
that pushed Europeanization of defense include the Kosovo War of 1999, which
pushed the integration of the Western European Union (WEU) into the Union structures resulting in the European Security and Defence Policy, as well as the Iraq War
of 2003 which facilitated the creation of the European Defence Agency (EDA) and
the formulation of the European Security Strategy. The Global Strategy of 2016, in
contrast, primarily was a response to intra-EU problems, such as the European
financial and refugee crises. Brexit and Donald Trump as US President added to the
political dynamic.
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Foreword

Military research and development (R&D) has been an important element in the
fragile process of Europeanization of defense. While there have been many bilateral
and trilateral joint R&D projects among EU member states, truly EU-wide activities
have remained limited. This is not due to a lack of initiatives. Also, reluctance to go
multilateral has not only been a problem for the EU.  There were a number of
attempts at coordinating and pooling R&D among European NATO members as

well as in the WEU in the past. And the EDA also has consistently tried during the
last decade and a half. So there is quite some experience with cooperating in military R&D. But projects remained under the strict control of member states.
Decisions at the level of the Council and in the Commission taken in 2016 and
2017 go a considerable step further by devoting European funds under the control
of the Commission to military R&D.  True, the amounts of European money are
small compared to what member state governments are spending on military
R&D.  However, judging by the earlier dynamics of European civilian security
research, described in this volume, which only started after the September 11 terrorist attacks in the early 2000s and has now become a major element of research funding, it is likely to shape and catalyze national funding. The European civilian
security research proved to be attractive for governments as well as research institutions and companies, including a number of arms-producing companies. While not
permitted to conduct research toward military applications, they could collaborate
on research projects in civil security research which was also relevant for their core
business.
Still, the Europeanization of defense, including military research, is neither inevitable nor without contradictions. The contributors to this volume make this very
clear. A sober assessment, as performed in this book, is necessary in order not to fall
for simple ideas, often promoted by lobbyists for self-serving reasons. Thus, a major
push for European economic growth is highly unlikely, given the relatively small
size of defense R&D compared to civilian commercial R&D plus the fact that studies consistently have shown that the positive economic spin-offs of military research
are limited, resulting in greater efficiency of civilian R&D expenditures for creating
economic growth. Long gone are the times, for instance, in the 1940s and the 1950s,
when defense research stimulated the economy, particularly in the USA and the
Soviet Union, in major ways. While growth industries such as aerospace and electronics benefited primarily from the size of spending, military R&D spending was
important for doing research in areas marked by high technological risks. However,
the situation changed with the maturation of civilian industries in these sectors and
the resulting shift in the balance of spending for civilian and military
R&D. Furthermore, a case can be made that Europe as a whole, and some European
countries in particular, such as Germany, has benefitted from low defense and high
civilian R&D spending.
Costs and benefits, as well as their allocation to different groups and institutions,
from arms producers to the wider public, therefore need to be investigated. While
the focus in this volume is on the economic consequences, contributors also look at

technological and political effects, providing a comprehensive view of the issues.


Foreword

ix

Military R&D may not be very sizeable compared to civilian commercial R&D
or defense procurement spending, but it is a strategic type of government expenditure, with far-reaching consequences for defense-related issues, but also effecting
civilian actors. It is obviously of major interest to arms producers in Europe. As a
group, they will benefit financially when more money is spent on defense-relevant
research. However, individual companies will be hurt by more open European competition. The concentration process, which has mainly benefited larger producers in
major producing countries, is likely to continue. Smaller member states may lose
core defense industrial competencies. A related issue is that of arms exports outside
of the Union, often politically contentious. Europeanization of production is also a
factor framing procurement decisions. It remains to be seen whether European companies will be in a better position to challenge the technological dominance of US
producers at a time when the US government is substantially increasing its spending
on military R&D and weapons procurement.
The laudable objective of this volume is to clarify the issues and highlight the
benefits and costs of further Europeanization of military R&D. Hopefully many of
those involved in making relevant decisions will take note of its contributions.
Important decisions have been made, but more will need to be taken. Through their
differing viewpoints and perspectives, the authors of this volume provide readers
with a clearer picture of the complexities and contradictions of the recent past and
potential future of military R&D in Europe than has been available so far.
Michael Brzoska


Series Foreword

The Springer book series Innovation, Technology, and Knowledge Management was
launched in March 2008 as a forum and intellectual, scholarly “podium” for global/
local, transdisciplinary, transsectoral, public–private, and leading/“bleeding”-edge
ideas, theories, and perspectives on these topics.
The book series is accompanied by the Springer Journal of the Knowledge
Economy, which was launched in 2009 with the same editorial leadership.
The series showcases provocative views that diverge from the current “conventional wisdom,” that are properly grounded in theory and practice, and that consider
the concepts of robust competitiveness,1 sustainable entrepreneurship,2 and democratic capitalism3 central to its philosophy and objectives. More specifically, the
aim of this series is to highlight emerging research and practice at the dynamic
intersection of these fields, where individuals, organizations, industries, regions,
and nations are harnessing creativity and invention to achieve and sustain growth.
1
 We define sustainable entrepreneurship as the creation of viable, profitable, and scalable firms.
Such firms engender the formation of self-replicating and mutually enhancing innovation networks
and knowledge clusters (innovation ecosystems), leading toward robust competitiveness
(E.G. Carayannis, International Journal of Innovation and Regional Development 1(3), 235–254,
2009).
2
 We understand robust competitiveness to be a state of economic being and becoming that avails
systematic and defensible “unfair advantages” to the entities that are part of the economy. Such
competitiveness is built on mutually complementary and reinforcing low-, medium-, and hightechnology and public and private sector entities (government agencies, private firms, universities, and
nongovernmental organizations) (E.G.  Carayannis, International Journal of Innovation and
Regional Development 1(3), 235–254. 2009).
3
 The concepts of robust competitiveness and sustainable entrepreneurship are pillars of a regime
that we call democratic capitalism (as opposed to “popular or casino capitalism”), in which real
opportunities for education and economic prosperity are available to all, especially—but not
only—younger people. These are the direct derivative of a collection of top-down policies as well
as bottom-up initiatives (including strong research and development policies and funding, but
going beyond these to include the development of innovation networks and knowledge clusters

across regions and sectors) (E.G. Carayannis and A. Kaloudis, Japan Economic Currents, pp. 6–10,
January 2009).

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Series Foreword

Books that are part of the series explore the impact of innovation at the “macro”
(economies, markets), “meso” (industries, firms), and “micro” levels (teams, individuals), drawing from such related disciplines as finance, organizational psychology, research and development, science policy, information systems, and strategy,
with the underlying theme that for innovation to be useful, it must involve the sharing and application of knowledge.
Some of the key anchoring concepts of the series are outlined in the figure below
and the definitions that follow (all definitions are from Carayannis and Campbell
(2009)).

Conceptual profile of the series Innovation, Technology, and Knowledge
Management:
• The “Mode 3” Systems Approach for Knowledge Creation, Diffusion, and Use:
“Mode 3” is a multilateral, multinodal, multimodal, and multilevel systems
approach to the conceptualization, design, and management of real and virtual,
“knowledge-stock” and “knowledge-flow,” modalities that catalyze, accelerate,
and support the creation, diffusion, sharing, absorption, and use of cospecialized
knowledge assets. “Mode 3” is based on a system-theoretic perspective of socioeconomic, political, technological, and cultural trends and conditions that shape
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global/local economy and society.”
• Quadruple Helix: Quadruple helix, in this context, means to add to the triple
helix of government, university, and industry a “fourth helix” that we identify as
the “media-based and culture-based public.” This fourth helix associates with

“media,” “creative industries,” “culture,” “values,” “lifestyles,” “art,” and perhaps also the notion of the “creative class.”


Series Foreword

xiii

• Innovation Networks: Innovation networks are real and virtual infrastructures
and infratechnologies that serve to nurture creativity, trigger invention, and catalyze innovation in a public and/or private domain context (for instance, government–university–industry public–private research and technology development
coopetitive partnerships).
• Knowledge Clusters: Knowledge clusters are agglomerations of cospecialized,
mutually complementary, and reinforcing knowledge assets in the form of
“knowledge stocks” and “knowledge flows” that exhibit self-organizing,
learning-­driven, dynamically adaptive competences and trends in the context of
an open systems perspective.
• Twenty-First-Century Innovation Ecosystem: A twenty-first-century innovation
ecosystem is a multilevel, multimodal, multinodal, and multiagent system of systems. The constituent systems consist of innovation metanetworks (networks of
innovation networks and knowledge clusters) and knowledge metaclusters (clusters of innovation networks and knowledge clusters) as building blocks and organized in a self-referential or chaotic fractal knowledge and innovation architecture
(Carayannis 2001), which in turn constitute agglomerations of human, social,
intellectual, and financial capital stocks and flows as well as cultural and technological artifacts and modalities, continually coevolving, cospecializing, and
cooperating. These innovation networks and knowledge clusters also form,
reform, and dissolve within diverse institutional, political, technological, and
socioeconomic domains, including government, university, industry, and nongovernmental organizations and involving information and communication technologies, biotechnologies, advanced materials, nanotechnologies, and
next-generation energy technologies.
Who is this book series published for? The book series addresses a diversity of
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1. Academic communities: Academic communities worldwide represent a core
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and the postulate of a window of opportunity for new or at least additional concepts. Thus, it represents a key challenge for the series to exercise a certain
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Series Foreword

knowledge-based research networks, and (2) public (governmental, subgovernmental) actors that are interested in optimizing and further developing their policies and policy strategies that target knowledge and innovation. One purpose of
public knowledge and innovation policy is to enhance the performance and competitiveness of advanced economies.
3. Decision-makers in general: Decision-makers are systematically being supplied
with crucial information, for how to optimize knowledge-referring and knowledge-enhancing decision-making. The nature of this “crucial information” is
conceptual as well as empirical (case study-based). Empirical information highlights practical examples and points toward practical solutions (perhaps remedies); conceptual information offers the advantage of further-driving and
further-carrying tools of understanding. Different groups of addressed decisionmakers could be decision-makers in private firms and multinational corporations, responsible for the knowledge portfolio of companies; knowledge and
knowledge management consultants; globalization experts, focusing on the
internationalization of research and development, science and technology, and
innovation; experts in university/ business research networks; and political scientists, economists, and business professionals.
4 . Interested global readership: Finally, the Springer book series addresses a whole
global readership, composed of members who are generally interested in knowledge and innovation. The global readership could partially coincide with the
communities as described above (“academic communities,” “decision-makers”),
but could also refer to other constituencies and groups.

Washington, DC, USA

Elias G. Carayannis

References
Carayannis EG (2001) Strategic Management of Technological Learning, CRC Press, Boca Raton
Carayannis EG, Campbell DFJ (2009). “Mode 3” and “Quadruple Helix”: toward a 21st century
fractal innovation ecosystem. Int J Technol Manage 46(3–4):201–234


Preface by the Springer TIKM Book Series
Editor

 radles and Arsenals of Democracy in the Twenty-First-­
C
Century Europe
We beat the Germans twice and now they are back!
Lady Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister, December 8, 1989 (quoted in Volkery
2009)
Helmut Kohl wanted a European Germany, not a German Europe
(Riegert 2017)

As editor of the book series by Springer (a German global publisher) on
Technology, Innovation and Knowledge Management, I find this book project particularly challenging, intriguing and inspiring as well as relevant and timely given
the social, economic, political and geo-strategic events and trends in Europe and the
world.
This is a book about emerging theories, policies and practices on defense and
security research and technological development. However, one should perhaps first
consider and question the meaning, nature, dynamics and implications of defense
and security alongside development and prosperity as well as democracy as a collection of hybrid (public and private as well as collective and individual) goods with

substantial market, network and knowledge spillover effects and higher order outputs, outcomes and impacts within and across local, regional, national and transnational ecosystems and the knowledge economy and society at large.
The operationalization frameworks of the quadruple and the quintuple (government, university, industry, civil society and the environment) innovation helices
(e.g. see Carayannis, Barth and Campbell 2012) may serve as potential implementation guidelines for some of the models and approaches outlined in the chapters of
the present manuscript.
In particular, in the context of the European Project, defense and security have
been controversial concepts from the early days given the history and tragic experi-

xv


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Preface by the Springer TIKM Book Series Editor

ence of the two world wars of the twentieth century – in fact, former Chancellor
Helmut Kohl’s words on the matter are very poignant and timely:
In a book published in 2014 under the title Out of Concern for Europe, Kohl berated his
countrymen for “historical amnesia, faint-heartedness, anxiety and complacency.” He goes
on in the book to pose a stark question for all Europeans: “Have we forgotten that peace and
freedom – the decisive lessons of history – are not a given? Put simply: have we all gone
mad?” (Shuster 2017)

So the question remains: What could and should European defense and security
mean beyond and besides the existing frameworks of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization and related EU institutions such as the Western European Union and
Frontex?
• A Europe where there are close to 180 defense-related technical standards and
specifications across European defense companies and systems versus about 30
for the US context.
• A Europe where sovereignty trumps solidarity and where narrowly defined

national priorities almost always frame the policy agenda and dialogue.
• A Europe where the vision of Schumann and other founders and architects of the
European Project has become victim to greed, fear and hypocrisy.
But it is for these very reasons that this book is especially relevant and useful as
a tool to explore options and expand our horizons toward enhancing the potential
and relevance of the European Project via a number of axes of integration of
European institutions and policy making instruments and modalities including and
pivoting on defense and security which could well serve as supranational ways and
means for rapprochement and strengthening of identity of the European countries
beyond financial monikers (see Eurozone vs others) or even the European Union
itself (see Brexit) as Europe is indeed much larger, broader and deeper than the
European Union per se and the European Project should be thought of as only partially relying on the European Union as it has evolved and morphed since the Treaty
of Maastricht.
European defense and security as conceptual framework for related theory, policy, practice and even politics could and should include NATO and its partners as
well as countries such as Switzerland, Norway and for that matter neighbors to the
east under the proper terms and conditionalities. They could and should allow and
engage “frenemies” as well as traditional allies and partners (the ongoing drama in
Syria is a clear and present illustration for the need, potential and limitations of such
an approach – a next-generation “Realpolitik”).
Europe has served as the platform for many conflicts over the centuries and the
two biggest ones in history during the twentieth century, but it could also serve as
the “bridge over troubled waters” linking all G8/G20 countries not simply as the
playground of their geopolitical games and satellite/proxy conflicts. In this context,
the Chinese “One Road/One Belt” vision and project that is already under way
should serve as a wake-up call as to the need to think beyond the box, not just outside the box (see Carayannis 2015) when dealing with the nature, dynamics, chal-


Preface by the Springer TIKM Book Series Editor

xvii

lenges and opportunities of the redefinition and reinventing of European defense
and security as a hybrid (public/private), gloCal (global/local), dynamically adaptive and complex good, not just the readjustment of the scope and scale of policies,
institutions and practices. The transformation of standards, rules and regulations
would surely need to be part of it.
The operationalization part of this next-generation “Realpolitik” would pivot
around a fractal, net-centric architecture of government, university and industry
cross-sectoral, cross-disciplinary and cross-regional innovation networks and
knowledge clusters linking civilian and military R&D centers across European
countries and partners on the periphery and beyond (on fractal net-centric architecture, see Carayannis 2011; Carayannis and Campbell 2012). Civil society should be
engaged and empowered to help frame and shape the related agendas and priorities
in a proactive and transparent manner as defense and security are public/private
hybrid goods with substantial spillovers that transcend all five defense and security
engagement domains – land, sea, air, extraterrestrial space and cyberspace with
collateral synergies as well as impacts and implications for defense and security as
well as privacy and other fundamental human rights.
It is indeed around the core of and for the protection of the fundamental human
rights as defined by national and international law that this entire business of “collective defense and security” should pivot and derive meaning and validation  –
surely in the context of the polity of developed democracies.
The conceptual design of this book has by intent a “multi-legged T” architecture,
namely, a broad foundational theory component on which in-depth specialized and
specific themes are developed in the respective chapters.
The intent of the editors has been to produce and provide a theory-developing,
policy making and practice-shaping toolkit for Defence R&D with a Euro-centric
perspective.
Elias G. Carayannis

References
Carayannis EG (2011) The FREIE concept in the context of open innovation diplomacy.
Presentation at BILAT 2011, Vienna, Austria. />docs/CARAYANNIS_BILAT_2011_final%20(2).pdf

Carayannis EG (2015) Arise for growth via thinking-beyond-the-box (TB2) towards the freie
architecture. Message posted online at A.R.I.S. blog, 21 February 2015. />Carayannis EG, Campbell DFJ (2012) Mode 3 knowledge production in Quadruple Helix innovation systems: 21st-century democracy, innovation, and entrepreneurship for development.
Springer (Springer Briefs in Business), New York
Carayannis EG, Barth TD, Campbell DFJ (2012) The Quintuple Helix innovation model:
global warming as a challenge and driver for innovation. J Innov Entrep 1(2). https://doi.
org/10.1186/2192-5372-1-2


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Preface by the Springer TIKM Book Series Editor

Riegert B (2017) Helmut Kohl, the ‘giant’, remembered at European memorial ceremony. DW, 1
July 2017. ­ />Shuster S (2017) German Chancellor Helmut Kohl Nearly Outlived the Europe He Created. Time,
17 June 2017. />Volkery C (2009) The Iron Lady’s views on German reunification. Spiegel Online, 11 September
2009. ­ />

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank our Springer Acquisitions Editor, Nicholas Philipson, and the
Springer Editorial Team for their unstinting support and inspiring vision.

xix


Contents

1Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
Nikolaos Karampekios, Iraklis Oikonomou, and Elias Carayannis
Part I  Theoretical Considerations

2Policy Entrepreneurship and Agenda Setting: Comparing
and Contrasting the Origins of the European Research
Programmes for Security and Defense��������������������������������������������������   15
Andrew D. James
3The Horizon 2020 European Defence Research Program
and the Economic Consequences of Military R&D������������������������������   45
Guglielmo Carchedi
4EU Research and Technology Policy: Balancing Between
the National and the EU Dimension ������������������������������������������������������   57
Charalampos Chrysomallidis
Part II  Defense R&D and Industrial Collaboration
5The Economics of European Defense Industrial Policy ����������������������   77
Keith Hartley
6The Economic Imperative of Europeanizing Defense
Innovation ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   93
Renaud Bellais
7European Collaboration in the Development of New
Weapon Systems��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  111
Ron Matthews
8European Armament Collaboration: What We Can Learn
from History and Concepts ��������������������������������������������������������������������  131
Christian Mölling and Torben Schütz
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Contents

Part III  Historical Background and Evolution

9A Technologically Guided Explanation of the (Delayed)
Emergence of EU Military Research: The Curious Antecedent
of the European Aeronautics Research Programme����������������������������  149
Alessandra De Angelis
10The European Arms Industry, the European Commission
and the Preparatory Action for Security Research:
Business as Usual?�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  181
Nikolaos Karampekios and Iraklis Oikonomou
11The Emergence of the European Defence Research
Programme ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  205
Jocelyn Mawdsley
Part IV  Actors and Institutions
12Network Analysis of EU-Funded R&D Collaboration
in the European Security Research Programme:
Actors and Industries������������������������������������������������������������������������������  221
Evangelos Siokas
13The European Parliament on Space: From Promoting
Scientific Research to Supporting the Common Security
and Defence Policy ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  247
Emmanuel Sigalas
14The EDA-European Commission Connection in EU
Military R&D: Not Seeing the Forest for the Trees������������������������������  261
Iraklis Oikonomou
15EU-NATO Cooperation: The Case of Defense R&D����������������������������  281
Daniel Fiott
Part V  Novel Themes of an Emerging Agenda
16Toward an Authentic European Defence Research
Strategy: Legal Aspects ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  301
Fréderic Mauro
17The Evolving Role of the EU in Space-Related Security

and Defence Research������������������������������������������������������������������������������  327
Lucia Marta
18Militarization of European Border Security ����������������������������������������  337
Mark Akkerman


Contents

xxiii

19The Security Dimension in the Non-security FP7 Cooperation
Thematic Areas����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  357
Nikolaos Karampekios
20Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  377
Nikolaos Karampekios, Iraklis Oikonomou, and Elias Carayannis


Contributors

Mark  Akkerman  holds an MSc in public administration and is a researcher at
Stop Wapenhandel (Dutch Campaign Against Arms Trade).
Renaud Bellais  is chief economist in the Department of Political Affairs France,
Airbus Group, and an associate researcher in economics at ENSTA Bretagne.
Michael Brzoska,  economist and political scientist by training, was director of the
Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (IFSH) and professor at the
University of Hamburg until October 2006 and is currently senior research fellow at
the IFSH.
Elias G. Carayannis  is professor of science, technology, innovation and entrepreneurship at the George Washington University School of Business.
Guglielmo  Carchedi  is professor emeritus at the University of Amsterdam and
associate professor at York University, Toronto, Canada, and the author of numerous

books and articles in epistemology, sociology and political economy.
Charalampos  Chrysomallidis  holds a PhD in political science and European
studies from the University of Athens and is currently working as a researcher at the
Greek National Documentation Centre.
Alessandra De Angelis  is PhD candidate in law and politics at the University of
Nottingham, with a research project on the Europeanization of defense equipment
markets, and a visiting researcher at Vrije Universiteit Brussel.
Daniel  Fiott  is security and defense editor at the European Union Institute for
Security Studies, where he analyzes European defense policy and defense industrial
issues.

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Contributors

Keith  Hartley  is emeritus professor of economics at the University of York,
England, where he was formerly professor and director of the Centre for Defence
Economics.
Andrew D. James  is assistant associate dean for business engagement and external relations, Faculty of Humanities, University of Manchester; senior lecturer at
the Alliance Manchester Business School; director of the Manchester Institute of
Innovation Research; and member of Visiting Faculty, Paris School of International
Affairs, Sciences Po.
Nikolaos  Karampekios  holds a PhD in European technology policy and is a
researcher at the Greek National Documentation Centre, working at the intersection
of science, technology and innovation policy and defense.
Lucia Marta  is expert in European Space Policy, research and programs, with a
focus on public policy, governance and cooperation and an interest in innovation,

technologies and R&D policies in the space domain.
Ron Matthews  is a defense economist holding the Cranfield University Chair in
Defence Economics at the UK Defence Academy.
Frédéric Mauro  is a lawyer at the bars of Paris and Brussels, specialized in dealing
with complex advocacy relating to defense and the operations, legal matters and costs.
Jocelyn  Mawdsley  is a senior lecturer in European politics at the School of
Geography, Politics and Sociology, Newcastle University.
Christian Mölling  is deputy director of the German Council on Foreign Relations’
research institute.
Iraklis Oikonomou  is an independent researcher based in Athens and interested in
EU armaments and space policies and the political economy of EU militarization.
Torben Schütz  is managing director at Berlin Office for Defence Information and
an independent political advisor with a focus on questions about European security
and defense.
Emmanuel  Sigalas  is policy analyst at the Education, Audiovisual and Culture
Executive Agency of the European Commission and research fellow at the University
of Leuven and the Czech Institute of International Relations.
Evangelos Siokas  is research fellow in the “Innovation and Entrepreneurship Studies”
and “Information Society and the Knowledge-based Economy” research groups at the
Laboratory of Industrial and Energy Economics (LIEE-NTUA) and coordinator of
NTUA “EPI.noo” Center of Research and Entrepreneurship.


Abbreviations

ACA
Aircraft Carrier Alliance
ACARE
Advisory Council for Aviation Research and Innovation
ACT

Allied Command Transformation
ACTFFCI
ACT’s Framework for Collaborative Interaction with Industry
AECMA
European Association of Aerospace Manufacturers
AGARD
Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
ARP
Average Rate of Profit
ASD
AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe
BMEWSBallistic Missile Early Warning System
BRITE
Basic Research in Industrial Technologies
BTO
Brussels Treaty Organisation
CADMIDConcept, Assessment, Development, Manufacturing, In-service,
and Disposal
CAP
Common Agricultural Policy
CARD
Coordinated Annual Review on Defence
CDP
Capability Development Plan
CFSP
Common Foreign and Security Policy
CJEU
Court of Justice of the European Union
CNAD
Conference of National Armaments Directors

CSDP
Common Security and Defence Policy
DARPA
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DG
Directorate General
DoD
US Department of Defense
DPPC
Defence Policy and Planning Committee
EDA
European Defence Agency
EDAP
European Defence Action Plan
EDC
European Defence Community
EDEM
European Defence Equipment Market
EDIG
European Defence Industrial Group
EDF
European Defence Fund
EDTIB
European Defence Technological and Industrial Base
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xxviii

Abbreviations

EEC
European Economic Community
EGNOS
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
EP
European Parliament
ERA
European Research Area
ERC
European Research Council
ESA
European Space Agency
ESDP
European Security and Defence Policy
ESIF
European Structural and Investment Funds
ESP
European Space Policy
ESPRITEuropean Strategic Programme for Research and Development
in Information Technology
ESRAB
European Security Research Advisory Board
ESRIF
European Security Research and Innovation Forum
ESRP
European Security Research Programme
ESRT
European Security Round Table
EU

European Union
EUISS
European Union Institute for Security Studies
EUMC
European Union Military Committee
EUMS
European Union Military Staff
EURAM
European Research in Advanced Materials
EUROSUR
European External Border Surveillance System
FFTFood-for-Thought
FP
Framework Programme
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GMES
Global Monitoring for Environment and Security
GoP
Group of Personalities
GovSatCom
Government Satellite Communications
GPS
Global Positioning System
HR/VP
High Representative/Vice-President
ICT
Information and Communications Technology
IEDs
Improvised Explosive Devices

IEPG
Independent European Programme Group
IPR
Intellectual Property Rights
ITAR
International Traffic in Arms Regulation
IWGS
Industrial Working Group on Security
JSF
Joint Strike Fighter
LoI
Letter of Intent
MarSur
Maritime Surveillance
MEP
Member of the European Parliament
MES
Minimum Efficient Scale
MFF
Multiannual Financial Framework
MoD
Ministry of Defence
MRO
Maintenance, Repair and Operation
NRC
National Research Council
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration