Ebook Review of medical physiology (27th edition): Part 1

Standard Atomic Weights
Based on the assigned relative mass of C = 12. For the sake of completeness, all known elements are included in the list. Several of those more recently discovered are represented only by the unstable isotopes. In each case, the values in parentheses in
the atomic weight column are the mass numbers of the most stable isotopes.
12

Name

Symbol

Atomic
No.

Atomic
Weight

Valence

Name

Symbol

Atomic
No.

Atomic
Weight

Valence

Actinium

Aluminum
Americium
Antimony
(stibium)
Argon
Arsenic
Astatine
Barium
Berkelium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Californium
Carbon
Cerium
Cesium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Columbium
(see Niobium)
Copper
Curium
Dysprosium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Europium

Fermium
Fluorine
Francium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Gold
(aurum)
Hafnium
Helium
Holmium
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Iridium
Iron
(ferrum)
Krypton
Lanthanum
Lawrencium
Lead
(plumbum)
Lithium
Lutetium
Magnesium
Manganese
Mendelevium

Ac
Al

Am
Sb

89
13
95
51

227.028
26.9815
(243)
121.75

...
3
3,4,5,6
3,5

Hg

80

200.59

1,2

Ar
As
At
Ba

Bk
Be
Bi
B
Br
Cd
Ca
Cf
C
Ce
Cs
Cl
Cr
Co

18
33
85
56
97
4
83
5
35
48
20
98
6
58
55

17
24
27

39.948
74.9216
(210)
137.33
(247)
9.0122
208.980
10.81
79.904
112.41
40.08
(251)
12.011
140.12
132.9054
35.453
51.996
58.9332

0
3,5
1,3,5,7
2
3,4
2
3,5

3
1,3,5,7
2
2
...
2,4
3,4
1
1,3,5,7
2,3,6
2,3

Mo
Nd
Ne
Np
Ni
Nb

42
60
10
93
28
41

95.94
144.24
20.1179
237.0482

58.69
92.9064

3,4,6
3
0
4,5,6
2,3
3,5

N
No
Os
O
Pd
P
Pt
Pu
Po
K

7
102
76
8
46
15
78
94
84

19

14.0067
(259)
190.2
15.9994
106.42
30.9738
195.08
(244)
(209)
39.0983

3,5
...
2,3,4,8
2
2,4,6
3,5
2,4
3,4,5,6
...
1

Cu
Cm
Dy
Es
Er
Eu

Fm
F
Fr
Gd
Ga
Ge
Au

29
96
66
99
68
63
100
9
87
64
31
32
79

63.546
(247)
162.50
(252)
167.26
151.96
(257)
18.9984

(223)
157.25
69.72
72.59
196.967

1,2
3
3
...
3
2,3
...
1
1
3
2,3
4
1,3

Pr
Pm
Pa
Ra
Rn
Re
Rh
Rb
Ru
Sm

Sc
Se
Si
Ag

59
61
91
88
86
75
45
37
44
62
21
34
14
47

140.908
(145)
231.0359
226.025
(222)
186.207
102.906
85.4678
101.07
150.36

44.9559
78.96
28.0855
107.868

3
3
...
2
0
...
3
1
3,4,6,8
2,3
3
2,4,6
4
1

Na

11

22.9898

1

Hf
He

Ho
H
In
I
Ir
Fe

72
2
67
1
49
53
77
26

178.49
4.0026
164.930
1.0079
114.82
126.905
192.22
55.847

4
0
3
1
3

1,3,5,7
3,4
2,3

Sr
S
Ta
Tc
Te
Tb
Tl
Th
Tm
Sn

38
16
73
43
52
65
81
90
69
50

87.62
32.06
180.9479
(98)

127.60
158.925
204.383
232.038
168.934
118.71

2
2,4,6
5
6,7
2,4,6
3
1,3
4
3
2,4

Kr
La
Lr
Pb

36
57
103
82

83.80
138.906

(260)
207.2

0
3
...
2,4

Ti
W

22
74

47.88
183.85

3,4
6

Li
Lu
Mg
Mn
Md

3
71
12
25

101

6.941
1
174.967
3
24.305
2
54.9380 2,3,4,6,7
(258)
...

Mercury
(hydrargyrum)
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Neon
Neptunium
Nickel
Niobium
(columbium)
Nitrogen
Nobelium
Osmium
Oxygen
Palladium
Phosphorus
Platinum
Plutonium
Polonium

Potassium
(kalium)
Praseodymium
Promethium
Protactinium
Radium
Radon
Rhenium
Rhodium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
(argentum)
Sodium
(natrium)
Strontium
Sulfur
Tantalum
Technetium
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Thulium
Tin
(stannum)

Titanium
Tungsten
(wolfram)
Uranium
Vanadium
Xenon
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium

U
V
Xe
Yb
Y
Zn
Zr

92
23
54
70
39
30
40

238.029
50.9415
131.29

173.04
88.9059
65.39
91.224

4,6
3,5
0
2,3
3
2
4

Modified and reproduced, with permission from Lide DR (editor-in-chief): CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,
83rd ed. CRC Press, 2002–2003.


a LANGE medical book

Review of

Medical Physiology
twenty-second edition
William F. Ganong, MD
Jack and DeLoris Lange Professor of Physiology Emeritus
University of California
San Francisco

Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill
Medical Publishing Division

New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City
Milan New Deli San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto


Review of Medical Physiology, Twenty-Second Edition
Copyright © 2005 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of
America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without
the prior written permission of the publisher.
Previous editions copyright © 2003, 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.; copyright © 1999, 1997, 1995,
1993, 1991, by Appleton & Lange; copyright © 1963 through 1989 by Lange Medical Publications.
1234567890 DOC/DOC 098765
ISBN 0-07-144040-2
ISSN 0892-1253

Notice
Medicine is an ever-changing science. As new research and clinical experience broaden our
knowledge, changes in treatment and drug therapy are required. The author and the
publisher of this work have checked with sources believed to be reliable in their efforts to
provide information that is complete and generally in accord with the standards accepted at
the time of publication. However, in view of the possibility of human error or changes in
medical sciences, neither the author nor the publisher nor any other party who has been
involved in the preparation or publication of this work warrants that the information
contained herein is in every respect accurate or complete, and they disclaim all responsibility
for any errors or omissions or for the results obtained from use of the information contained
in this work. Readers are encouraged to confirm the information contained herein with
other sources. For example and in particular, readers are advised to check the product
information sheet included in the package of each drug they plan to administer to be certain
that the information contained in this work is accurate and that changes have not been made
in the recommended dose or in the contraindications for administration. This

recommendation is of particular importance in connection with new or infrequently used
drugs.

The book was set in Adobe Garamond by Rainbow Graphics.
The editors were Janet Foltin, Harriet Lebowitz, and Regina Y. Brown.
The production supervisor was Catherine H. Saggese.
The cover designer was Mary McKeon.
The art manager was Charissa Baker.
The index was prepared by Katherine Pitcoff.
RR Donnelley was printer and binder.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.


Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xi

SECTION I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

1. The General & Cellular Basis of Medical Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction 1
Transport Across Cell Membranes 28
General Principles 1
The Capillary Wall 35
Functional Morphology of the Cell 8
Intercellular Communication 36

Structure & Function of
Homeostasis 48
DNA & RNA 18
Aging 48
Section I References 49

1

SECTION II. PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE & MUSCLE CELLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

2. Excitable Tissue: Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction 51
Properties of Mixed Nerves 60
Nerve Cells 51
Nerve Fiber Types & Function 60
Excitation & Conduction 54
Neurotrophins 61
Ionic Basis of Excitation
Neuroglia 63
& Conduction 58

51

3. Excitable Tissue: Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction 65
Cardiac Muscle 78
Skeletal Muscle 65
Morphology 78

Morphology 65
Electrical Properties 78
Electrical Phenomena
Mechanical Properties 78
& Ionic Fluxes 68
Metabolism 81
Contractile Responses 68
Pacemaker Tissue 81
Energy Sources & Metabolism 74
Smooth Muscle 82
Properties of Skeletal Muscles
Morphology 82
in the Intact Organism 75
Visceral Smooth Muscle 82
Multi-Unit Smooth Muscle 84

65

4. Synaptic & Junctional Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction 85
Principal Neurotransmitter Systems 94
Synaptic Transmission 85
Synaptic Plasticity & Learning 116
Functional Anatomy 85
Neuromuscular Transmission 116
Electrical Events in Postsynaptic
Neuromuscular Junction 116
Neurons 88
Nerve Endings in Smooth & Cardiac
Inhibition & Facilitation

Muscle 118
at Synapses 91
Denervation Hypersensitivity 119
Chemical Transmission of Synaptic
Activity 94

85

iii


iv

/

CONTENTS

5. Initiation of Impulses in Sense Organs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Introduction 121
Generation of Impulses in Different Nerves 123
Sense Organs & Receptors 121
“Coding” of Sensory Information 124
The Senses 121
Section II References 127
SECTION III. FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6. Reflexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Introduction 129
Polysynaptic Reflexes: The Withdrawal Reflex 134
Monosynaptic Reflexes:
General Properties of Reflexes 137

The Stretch Reflex 129
7. Cutaneous, Deep, & Visceral Sensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Introduction 138
Temperature 142
Pathways 138
Pain 142
Touch 141
Other Sensations 147
Proprioception 142
8. Vision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Introduction 148
Responses in the Visual Pathways & Cortex 160
Anatomic Considerations 148
Color Vision 163
The Image-Forming Mechanism 152
Other Aspects of Visual Function 166
The Photoreceptor Mechanism 156
Eye Movements 168
9. Hearing & Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Introduction 171
Hearing 176
Anatomic Considerations 171
Vestibular Function 183
Hair Cells 175
10. Smell & Taste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Introduction 185
Taste 188
Smell 185
Receptor Organs & Pathways 188
11. Alert Behavior, Sleep, & the Electrical Activity of the Brain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Introduction 192
Evoked Cortical Potentials 193
The Thalamus & the Cerebral
The Electroencephalogram 194
Cortex 192
Physiologic Basis of the EEG, Consciousness,
The Reticular Formation & the Reticular
& Sleep 196
Activating System 192
12. Control of Posture & Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Introduction 202
Spinal Integration 207
General Principles 202
Medullary Components 210
Corticospinal & Corticobulbar
Midbrain Components 211
System 203
Cortical Components 212
Anatomy & Function 203
Basal Ganglia 213
Posture-Regulating Systems 206
Cerebellum 217


CONTENTS

/

v

13. The Autonomic Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Introduction 223
Chemical Transmission at Autonomic
Anatomic Organization of Autonomic
Junctions 223
Outflow 223
Responses of Effector Organs to Autonomic Nerve
Impulses 226
14. Central Regulation of Visceral Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Introduction 232
Relation to Cyclic Phenomena 235
Medulla Oblongata 232
Hunger 235
Hypothalamus 233
Thirst 240
Anatomic Considerations 233
Control of Posterior Pituitary Secretion 242
Hypothalamic Function 234
Control of Anterior Pituitary Secretion 248
Relation to Autonomic Function 234
Temperature Regulation 251
Relation to Sleep 235
15. Neural Basis of Instinctual Behavior & Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Introduction 256
Other Emotions 259
Anatomic Considerations 256
Motivation & Addiction 260
Limbic Functions 256
Brain Chemistry & Behavior 261
Sexual Behavior 257

16. “Higher Functions of the Nervous System”: Conditioned Reflexes, Learning, & Related
Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Introduction 266
Learning & Memory 266
Methods 266
Functions of the Neocortex 272
Section III References 276
SECTION IV. ENDOCRINOLOGY, METABOLISM, & REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTION . . . 279
17. Energy Balance, Metabolism, & Nutrition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Introduction 279
Protein Metabolism 292
Energy Metabolism 279
Fat Metabolism 298
Intermediary Metabolism 282
Nutrition 311
Carbohydrate Metabolism 285
18. The Thyroid Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Introduction 317
Effects of Thyroid Hormones 323
Anatomic Considerations 317
Regulation of Thyroid Secretion 326
Formation & Secretion
Clinical Correlates 328
of Thyroid Hormones 317
Transport & Metabolism of Thyroid
Hormones 321
19. Endocrine Functions of the Pancreas & Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism . . . . . . . . . 333
Introduction 333
Fate of Secreted Insulin 335
Islet Cell Structure 333

Effects of Insulin 336
Structure, Biosynthesis, & Secretion
Mechanism of Action 338
of Insulin 334
Consequences of Insulin Deficiency 340


vi

/

CONTENTS

Insulin Excess 344
Regulation of Insulin Secretion 345
Glucagon 348
Other Islet Cell Hormones 350

Effects of Other Hormones & Exercise
on Carbohydrate Metabolism 351
Hypoglycemia & Diabetes Mellitus in Humans 353

20. The Adrenal Medulla & Adrenal Cortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Introduction 356
Physiologic Effects of
Adrenal Morphology 356
Glucocorticoids 369
Adrenal Medulla 358
Pharmacologic & Pathologic Effects
Structure & Function of Medullary

of Glucocorticoids 370
Hormones 358
Regulation of Glucocorticoid
Regulation of Adrenal Medullary
Secretion 372
Secretion 361
Effects of Mineralocorticoids 375
Adrenal Cortex 361
Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion 377
Structure & Biosynthesis of
Role of Mineralocorticoids in the
Adrenocortical Hormones 361
Regulation of Salt Balance 380
Transport, Metabolism, & Excretion
Summary of the Effects of
of Adrenocortical Hormones 366
Adrenocortical HyperEffects of Adrenal Androgens
& Hypofunction in Humans 380
& Estrogens 368
21. Hormonal Control of Calcium Metabolism & the Physiology of Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Introduction 382
The Parathyroid Glands 390
Calcium & Phosphorus Metabolism 382 Calcitonin 393
Bone Physiology 383
Effects of Other Hormones & Humoral Agents on
Vitamin D & the
Calcium Metabolism 395
Hydroxycholecalciferols 387
22. The Pituitary Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Introduction 396

Physiology of Growth 404
Morphology 396
Pituitary Insufficiency 408
Intermediate-Lobe Hormones 397
Pituitary Hyperfunction in Humans 409
Growth Hormone 398
23. The Gonads: Development & Function of the Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Introduction 411
Gametogenesis & Ejaculation 424
Sex Differentiation & Development 411
Endocrine Function of the Testes 428
Chromosomal Sex 411
Control of Testicular Function 431
Embryology of the Human
Abnormalities of Testicular Function 433
Reproductive System 413
The Female Reproductive System 433
Aberrant Sexual Differentiation 414
The Menstrual Cycle 433
Puberty 418
Ovarian Hormones 438
Precocious & Delayed Puberty 420
Control of Ovarian Function 444
Menopause 421
Abnormalities of Ovarian Function 447
Pituitary Gonadotropins & Prolactin 421 Pregnancy 448
The Male Reproductive System 424
Lactation 451
Structure 424

CONTENTS

/

vii

24. Endocrine Functions of the Kidneys, Heart, & Pineal Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Introduction 454
Hormones of the Heart & Other Natriuretic
The Renin-Angiotensin System 454
Factors 460
Erythropoietin 459
Pineal Gland 462
Section IV References 465
SECTION V. GASTROINTESTINAL FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
25. Digestion & Absorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Introduction 467
Lipids 473
Carbohydrates 467
Absorption of Water & Electrolytes 475
Proteins & Nucleic Acids 471
Absorption of Vitamins & Minerals 477
26. Regulation of Gastrointestinal Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Introduction 479
Exocrine Portion of the Pancreas 497
General Considerations 479
Liver & Biliary System 498
Gastrointestinal Hormones 482
Small Intestine 504

Mouth & Esophagus 488
Colon 508
Stomach 491
Section V References 512
SECTION VI. CIRCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
27. Circulating Body Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Introduction 515
Red Blood Cells 532
Blood 515
Blood Types 537
Bone Marrow 515
Plasma 539
White Blood Cells 516
Hemostasis 540
Immunity 520
Lymph 546
Platelets 531
28. Origin of the Heartbeat & the Electrical Activity of the Heart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Introduction 547
Cardiac Arrhythmias 554
Origin & Spread of Cardiac
Electrocardiographic Findings in Other Cardiac
Excitation 547
& Systemic Diseases 561
The Electrocardiogram 549
29. The Heart as a Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Introduction 565
Cardiac Output 570
Mechanical Events of the Cardiac
Cycle 565

30. Dynamics of Blood & Lymph Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Introduction 577
Capillary Circulation 590
Functional Morphology 577
Lymphatic Circulation & Interstitial Fluid
Biophysical Considerations 581
Volume 593
Arterial & Arteriolar Circulation 587
Venous Circulation 595
31. Cardiovascular Regulatory Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Introduction 597
Systemic Regulation by Hormones 600
Local Regulation 597
Systemic Regulation by the Nervous System 602
Substances Secreted by the
Endothelium 598


viii

/

CONTENTS

32. Circulation Through Special Regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Introduction 611
Brain Metabolism & Oxygen
Cerebral Circulation 611
Requirements 619
Anatomic Considerations 611

Coronary Circulation 620
Cerebrospinal Fluid 612
Splanchnic Circulation 623
The Blood-Brain Barrier 614
Cutaneous Circulation 625
Cerebral Blood Flow &
Placental & Fetal Circulation 627
Its Regulation 616
33. Cardiovascular Homeostasis in Health & Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Introduction 630
Inflammation & Wound Healing 635
Compensations for Gravitational
Shock 636
Effects 630
Hypertension 641
Exercise 632
Heart Failure 643
Section VI References 644
SECTION VII. RESPIRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
34. Pulmonary Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Introduction 647
Gas Exchange in the Lungs 660
Properties of Gases 647
Pulmonary Circulation 661
Anatomy of the Lungs 649
Other Functions of the Respiratory System 664
Mechanics of Respiration 650
35. Gas Transport Between the Lungs & the Tissues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
Introduction 666
Carbon Dioxide Transport 669

Oxygen Transport 666
36. Regulation of Respiration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Introduction 671
Chemical Control of Breathing 672
Neural Control of Breathing 671
Nonchemical Influences on Respiration 678
Regulation of Respiratory Activity 672
37. Respiratory Adjustments in Health & Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
Introduction 681
Hypercapnia & Hypocapnia 692
Effects of Exercise 681
Other Respiratory Abnormalities 692
Hypoxia 683
Diseases Affecting the Pulmonary Circulation 694
Hypoxic Hypoxia 684
Effects of Increased Barometric Pressure 694
Other Forms of Hypoxia 690
Artificial Respiration 695
Oxygen Treatment 691
Section VII References 697
SECTION VIII. FORMATION & EXCRETION OF URINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
38. Renal Function & Micturition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Introduction 699
Tubular Function 708
Functional Anatomy 699
Water Excretion 713
Renal Circulation 702
Acidification of the Urine
Glomerular Filtration 705
& Bicarbonate Excretion 720

CONTENTS

Regulation of Na+ & Cl− Excretion 723
Regulation of K+ Excretion 724
Diuretics 724

/

ix

Effects of Disordered Renal Function 725
The Bladder 726

39. Regulation of Extracellular Fluid Composition & Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Introduction 729
Defense of Specific Ionic Composition 730
Defense of Tonicity 729
Defense of H+ Concentration 730
Defense of Volume 729
Section VIII References 738
Self-Study: Objectives, Essay Questions, & Multiple-Choice Questions (black edges) . . . . . . 739
Answers to Quantitative & Multiple-Choice Questions (black edges). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
General References 811
Some Standard Respiratory Symbols 821
Normal Values & the Statistical
Equivalents of Metric, United States,
Evaluation of Data 811

& English Measures 821
Abbreviations & Symbols Commonly
Greek Alphabet 822
Used in Physiology 814
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Standard Atomic Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inside Front Cover
Ranges of Normal Values in Human Whole Blood, Plasma, or Serum . . . . . . . . Inside Back Cover


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Preface
This book is designed to provide a concise summary of mammalian and, particularly, of human physiology that
medical students and others can use by itself or can supplement with readings in other texts, monographs, and reviews. Pertinent aspects of general and comparative physiology are also included. Summaries of relevant anatomic
considerations will be found in each section, but this book is written primarily for those who have some knowledge
of anatomy, chemistry, and biochemistry. Examples from clinical medicine are given where pertinent to illustrate
physiologic points. In many of the chapters, physicians desiring to use this book as a review will find short discussions of important symptoms produced by disordered function.
Review of Medical Physiology also includes a self-study section to help students review for Board and other examinations and an appendix that contains general references, a discussion of statistical methods, a glossary of abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols commonly used in physiology, and several useful tables. The index is comprehensive
and specifically designed for ease in locating important terms, topics, and concepts.
In writing this book, the author has not been able to be complete and concise without also being dogmatic. I believe, however, that the conclusions presented without detailed discussion of the experimental data on which they
are based are supported by the bulk of the current evidence. Much of this evidence can be found in the papers cited
in the credit lines accompanying the illustrations. Further discussions of particular subjects and information on subjects not considered in detail can be found in the references listed at the end of each section. Information about serial review publications that provide up-to-date discussion of various physiologic subjects is included in the note on
general references in the appendix. In the interest of brevity and clarity, I have in most instances omitted the names
of the many investigators whose work made possible the view of physiology presented here. This omission is in no
way intended to slight their contributions, but including their names and specific references to original papers
would greatly increase the length of the book.
In this twenty-second edition, as in previous editions, the entire book has been revised, with a view to eliminating errors, incorporating suggestions of readers, updating concepts, and discarding material that is no longer relevant. In this way, the book has been kept concise while remaining as up-to-date and accurate as possible. Since the
last edition, research on the regulation of food intake has continued at a rapid pace, and this topic has been expanded in the current edition. So has consideration of mitochondria and molecular motors, with emphasis on the
ubiquity of the latter. Chapter 38 on renal function has been reorganized as well as updated. The section on estrogen receptors has been revised in terms of the complexity of the receptor and the way this relates to “tailor-made”

estrogens used in the treatment of disease. Other topics on which there is new information include melanopsin,
pheromones related to lactation, von Willebrand factor, and the complexity of connexons.
The self-study section has been updated, with emphasis placed on physiology in relation to disease, in keeping
with the current trend in the United States Medical Licensing Examinations (USMLE).
I am greatly indebted to the many individuals who helped with the preparation of this book. Those who were especially helpful in the preparation of the twenty-second edition include Drs. Stephen McPhee, Dan Stites, David
Gardner, Igor Mitrovic, Michael Jobin, Krishna Rao, and Johannes Werzowa. Andrea Chase provided invaluable
secretarial assistance, and, as always, my wife made important contributions.Special thanks are due to Jim Ransom,
who edited the first edition of this book over 42 years ago and now has come back to make helpful and worthwhile
comments on the two most recent editions. Many associates and friends provided unpublished illustrative materials,
and numerous authors and publishers generously granted permission to reproduce illustrations from other books
and journals. I also thank all the students and others who took the time to write to me offering helpful criticisms
and suggestions. Such comments are always welcome, and I solicit additional corrections and criticisms, which may
be addressed to me at
Department of Physiology
University of California
San Francisco, CA 94143-0444 USA
Since this book was first published in 1963, the following translations have been published: Bulgarian, Chinese
(2 independent translations), Czech (2 editions), French (2 independent translations), German (4 editions), Greek
(2 editions), Hungarian, Indonesian (4 editions), Italian (9 editions), Japanese (17 editions), Korean, Malaysian,
xi


xii

/

PREFACE

Polish (2 editions), Portuguese (7 editions), Serbo-Croatian, Spanish (19 editions), Turkish (2 editions), and
Ukranian. Various foreign English language editions have been published, and the book has been recorded in English on tape for the blind. The tape recording is available from Recording for the Blind, Inc., 20 Rozsel Road,

Princeton, NJ 08540 USA. For computer users, the book is now available, along with several other titles in the
Lange Medical Books series, in STAT!-Ref, a searchable Electronic Medical Library (), from
Teton Data Systems, P.O. Box 4798 Jackson, WY 83001 USA. More information about this and other Lange and
McGraw-Hill books, including addresses of the publisher’s international offices, is available on McGraw-Hill’s web
site, www.AccessMedBooks.com.
William F. Ganong, MD
San Francisco
March 2005


SECTION I
Introduction
The General & Cellular Basis
of Medical Physiology

1

closely resembles that of the primordial oceans in
which, presumably, all life originated.
In animals with a closed vascular system, the ECF is
divided into two components: the interstitial fluid and
the circulating blood plasma. The plasma and the cellular elements of the blood, principally red blood cells,
fill the vascular system, and together they constitute the
total blood volume. The interstitial fluid is that part of
the ECF that is outside the vascular system, bathing the
cells. The special fluids lumped together as transcellular
fluids are discussed below. About a third of the total
body water (TBW) is extracellular; the remaining two
thirds is intracellular (intracellular fluid).

INTRODUCTION
In unicellular organisms, all vital processes occur in a
single cell. As the evolution of multicellular organisms
has progressed, various cell groups have taken over particular functions. In humans and other vertebrate animals, the specialized cell groups include a gastrointestinal system to digest and absorb food; a respiratory
system to take up O2 and eliminate CO2; a urinary system to remove wastes; a cardiovascular system to distribute food, O2, and the products of metabolism; a reproductive system to perpetuate the species; and
nervous and endocrine systems to coordinate and integrate the functions of the other systems. This book is
concerned with the way these systems function and the
way each contributes to the functions of the body as a
whole.
This chapter presents general concepts and principles that are basic to the function of all the systems. It
also includes a short review of fundamental aspects of
cell physiology. Additional aspects of cellular and molecular biology are considered in the relevant chapters on
the various organs.

Body Composition
In the average young adult male, 18% of the body
weight is protein and related substances, 7% is mineral,
and 15% is fat. The remaining 60% is water. The distribution of this water is shown in Figure 1–1.
The intracellular component of the body water accounts for about 40% of body weight and the extracellular component for about 20%. Approximately 25%
of the extracellular component is in the vascular system
(plasma = 5% of body weight) and 75% outside the
blood vessels (interstitial fluid = 15% of body weight).
The total blood volume is about 8% of body weight.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Organization of the Body
The cells that make up the bodies of all but the simplest
multicellular animals, both aquatic and terrestrial, exist
in an “internal sea” of extracellular fluid (ECF) enclosed within the integument of the animal. From this
fluid, the cells take up O2 and nutrients; into it, they

discharge metabolic waste products. The ECF is more
dilute than present-day seawater, but its composition

Measurement of Body Fluid Volumes
It is theoretically possible to measure the size of each of
the body fluid compartments by injecting substances
that will stay in only one compartment and then calculating the volume of fluid in which the test substance is
1


2

/

CHAPTER 1

Stomach
Lungs
Extracellular
fluid:
20% body
weight

Intestines

Blood plasma:
5% body weight

Skin
Kidneys

Interstitial fluid:
15% body weight

Since 14,000 mL is the space in which the sucrose was
distributed, it is also called the sucrose space.
Volumes of distribution can be calculated for any
substance that can be injected into the body, provided
the concentration in the body fluids and the amount
removed by excretion and metabolism can be accurately
measured.
Although the principle involved in such measurements is simple, a number of complicating factors must
be considered. The material injected must be nontoxic,
must mix evenly throughout the compartment being
measured, and must have no effect of its own on the
distribution of water or other substances in the body. In
addition, either it must be unchanged by the body during the mixing period, or the amount changed must be
known. The material also should be relatively easy to
measure.

Plasma Volume, Total Blood
Volume, & Red Cell Volume
Intracellular fluid:
40% body weight

Figure 1–1. Body fluid compartments. Arrows represent fluid movement. Transcellular fluids, which constitute a very small percentage of total body fluids, are
not shown.

distributed (the volume of distribution of the injected
material). The volume of distribution is equal to the

amount injected (minus any that has been removed
from the body by metabolism or excretion during the
time allowed for mixing) divided by the concentration
of the substance in the sample. Example: 150 mg of sucrose is injected into a 70-kg man. The plasma sucrose
level after mixing is 0.01 mg/mL, and 10 mg has been
excreted or metabolized during the mixing period. The
volume of distribution of the sucrose is
150 mg − 10 mg
0.01 mg/mL = 14,000 mL

Plasma volume has been measured by using dyes that
become bound to plasma protein—particularly Evans
blue (T-1824). Plasma volume can also be measured by
injecting serum albumin labeled with radioactive iodine. Suitable aliquots of the injected solution and
plasma samples obtained after injection are counted in
a scintillation counter. An average value is 3500 mL
(5% of the body weight of a 70-kg man, assuming unit
density).
If one knows the plasma volume and the hematocrit
(ie, the percentage of the blood volume that is made up
of cells), the total blood volume can be calculated by
multiplying the plasma volume by
100
100 − hematocrit

Example: The hematocrit is 38 and the plasma volume 3500 mL. The total blood volume is
100
3500 × 100 − 38 = 5645 mL

The red cell volume (volume occupied by all the

circulating red cells in the body) can be determined by
subtracting the plasma volume from the total blood
volume. It may also be measured independently by injecting tagged red blood cells and, after mixing has occurred, measuring the fraction of the red cells that is
tagged. A commonly used tag is 51Cr, a radioactive isotope of chromium that is attached to the cells by incubating them in a suitable chromium solution. Isotopes
of iron and phosphorus (59Fe and 32P) and antigenic
tagging have also been employed.


THE GENERAL & CELLULAR BASIS OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY

Extracellular Fluid Volume
The ECF volume is difficult to measure because the
limits of this space are ill defined and because few substances mix rapidly in all parts of the space while remaining exclusively extracellular. The lymph cannot be
separated from the ECF and is measured with it. Many
substances enter the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) slowly
because of the blood–brain barrier (see Chapter 32).
Equilibration is slow with joint fluid and aqueous
humor and with the ECF in relatively avascular tissues
such as dense connective tissue, cartilage, and some
parts of bone. Substances that distribute in ECF appear
in glandular secretions and in the contents of the gastrointestinal tract. Because they are separated from the
rest of the ECF, these fluids—as well as CSF, the fluids
in the eye, and a few other special fluids—are called
transcellular fluids. Their volume is relatively small.
Perhaps the most accurate measurement of ECF volume is that obtained by using inulin, a polysaccharide
with a molecular weight of 5200. Mannitol and sucrose
have also been used to measure ECF volume. A generally accepted value for ECF volume is 20% of the body
weight, or about 14 L in a 70-kg man (3.5 L = plasma;
10.5 L = interstitial fluid).

Interstitial Fluid Volume
The interstitial fluid space cannot be measured directly,
since it is difficult to sample interstitial fluid and since
substances that equilibrate in interstitial fluid also equilibrate in plasma. The volume of the interstitial fluid
can be calculated by subtracting the plasma volume
from the ECF volume. The ECF volume/intracellular
fluid volume ratio is larger in infants and children than
it is in adults, but the absolute volume of ECF in children is, of course, smaller than in adults. Therefore, dehydration develops more rapidly and is frequently more
severe in children.

/

of water, the ratio of TBW to body weight varies with
the amount of fat present. TBW is somewhat lower in
women than men, and in both sexes, the values tend to
decrease with age (Table 1–1).

Units for Measuring
Concentration of Solutes
In considering the effects of various physiologically important substances and the interactions between them,
the number of molecules, electric charges, or particles
of a substance per unit volume of a particular body
fluid are often more meaningful than simply the weight
of the substance per unit volume. For this reason, concentrations are frequently expressed in moles, equivalents, or osmoles.

Moles
A mole is the gram-molecular weight of a substance, ie,
the molecular weight of the substance in grams. Each
mole (mol) consists of approximately 6 × 1023 molecules. The millimole (mmol) is 1/1000 of a mole, and
the micromole (mmol) is 1/1,000,000 of a mole. Thus,

1 mol of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 g = 58.5 g, and 1 mmol =
58.5 mg. The mole is the standard unit for expressing
the amount of substances in the SI unit system (see Appendix).
The molecular weight of a substance is the ratio of
the mass of one molecule of the substance to the mass
of one twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon-12. Since
molecular weight is a ratio, it is dimensionless. The dalton (Da) is a unit of mass equal to one twelfth the mass
of an atom of carbon-12, and 1000 Da = 1 kilodalton
(kDa). The kilodalton, which is sometimes expressed
simply as K, is a useful unit for expressing the molecular mass of proteins. Thus, for example, one can speak
of a 64-K protein or state that the molecular mass of
the protein is 64,000 Da. However, since molecular

Intracellular Fluid Volume
The intracellular fluid volume cannot be measured directly, but it can be calculated by subtracting the ECF
volume from the TBW. TBW can be measured by the
same dilution principle used to measure the other body
spaces. Deuterium oxide (D2O, heavy water) is most
frequently used. D2O has slightly different properties
from those of H2O, but in equilibration experiments
for measuring body water it gives accurate results. Tritium oxide (3H2O) and aminopyrine have also been
used for this purpose.
The water content of lean body tissue is constant at
71–72 mL/100 g of tissue, but since fat is relatively free

3

Table 1–1. Total body water (as percentage
of body weight) in relation to age and sex.
Age (years)

Male (%)

Female (%)

10–18

59

57

18–40

61

51

40–60

55

47

Over 60

52

46

4

/

CHAPTER 1

weight is a dimensionless ratio, it is incorrect to say that
the molecular weight of the protein is 64 kDa.

Equivalents
The concept of electrical equivalence is important in
physiology because many of the important solutes in
the body are in the form of charged particles. One
equivalent (eq) is 1 mol of an ionized substance divided
by its valence. One mole of NaCl dissociates into 1 eq
of Na+ and 1 eq of Cl–. One equivalent of Na+ = 23 g;
but 1 eq of Ca2+ = 40 g/2 = 20 g. The milliequivalent
(meq) is 1/1000 of 1 eq.
Electrical equivalence is not necessarily the same as
chemical equivalence. A gram equivalent is the weight
of a substance that is chemically equivalent to 8.000 g
of oxygen. The normality (N) of a solution is the number of gram equivalents in 1 liter. A 1 N solution of hydrochloric acid contains 1 + 35.5 g/L = 36.5 g/L.

pH
The maintenance of a stable hydrogen ion concentration in the body fluids is essential to life. The pH of a
solution is the logarithm to the base 10 of the reciprocal
of the H+ concentration ([H+]), ie, the negative logarithm of the [H+]. The pH of water at 25 °C, in which
H+ and OH– ions are present in equal numbers, is
7.0 (Figure 1–2). For each pH unit less than 7.0, the
[H+] is increased tenfold; for each pH unit above 7.0, it

is decreased tenfold.

H+ concentration
(mol/L)

ACIDIC

10 −1

ALKALINE

For pure water,
[H+] = 10−7 mol/L

10 −2
10 −3
10 −4
10 −5
10 −6
10 −7
10 −8
10 −9
10 −10
10 −11
10 −12
10 −13
10 −14

pH
1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Figure 1–2. pH. (Reproduced, with permission, from
Alberts B et al: Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th ed. Garland Science, 2002.)

Buffers
Intracellular and extracellular pH are generally maintained at very constant levels. For example, the pH of
the ECF is 7.40, and in health, this value usually varies
less than ±0.05 pH unit. Body pH is stabilized by the
buffering capacity of the body fluids. A buffer is a substance that has the ability to bind or release H+ in solution, thus keeping the pH of the solution relatively constant despite the addition of considerable quantities of
acid or base. One buffer in the body is carbonic acid.
This acid is only partly dissociated into H+ and bicar+
–
+
bonate: H2CO3 ←
→ H + HCO3 . If H is added to a solution of carbonic acid, the equilibrium shifts to the left
and most of the added H+ is removed from solution. If
OH– is added, H+ and OH– combine, taking H+ out of

solution. However, the decrease is countered by more
dissociation of H2CO3, and the decline in H+ concentration is minimized. Other buffers include the blood
proteins and the proteins in cells. The quantitative aspects of buffering and the respiratory and renal adjustments that operate with buffers to maintain a stable
ECF pH of 7.40 are discussed in Chapter 39.

Diffusion
Diffusion is the process by which a gas or a substance in
solution expands, because of the motion of its particles,
to fill all of the available volume. The particles (molecules or atoms) of a substance dissolved in a solvent are
in continuous random movement. A given particle is
equally likely to move into or out of an area in which it
is present in high concentration. However, since there
are more particles in the area of high concentration, the
total number of particles moving to areas of lower concentration is greater; ie, there is a net flux of solute particles from areas of high to areas of low concentration.
The time required for equilibrium by diffusion is proportionate to the square of the diffusion distance. The
magnitude of the diffusing tendency from one region to
another is directly proportionate to the cross-sectional
area across which diffusion is taking place and the concentration gradient, or chemical gradient, which is
the difference in concentration of the diffusing substance divided by the thickness of the boundary (Fick’s
law of diffusion). Thus,
∆c
J = –DA ∆x

where J is the net rate of diffusion, D is the diffusion
coefficient, A is the area, and ∆c/∆x is the concentration gradient. The minus sign indicates the direction of
diffusion. When considering movement of molecules
from a higher to a lower concentration, ∆c/∆x is nega-


THE GENERAL & CELLULAR BASIS OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY

tive, so multiplying by –DA gives a positive value. The
permeabilities of the boundaries across which diffusion
occurs in the body vary, but diffusion is still a major
force affecting the distribution of water and solutes.

Osmosis
When a substance is dissolved in water, the concentration of water molecules in the solution is less than that
in pure water, since the addition of solute to water results in a solution that occupies a greater volume than
does the water alone. If the solution is placed on one
side of a membrane that is permeable to water but not
to the solute, and an equal volume of water is placed on
the other, water molecules diffuse down their concentration gradient into the solution (Figure 1–3). This
process—the diffusion of solvent molecules into a region in which there is a higher concentration of a
solute to which the membrane is impermeable—is
called osmosis. It is an important factor in physiologic
processes. The tendency for movement of solvent molecules to a region of greater solute concentration can be
prevented by applying pressure to the more concentrated solution. The pressure necessary to prevent solvent migration is the osmotic pressure of the solution.
Osmotic pressure, like vapor pressure lowering,
freezing-point depression, and boiling-point elevation,
depends on the number rather than the type of particles
in a solution; ie, it is a fundamental colligative property

Semipermeable
membrane

Pressure

Figure 1–3. Diagrammatic representation of osmosis.
Water molecules are represented by small open circles,
solute molecules by large solid circles. In the diagram

on the left, water is placed on one side of a membrane
permeable to water but not to solute, and an equal volume of a solution of the solute is placed on the other.
Water molecules move down their concentration gradient into the solution, and, as shown in the diagram on
the right, the volume of the solution increases. As indicated by the arrow on the right, the osmotic pressure is
the pressure that would have to be applied to prevent
the movement of the water molecules.

/

5

of solutions. In an ideal solution, osmotic pressure (P)
is related to temperature and volume in the same way as
the pressure of a gas:
nRT
P= V

where n is the number of particles, R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, and V is the volume. If T is held constant, it is clear that the osmotic
pressure is proportionate to the number of particles in
solution per unit volume of solution. For this reason,
the concentration of osmotically active particles is usually expressed in osmoles. One osmole (osm) equals the
gram-molecular weight of a substance divided by the
number of freely moving particles that each molecule
liberates in solution. The milliosmole (mosm) is
1/1000 of 1 osm.
If a solute is a nonionizing compound such as glucose, the osmotic pressure is a function of the number
of glucose molecules present. If the solute ionizes and
forms an ideal solution, each ion is an osmotically active particle. For example, NaCl would dissociate into
Na+ and Cl– ions, so that each mole in solution would
supply 2 osm. One mole of Na2SO4 would dissociate

into Na+, Na+, and SO42–, supplying 3 osm. However,
the body fluids are not ideal solutions, and although the
dissociation of strong electrolytes is complete, the number of particles free to exert an osmotic effect is reduced
owing to interactions between the ions. Thus, it is actually the effective concentration (activity) in the body
fluids rather than the number of equivalents of an electrolyte in solution that determines its osmotic effect.
This is why, for example, 1 mmol of NaCl per liter in
the body fluids contributes somewhat less than 2 mosm
of osmotically active particles per liter. The more concentrated the solution, the greater the deviation from
an ideal solution.
The osmolal concentration of a substance in a fluid
is measured by the degree to which it depresses the
freezing point, with 1 mol of an ideal solution depressing the freezing point 1.86 °C. The number of milliosmoles per liter in a solution equals the freezing point
depression divided by 0.00186. The osmolarity is the
number of osmoles per liter of solution (eg, plasma),
whereas the osmolality is the number of osmoles per
kilogram of solvent. Therefore, osmolarity is affected by
the volume of the various solutes in the solution and
the temperature, while the osmolality is not. Osmotically active substances in the body are dissolved in
water, and the density of water is 1, so osmolal concentrations can be expressed as osmoles per liter (osm/L) of
water. In this book, osmolal (rather than osmolar) concentrations are considered, and osmolality is expressed
in milliosmoles per liter (of water).


6

/

CHAPTER 1

Note that although a homogeneous solution contains osmotically active particles and can be said to have

an osmotic pressure, it can exert an osmotic pressure
only when it is in contact with another solution across a
membrane permeable to the solvent but not to the
solute.

Osmolal Concentration of Plasma: Tonicity
The freezing point of normal human plasma averages
–0.54 °C, which corresponds to an osmolal concentration in plasma of 290 mosm/L. This is equivalent to an
osmotic pressure against pure water of 7.3 atm. The osmolality might be expected to be higher than this, because the sum of all the cation and anion equivalents in
plasma is over 300. It is not this high because plasma is
not an ideal solution and ionic interactions reduce the
number of particles free to exert an osmotic effect. Except when there has been insufficient time after a sudden change in composition for equilibrium to occur, all
fluid compartments of the body are in or nearly in osmotic equilibrium. The term tonicity is used to describe the osmolality of a solution relative to plasma.
Solutions that have the same osmolality as plasma are
said to be isotonic; those with greater osmolality are
hypertonic; and those with lesser osmolality are hypotonic. All solutions that are initially isosmotic with
plasma (ie, that have the same actual osmotic pressure
or freezing-point depression as plasma) would remain
isotonic if it were not for the fact that some solutes diffuse into cells and others are metabolized. Thus, a 0.9%
saline solution remains isotonic because there is no net
movement of the osmotically active particles in the solution into cells and the particles are not metabolized.
On the other hand, a 5% glucose solution is isotonic
when initially infused intravenously, but glucose is metabolized, so the net effect is that of infusing a hypotonic solution.
It is important to note the relative contributions of
the various plasma components to the total osmolal
concentration of plasma. All but about 20 of the
290 mosm in each liter of normal plasma are contributed by Na+ and its accompanying anions, principally Cl– and HCO3–. Other cations and anions make a
relatively small contribution. Although the concentration of the plasma proteins is large when expressed in
grams per liter, they normally contribute less than
2 mosm/L because of their very high molecular weights.

The major nonelectrolytes of plasma are glucose and
urea, which in the steady state are in equilibrium with
cells. Their contributions to osmolality are normally
about 5 mosm/L each but can become quite large in
hyperglycemia or uremia. The total plasma osmolality
is important in assessing dehydration, overhydration,

and other fluid and electrolyte abnormalities. Hyperosmolality can cause coma (hyperosmolar coma; see
Chapter 19). Because of the predominant role of the
major solutes and the deviation of plasma from an ideal
solution, one can ordinarily approximate the plasma osmolality within a few milliosmoles per liter by using the
following formula, in which the constants convert the
clinical units to millimoles of solute per liter:
Osmolality = 2[Na+] + 0.055[Glucose] + 0.36[BUN]
(mosm/L) (mEq/L)
(mg/dL)
(mg/dL)

BUN is the blood urea nitrogen. The formula is also
useful in calling attention to abnormally high concentrations of other solutes. An observed plasma osmolality
(measured by freezing-point depression) that greatly exceeds the value predicted by this formula probably indicates the presence of a foreign substance such as
ethanol, mannitol (sometimes injected to shrink
swollen cells osmotically), or poisons such as ethylene
glycol or methanol (components of antifreeze).

Regulation of Cell Volume
Unlike plant cells, which have rigid walls, animal cell
membranes are flexible. Therefore, animal cells swell
when exposed to extracellular hypotonicity and shrink
when exposed to extracellular hypertonicity. However,

cell swelling activates channels in the cell membrane
that permit increased efflux of K+, Cl–, and small organic solutes referred to collectively as organic osmolytes. Water follows these osmotically active particles out of the cell, and the cell volume returns to
normal. Ion channels and other membrane transport
proteins are discussed in detail in a later section of this
chapter.

Nonionic Diffusion
Some weak acids and bases are quite soluble in cell
membranes in the undissociated form, whereas they
cross membranes with difficulty in the ionic form.
Consequently, if molecules of the undissociated substance diffuse from one side of the membrane to the
other and then dissociate, there is appreciable net
movement of the undissociated substance from one side
of the membrane to the other. This phenomenon,
which occurs in the gastrointestinal tract (see Chapter
25) and kidneys (see Chapter 38), is called nonionic
diffusion.

Donnan Effect
When an ion on one side of a membrane cannot diffuse
through the membrane, the distribution of other ions
to which the membrane is permeable is affected in a


THE GENERAL & CELLULAR BASIS OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY
predictable way. For example, the negative charge of a
nondiffusible anion hinders diffusion of the diffusible
cations and favors diffusion of the diffusible anions.
Consider the following situation,
X

K+
Cl−
Prot−

m

Y

[K+X] > [K+Y]

gradient for Cl– exactly balanced by the oppositely directed electrical gradient, and the same holds true for
K+. Third, since there are more proteins in plasma than
in interstitial fluid, there is a Donnan effect on ion
movement across the capillary wall (see below).

The forces acting across the cell membrane on each ion
can be analyzed mathematically. Chloride ions are present in higher concentration in the ECF than in the cell
interior, and they tend to diffuse along this concentration gradient into the cell. The interior of the cell is
negative relative to the exterior, and chloride ions are
pushed out of the cell along this electrical gradient. An
equilibrium is reached at which Cl– influx and Cl– efflux are equal. The membrane potential at which this
equilibrium exists is the equilibrium potential. Its
magnitude can be calculated from the Nernst equation, as follows:

Furthermore,
−

−

7

Forces Acting on Ions

K+
Cl−

in which the membrane (m) between compartments X
and Y is impermeable to Prot– but freely permeable to
K+ and Cl–. Assume that the concentrations of the anions and of the cations on the two sides are initially
equal. Cl– diffuses down its concentration gradient
from Y to X, and some K+ moves with the negatively
charged Cl– because of its opposite charge. Therefore

+

/

+

ECl =

−

[K X] + [Cl X] + [Prot X] > [K Y] + [Cl Y]

ie, more osmotically active particles are on side X than
on side Y.
Donnan and Gibbs showed that in the presence of a
nondiffusible ion, the diffusible ions distribute themselves so that at equilibrium, their concentration ratios
are equal:

[K+X] [Cl−Y]
=
[K+Y] [Cl−X]

Cross-multiplying,
[K+X] [Cl−X] = [K+Y] [Cl−Y]

This is the Gibbs–Donnan equation. It holds for any
pair of cations and anions of the same valence.
The Donnan effect on the distribution of ions has
three effects in the body. First, because of proteins
(Prot–) in cells, there are more osmotically active particles in cells than in interstitial fluid, and since animal
cells have flexible walls, osmosis would make them
swell and eventually rupture if it were not for Na+–K+
adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) pumping ions back
out of cells (see below). Thus, normal cell volume and
pressure depend on Na+–K+ ATPase. Second, because
at equilibrium the distribution of permeant ions across
the membrane (m in the example used here) is asymmetric, an electrical difference exists across the membrane whose magnitude can be determined by the
Nernst equation (see below). In the example used here,
side X will be negative relative to side Y. The charges
line up along the membrane, with the concentration

RT
[Cl −]
In o−
FZCl [Cli ]

where
ECl = equilibrium potential for Cl−

R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature
F = the faraday (number of coulombs
per mole of charge)
ZCl = valence of Cl− (−1)
[Clo−] = Cl− concentration outside the cell
[Cli−] = Cl− concentration inside the cell

Converting from the natural log to the base 10 log
and replacing some of the constants with numerical values, the equation becomes
ECl = 61.5 log

[Cli−]
[Clo−]

at 37 °C

Note that in converting to the simplified expression
the concentration ratio is reversed because the –1 valence of Cl– has been removed from the expression.
ECl, calculated from the values in Table 1–2, is
–70 mV, a value identical to the measured resting
membrane potential of –70 mV. Therefore, no forces
other than those represented by the chemical and electrical gradients need be invoked to explain the distribution of Cl– across the membrane.
A similar equilibrium potential can be calculated for
K+ :
EK =

RT
FZK

In

[Ko+]
+

[Ki ]

= 61.5 log

[Ko+]
[Ki+]

at 37 °C


8

/

CHAPTER 1

Table 1–2. Concentration of some ions inside
and outside mammalian spinal motor neurons.
Concentration
(mmol/L of H2O)

Ion

Inside
Cell

Outside
Cell

Equilibrium
Potential
(mV)

Na+

15.0

150.0

+60

150.0

5.5

−90

9.0

125.0

−70

+

K

−

Cl

Resting membrane potential = −70 mV

where
EK = equilibrium potential for K+
ZK = valence of K+ (+1)
[Ko+] = K+ concentration outside the cell
[Ki+] = K+ concentration inside the cell
R, T, and F as above

In this case, the concentration gradient is outward and
the electrical gradient inward. In mammalian spinal
motor neurons, EK is –90 mV (Table 1–2). Since the
resting membrane potential is –70 mV, there is somewhat more K+ in the neurons than can be accounted for
by the electrical and chemical gradients.
The situation for Na+ is quite different from that for
K+ and Cl–. The direction of the chemical gradient for
Na+ is inward, to the area where it is in lesser concentration, and the electrical gradient is in the same direction. ENa is +60 mV (Table 1–2). Since neither EK nor
ENa is at the membrane potential, one would expect the
cell to gradually gain Na+ and lose K+ if only passive
electrical and chemical forces were acting across the
membrane. However, the intracellular concentration of
Na+ and K+ remain constant because there is active
transport of Na+ out of the cell against its electrical and
concentration gradients, and this transport is coupled

to active transport of K+ into the cell (see below).

on the outside and anions on the inside. This condition
is maintained by Na+–K+ ATPase, which pumps K+
back into the cell and keeps the intracellular concentration of Na+ low. The Na+–K+ pump is also electrogenic,
because it pumps three Na+ out of the cell for every two
K+ it pumps in; thus, it also contributes a small amount
to the membrane potential by itself. It should be emphasized that the number of ions responsible for the
membrane potential is a minute fraction of the total
number present and that the total concentrations of
positive and negative ions are equal everywhere except
along the membrane. Na+ influx does not compensate
for the K+ efflux because the K+ channels (see below)
make the membrane more permeable to K+ than to
Na+.

FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY
OF THE CELL
Revolutionary advances in the understanding of cell
structure and function have been made through use of
the techniques of modern cellular and molecular biology. Major advances have occurred in the study of embryology and development at the cellular level. Developmental biology and the details of cell biology are
beyond the scope of this book. However, a basic knowledge of cell biology is essential to an understanding of
the organ systems in the body and the way they function.
The specialization of the cells in the various organs
is very great, and no cell can be called “typical” of all
cells in the body. However, a number of structures (organelles) are common to most cells. These structures
are shown in Figure 1–4. Many of them can be isolated
by ultracentrifugation combined with other techniques.
When cells are homogenized and the resulting suspension is centrifuged, the nuclei sediment first, followed
by the mitochondria. High-speed centrifugation that

generates forces of 100,000 times gravity or more
causes a fraction made up of granules called the microsomes to sediment. This fraction includes organelles
such as the ribosomes and peroxisomes.

Genesis of the Membrane Potential

Cell Membrane

The distribution of ions across the cell membrane and
the nature of this membrane provide the explanation
for the membrane potential. The concentration gradient for K+ facilitates its movement out of the cell via K+
channels, but its electrical gradient is in the opposite
(inward) direction. Consequently, an equilibrium is
reached in which the tendency of K+ to move out of the
cell is balanced by its tendency to move into the cell,
and at that equilibrium there is a slight excess of cations

The membrane that surrounds the cell is a remarkable
structure. It is made up of lipids and proteins and is
semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass
through it and excluding others. However, its permeability can also be varied because it contains numerous
regulated ion channels and other transport proteins that
can change the amounts of substances moving across it.
It is generally referred to as the plasma membrane.
The nucleus is also surrounded by a membrane of this


THE GENERAL & CELLULAR BASIS OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY

/

9

Secretory granules
Golgi
apparatus

Centrioles

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

Lysosomes
Nuclear envelope

Lipid
droplets
Mitochondrion

Nucleolus

Globular heads

Figure 1–4. Diagram showing a hypothetical cell in the center as seen with the light microscope. It is surrounded
by various organelles. (After Bloom and Fawcett. Reproduced, with permission, from Junqueira LC, Carneiro J, Kelley RO:

Basic Histology, 9th ed. McGraw-Hill, 1998.)

type, and the organelles are surrounded by or made up
of a membrane.
Although the chemical structures of membranes and
their properties vary considerably from one location to
another, they have certain common features. They are
generally about 7.5 nm (75 Å) thick. The chemistry of
proteins and lipids is discussed in Chapter 17. The
major lipids are phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine. The shape of
the phospholipid molecule is roughly that of a clothespin (Figure 1–5). The head end of the molecule contains the phosphate portion and is relatively soluble in
water (polar, hydrophilic). The tails are relatively insoluble (nonpolar, hydrophobic). In the membrane,
the hydrophilic ends of the molecules are exposed to
the aqueous environment that bathes the exterior of the
cells and the aqueous cytoplasm; the hydrophobic ends
meet in the water-poor interior of the membrane. In

prokaryotes (cells such as bacteria in which there is no
nucleus), the membranes are relatively simple, but in
eukaryotes (cells containing nuclei), cell membranes
contain various glycosphingolipids, sphingomyelin, and
cholesterol.
Many different proteins are embedded in the membrane. They exist as separate globular units and many
pass through the membrane (integral proteins),
whereas others (peripheral proteins) stud the inside
and outside of the membrane (Figure 1–5). The
amount of protein varies with the function of the membrane but makes up on average 50% of the mass of the
membrane; ie, there is about one protein molecule per
50 of the much smaller phospholipid molecules. The
proteins in the membranes carry out many functions.

Some are cell adhesion molecules that anchor cells to
their neighbors or to basal laminas. Some proteins
function as pumps, actively transporting ions across the


10

/

CHAPTER 1

Figure 1–5. Biologic membrane. The phospholipid
molecules each have two fatty acid chains (wavy lines)
attached to a phosphate head (open circle). Proteins are
shown as irregular colored globules. Many are integral
proteins, which extend through the membrane, but peripheral proteins are attached to the inside (not shown)
and outside of the membrane, sometimes by glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors.

membrane. Other proteins function as carriers, transporting substances down electrochemical gradients by
facilitated diffusion. Still others are ion channels,
which, when activated, permit the passage of ions into
or out of the cell. The role of the pumps, carriers, and
ion channels in transport across the cell membrane is
discussed below. Proteins in another group function as
receptors that bind neurotransmitters and hormones,
initiating physiologic changes inside the cell. Proteins
also function as enzymes, catalyzing reactions at the
surfaces of the membrane. In addition, some glycoproteins function in antibody processing and distinguishing self from nonself (see Chapter 27).
The uncharged, hydrophobic portions of the proteins are usually located in the interior of the membrane, whereas the charged, hydrophilic portions are located on the surfaces. Peripheral proteins are attached
to the surfaces of the membrane in various ways. One

common way is attachment to glycosylated forms of
phosphatidylinositol. Proteins held by these glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors (Figure 1–5)
include enzymes such as alkaline phosphatase, various
antigens, a number of cell adhesion molecules, and
three proteins that combat cell lysis by complement (see
Chapter 27). Over 40 GPI-linked cell surface proteins
have now been described. Other proteins are lipidated,
ie, they have specific lipids attached to them (Figure

1–6). Proteins may be myristolated, palmitoylated, or
prenylated (ie, attached to geranylgeranyl or farnesyl
groups).
The protein structure—and particularly the enzyme
content—of biologic membranes varies not only from
cell to cell but also within the same cell. For example,
some of the enzymes embedded in cell membranes are
different from those in mitochondrial membranes. In
epithelial cells, the enzymes in the cell membrane on
the mucosal surface differ from those in the cell membrane on the basal and lateral margins of the cells; ie,
the cells are polarized. This is what makes transport
across epithelia possible (see below). The membranes
are dynamic structures, and their constituents are being
constantly renewed at different rates. Some proteins are
anchored to the cytoskeleton, but others move laterally
in the membrane. For example, receptors move in the
membrane and aggregate at sites of endocytosis (see
below).
Underlying most cells is a thin, fuzzy layer plus
some fibrils that collectively make up the basement
membrane or, more properly, the basal lamina. The

basal lamina and, more generally, the extracellular matrix are made up of many proteins that hold cells together, regulate their development, and determine their
growth. These include collagens, laminins (see below),
fibronectin, tenascin, and proteoglycans.

Mitochondria
Over a billion years ago, aerobic bacteria were engulfed
by eukaryotic cells and evolved into mitochondria,
providing the eukaryotic cells with the ability to form
the energy-rich compound ATP by oxidative
phosphenylation. Mitochondria perform other functions, including a role in the regulation of apoptosis
(see below), but oxidative phosphorylation is the most
crucial. Hundreds to thousands of mitochondria are in
each eukaryotic cell. In mammals, they are generally
sausage-shaped (Figure 1–4). Each has an outer membrane, an intermembrane space, an inner membrane,
which is folded to form shelves (cristae), and a central
matrix space. The enzyme complexes responsible for
oxidative phosphorylation are lined up on the cristae
(Figure 1–7).
Consistent with their origin from aerobic bacteria,
the mitochondria have their own genome. There is
much less DNA in the mitochondrial genome than in
the nuclear genome (see below), and 99% of the proteins in the mitochondria are the products of nuclear
genes, but mitochondrial DNA is responsible for certain key components of the pathway for oxidative phosphorylation. Specifically, human mitochondrial DNA
is a double-stranded circular molecule containing


THE GENERAL & CELLULAR BASIS OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY
Lipid membrane

/

11

Cytoplasmic or external face of membrane
O
N

N -Myristoyl

Protein

Gly

COOH

H
Protein

S-Cys

S -Palmitoyl

NH2

O
S-Cys

Protein

NH2

S-Cys

Protein

NH2

Geranylgeranyl

Farnesyl
O
C

C

CH2

C

C

CH

O

C

GPI anchor
(Glycosylphosphatidylinositol)
Hydrophobic domain

H2

O

O
O

P

O

Inositol

O

C

Protein

O
Hydrophilic domain

Figure 1–6. Protein linkages to membrane lipids. Some are linked by their amino terminals, others by their carboxyl terminals. Many are attached via glycosylated forms of phosphatidylinositol (GPI anchors). (Reproduced, with
permission, from Fuller GM, Shields D: Molecular Basis of Medical Cell Biology. McGraw-Hill, 1998.)
16,569 base pairs (compared with over a billion in nuclear DNA). It codes for 13 protein subunits that are
associated with proteins encoded by nuclear genes to
form four enzyme complexes plus two ribosomal and
22 transfer RNAs (see below) that are needed for protein production by the intramitochondrial ribosomes.
The enzyme complexes responsible for oxidative

phosphorylation illustrate the interactions between the
products of the mitochondrial genome and the nuclear
genome. For example, complex I, reduced nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase (NADH), is made
up of 7 protein subunits coded by mitochondrial DNA
and 39 subunits coded by nuclear DNA. The origin of
the subunits in the other complexes is shown in Figure
1–7. Complex II, succinate dehydrogenase-ubiquinone
oxidoreductase, complex III, ubiquinone-cytochrome c
oxidoreductase, and complex IV, cytochrome c oxidase,
act with complex I coenzyme Q, and cytochrome c to
convert metabolites to CO2 and water. In the process,
complexes I, III, and IV pump protons (H+) into the
intermembrane space. The protons then flow through
complex V, ATP synthase, which generates ATP. ATP
synthase is unique in that part of it rotates in the genesis of ATP.

Sperms contribute few, if any, mitochondria to the
zygote, so the mitochondria come almost entirely from
the ovum and their inheritance is almost exclusively
maternal. Mitochondria have no effective DNA repair
system, and the mutation rate for mitochondrial DNA
is over 10 times the rate for nuclear DNA. A large
number of relatively rare diseases have now been traced
to mutations in mitochondrial DNA. These include for
the most part disorders of tissues with high metabolic
rates in which energy production is defective as a result
of abnormalities in the production of ATP.

Lysosomes

In the cytoplasm of the cell there are large, somewhat
irregular structures surrounded by membrane. The interior of these structures, which are called lysosomes, is
more acidic than the rest of the cytoplasm, and external
material such as endocytosed bacteria as well as wornout cell components are digested in them. Some of the
enzymes involved are listed in Table 1–3.
When a lysosomal enzyme is congenitally absent,
the lysosomes become engorged with the material the
enzyme normally degrades. This eventually leads to one