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ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
----------------------

NGUYEN THI LAN PHUONG

A CONTRAST OF CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS
IN VIETNAMESE AND ENGLISH
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Major:

Contrastive Linguistics

Code:

9.22.20.24

SUMMARY OF LINGUISTICS PHD THESIS

HÀ NỘI - 2020


The thesis is accomplished at:
VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
VIỆN NGÔN NGỮ HỘC VIỆN KHOA HỌC XÁC HỘI VIỆT
NAM
Supervisor: Prof.Dr. Nguyễn Văn Hiệp
Judge 1: Prof.Dr. Nguyen Quang
Judge 2: Prof.Dr. Nguyen Van Khang

Judge 3: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tran Kim Phuong

The thesis is to be defended at Academy-level Assessment Council,
organized at Graduate Academy of Social Sciences, Academy of Social
Sciences in 477 Nguyễn Trãi, Thanh Xuân, Hà Nội.
At (time) ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Search for the thesis available at:
- Vietnam National Library
- The library of Graduate Academy of Social Sciences


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INTRODUCTION
1. RATIONALE
Advertising is an indispensable promotion tool in the current competitive
market. To create a sustainable position in the mind of target customers, enterprises
not only need to create good products but also have to communicate the benefits of
products to customers (Kotler P. and Amstrong G., 2012). How to create
impressive advertisements (ads) is an important question that all enterprises need to
seek the answers to.
Capable of orienting thoughts, urging impacts and creating impressions,
conceptual metaphors are an useful tool for advertisers as “An appropriately
selected metaphor may work wonders in promoting the sale of an item” (Kövecses,
2002). Therefore, metaphors are widely used in ads.
By the time of this research, there have been quite a few foreign studies on
metaphors in ads with many conclusions of good theoretical and practical values.
However, the number of studies in Vietnam remain limited, particularly, there has
yet been any study on conceptual metaphors in ads.

Therefore, the PhD thesis on “A Contrast of Conceptual Metaphors in
Vietnamese and English Advertisements” has both theoretical and practical
significance.
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND TASKS
2.1. Research objectives
The thesis aims to study conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads
so as to identify similarities and differences between them and reason these
similarities and differences on the bases of linguistics, culture and national thought.
2.2. Research tasks
(1) Generalizing theories of conceptual metaphors and related concepts;
(2) Researching conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads: what
metaphors are used, how often they are used, on what bases they are built;
(3) Compare metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads to identify similarities and
differences and explain for similarities and differences on the bases of culture,
linguistics and national thoughts.
3. RESEARCH SUBJECT AND SCOPE
3.1. Research subject
Conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads.
3.2. Research scope
The thesis adopts the classification of conceptual metaphors introduced by
Lakoff and Johnson. Accordingly, metaphors are classified into 3 kinds: structural,
ontological and orientational. Due to time limitation, the thesis chooses to focus on
linguistic metaphors as linguistics is “the main element in advertising discourses”
(Kotler P. and Amstrong G., 2012). The thesis also limits its research scope to ads
presented in Vietnam and Britain.


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4. RESEARCH METHODS
4.1. Research methods

The thesis employed the methods of discourse analysis, description, compare
and contrast and the techniques of concept analysis and statistics. It also used
interpretation and inductive approaches to get research findings.
4.2. Research data
Research data included 400 ads (200 Vietnamese and 200 English) collected
from various sources by quota sampling method to guarantee equal quantities of
ads in each product group between the two languages. Collection time lasted from
October 2016 to April 2017 with ads shown since 2000 to ensure their novelty.
5. CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE THESIS
5.1. Theoretical contributions
By generalizing fundamental concepts of Cognitive Linguistics and conceptual
metaphors, accumulating previous theoretical grounds, via intensive research of
metaphors identified in the research material and seeking grounds for similarities
and differences in conceptual metaphors between the two languages, the thesis
supplements and clarifies the distinctive features of Vietnamese and British cultures
in the research area of advertising, thereby contributing to theoretical grounds of
conceptual metaphors in general and conceptual metaphors in advertising in
particular.
5.2. Practical contributions
The thesis has built up hierarchical diagrams of structural metaphors,
ontological metaphors and orientational metaphors; contrasted their frequencies,
mappings and cultural features; discussed and explained the similarities as well as
differences in the metaphorical al systems between the two languages based on
cultural and national identities. This provides language learners, teachers and
translators with a new look on the thinking modes of the world of Vietnamese and
British people and the reflections of these thinking modes in the research area of
advertising.
The thesis has identified kinds of metaphors and their frequencies in ads and
discussed the roles of metaphors in advertising discourses. This is a basis of
references for advertising designers to create impressive, memorable ads to their

target customers so as to realize production promotion goals.
6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE THESIS
6.1. Theoretical significance
The research findings help to clarify concepts, features of conceptual
metaphors, the relationships between metaphors and thoughts, culture, which
contributes to affirming and promoting the development of this advanced linguistic
theory. Via comparing Vietnamese and English ads to identify the impacts of
culture and society on the thinking modes of conceptual metaphors, the thesis helps


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to deepen universal views, at the same time enrich cultural and national
characteristics in the research on cognitive linguistics.
6.2. Practical significance
With figures on the frequencies of metaphors and discussions on their
mappings and roles in ads, the research findings serve as a foundation for
advertisers to write creative, impressive and effective ads to influence customers’
buying decisions. Likewise, via analyzing and comparing the mappings of
metaphors found in the ads of the two languages, the thesis can be used in different
aspects of linguistics, including translation and language teaching.
7. ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS
In addition to Introduction, Conclusion, Appendix and Reference, the thesis is
structured into 4 chapters:
Chapter 1: Research history and Literature review
Chapter 2: A Contrast of Structural Metaphors in Vietnamese and English
advertisements.
Chapter 3: A Contrast of Ontological Metaphors in Vietnamese and English
advertisements.
Chapter 4: A Contrast of Orientational Metaphors in Vietnamese and English
advertisements.

CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH HISTORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 Research history
1.1.1. Research on conceptual metaphors
1.1.1.1. International research on conceptual metaphors
Cognitive linguistics started to be researched in 1950s but did not become
popular until 1908s with the historical work by Lakoff and Johnson titled Metaphor
We Live by (1980) and their remarkable claim “metaphor is pervasive in everyday
life, not just in language but in thought and action”. This has expanded the scope of
research on metaphors beyond those in linguistics to minds, opening the gate to
discovering the process of human’s thinking and recognizing of the world.
Research on metaphors has since then spread to other fields of philosophy, logics,
psychology and neurology.
Over the time, researchers have developed and completed views on metaphors
in connection with thought (Schon, 1979); based on body experience (Lakoff and
Johnson, 1980); in the establishment of human conceptual system and structure of
language (Lakoff, Johnson and Kövecses, 1980). By late 1980s, in 3 fundamental
works of conceptual metaphor theories, Lakoff, Johnson and Langacker presented
2 conceptual structures on linguistic explanation and application, including image
schema, metaphorical structures and their foundations. Later, metaphor theories
have expanded and affirmed the links between conceptual metaphors and neuro
theories (Joe Grady, 1997); imaginary mind space and neuro linguistics


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(Fauconnier G. and Turner M., 2002) and the roles of metaphors as a tool of
thoughts and cognition of humans about the external world (Evans V. and Green
M., 2006).
Research on metaphors in the world recognize the names of G. Lakoff, M.
Johnson, Z. Kövecses, G. Fauconnier, M. Turner, C. Fillmore, J.E. Grady, M.
Green, R.W.Langacker, etc. who, by creating core theories of conceptual

metaphors, have laid firm foundations for later studies.
In addition to developing metaphor theories, later researchers have investigated
the application of conceptual metaphors in various aspects including politics,
economics, environment, education, emotions, space, time, sex, etc., creating
novelties that traditional research of metaphors did not cover.
1.1.1.2. Vietnamese research on conceptual metaphors
The first cognitive research in Vietnam was conducted by Nguyễn Lai in 1990
although the author did not term “cognitive linguistics”. Officially, cognitive
linguistics was first covered in Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận - Từ lý thuyết đại cương đến
thực tiễn tiếng Việt by Lý Toàn Thắng (2005) and Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận – Ghi
chép và suy nghĩ by Trần Văn Cơ (2007). These can be considered the two works
which lay foundation for research on cognitive linguistics in Vietnam.
Later research has identified the nature of metaphors with different views from
traditional belief, which consider metaphors as the transformation of meanings
based on the accounts of features and characteristics of things (Nguyễn Đức Tồn,
2007) or metaphors are created by classification (Phan Thế Hưng, 2007).
Metaphors are then researched from the different angles of space (Nguyễn Đức
Dân, 2009; Nguyễn Văn Hiệp, 2012) or time (Nguyễn Hòa, 2007; Nguyễn Đức
Dân, 2012). Researchers also study the application of metaphors in various aspects
such as human emotions and sentiment, art works, human organs or conceptual
metaphors used in discourses of economics, culture, plants, food, marriage, life,
love, etc., helping to enrich the theoretical and practical foundations for conceptual
metaphors.
1.1.2. Research on conceptual metaphors in advertisements.
1.1.2.1. International research on conceptual metaphors in advertisements
There has been lots of research in the world on conceptual metaphors in ads,
focusing on the 4 main contents as follows:
Firstly, regarding the effectiveness of metaphors in ads, research examines the
effects of metaphors on different product groups such as consumption goods, food
(Baek Y., 2008; Yu C., 2009; Ruiz J.H., 2006; Svaziene L., 2010) of different kinds

of metaphors such as visual and verbal metaphors (Janos M., 2014; Zhang X. and
Gao X., 2009; Li D. & Guo Q., 2016) and affirms the positive impacts of metaphors
on communication power of ads by making them attractive, impressive and
memorable.


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Secondly, regarding metaphors used in ads, researchers have identified a great
variety of metaphors based on different sources (Ágnes A., 2009; Yu C., 2009;
Ruiz J.H., 2006; Svaziene L., 2010).
Thirdly, regarding the frequencies of metaphors, researchers take different
approach, but using the classifications of Lakoff and Johnson that the thesis also
applies, Morris P.K. and Waldman J.A. (2011) concludes that ontological,
structural and container metaphors are used more commonly in visual and textual
ads, orientational metaphors are used less commonly in textual ads and not used in
visual ads.
Fourthly, regarding the impacts of culture on metaphors, researchers hold
opposite views. Some believe that cultural differences have led to differences in the
ways metaphors are founded (Morris P.K. & Waldman J.A., 2011; Li J. &
Rodriguez L., 2015) while others claim that in essence, conceptual metaphors stem
from people’s thoughts of things, so there are hardly differences in accordance with
culture (Li D. & Guo Q., 2006).
1.1.2.2. Vietnamese research on conceptual metaphors in advertisements
Research on this subject remains quite limited in Vietnam. About advertising
language, there are studies by Mai Xuân Huy (2001) examining the features of
advertising discourses from communication perspective; Phạm Thị Cẩm Vân
(2003) researching linguistic styles of ads and Trần Thị Thu Hiền (2013)
investigating linguistic styles, pragmatics, functions and vocabulary used in ads.
Regarding the use of metaphors in ads, a study by Nguyễn Thị Chi Mai (2010)
compares conceptual, mixed and new metaphors in English advertising slogans from

pragmatic aspect and concludes that metaphors are the most common tools and
among 3 kinds, ontological is the most popular, structural and orientational
metaphors have the same frequencies.
As to conceptual metaphors in ads, there are two studies by Huỳnh Trung Ngữ
(2010) and Phạm Thị Hằng (2012). Ngữ compares conceptual metaphors in
English and Vietnamese advertising slogans. He identifies 17 sources and examines
the frequencies of 3 kinds of metaphors: ontological metaphors are used most
commonly in English ads while structural metaphors are most popular in
Vietnamese. Meanwhile, Hằng studies conceptual metaphors in advertising
discourses and concludes that metaphors are a common tool in slogans; among 3
kinds, ontological are the most common, followed by structural and orientational
metaphors.
It can be said that research on conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese has created
quite diverse theoretical and practical grounds, but the number of studies is limited.
Particularly, there has not been a comprehensive contrast of conceptual metaphors
in ads between the two languages. This poses ‘research gaps’ that the thesis is
expected to fill in.


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1.2. Theoretical grounds
1.2.1. Theoretical grounds on conceptual metaphors
1.2.1.1. Different views of metaphors
Metaphors under traditional view: Metaphors are the transformation of meanings
based on the similarities between subjects. Metaphors are distinctive characteristics
of linguistics, the property of words.
Metaphors under cognitive view: Metaphors are the process of human thought and
reasoning. Metaphors are closely linked with spiritual and cultural characteristics of
humans.
1.2.1.2. Definition, grounds and features of cognitive metaphors

Definition: “Conceptual metaphor is understanding one conceptual domain in
terms of another conceptual domain via systematic mappings between the two
domains to create a cognitive model to understand the target domain more
effectively” (Lakoff và Johnson, 1980).
Grounds for metaphors: Cognitive linguistics believes that in addition to objective
pre-existing similarities, metaphors are founded on the basis of (1) correlations in
experience: the occurrence of one event is correlated with the occurrence of another
and (2) perceived structural similarities: non-objective similarity as perceived by
speakers of the two subjects.
Features: Conceptual metaphor has 7 distinctive features: (1) universitydirectional; (2) hiding and highlighting; (3) systematic; (4) hierarchical; (5)
universal; (6) cultural variations and (7) cultural coherence.
1.2.1.3. Related concepts to metaphors
Concept: is a unit of human’s consciousness, a spiritual symbol reflecting the way
human interacts with the surrounding environment and perceives objective world in
their subjective manners (Trần Văn Cơ, 2007).
Conceptualization: is the process of establishing concepts. That is the process of
transforming consciousness from emotional to physical, from observation to
abstraction. It structures aspects in human’s experience and transfer them to
linguistic aspects (Nguyễn Thiện Giáp, 2014).
Category: is the generalization of experience to classify subjects in the surrounding
world based on similarities from what humans perceive and experience about these
subjects rather than the subjects themselves (Evans and Greens, 2006).
Categorization: is the process of classifying subjects, the advanced activity of
humans based on their own experience to understand and interact with the
surrounding world (Evans and Greens, 2006).
Prototype: is the central member of a category which is more typical than other
members (Evans and Greens, 2006).
Domain: is the collection of concepts related to a spiritual content such as
conceptual entities, characteristics and relations (Langacker, 1987).

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Source and target domain: Source domain (SD) is a domain from which
metaphorical expressions can be drawn to understand another domain; target
domain (TD) is a domain which can be understood via the use of SD (Kövecses,
2002). SD is usually specific, apparent and conceptualized in people’s mind while
TD is often abstract, diffuse and lack clear delineation, therefore mapping it to SD
makes it easier to understand TD.
Mapping: is the system of correspondences between the constituent elements to the
source and the target, therefore understanding conceptual metaphors is enabled by
analyzing the mappings between SD and TD (Kövecses, 2002)
Embodiment: is the process of humans using body parts and experiences to
establish their conceptual system and thought (Lakoff and Johnson, 1987).
Image schema: is the simple structures that continuously occur in daily body
experience, repeated on the ground of natural essence of the body and their
functions in the environment (Lakoff, 1987).
1.2.1.4. Classifications of conceptual metaphors
The thesis follows the classifications proposed by Lakoff and Johnson:
Structural metaphor: is the metaphor where the meaning of a word/expression
(TD) is understood via the structure of another word/expression (SD). SD provides
a relatively rich knowledge structure for TD via the mappings between elements of
the two domains.
Ontological metaphor: Ontological metaphors perceive intangible, abstract
experiences as tangible, material entities to facilitate our understanding of these
abstract concepts.
Orientational metaphor: Orientational metaphors do not structure one concept via
another but organize the whole system of concepts in correlation with each other.
Orientational metaphors are established on the basis of human’s physical and
cultural experiences.
Notably, even Lakoff and Johnson also affirm that these classifications are

artificial. All metaphors are structural (as shown in the mapping of one structure
onto another); all metaphors are ontological (as shown in the way they create
source-target entities). Therefore, in this thesis, the classifications of identified
metaphors into three kinds only aim to make thesis organization clearer rather than
to compare three kinds statistically.
1.2.1.5. Metaphors Identification Procedures (MIP)
The thesis employs MIP proposed by Pragglejaz with the 4 following steps: 1)
read the ads to establish the general meanings; 2) determine lexical units likely to
be metaphors and related words; 3) determine expressions containing metaphorical
words, mapping onto domains to identify SD and TD, establish whether the
expressions are metaphorical expressions; 4) mark the lexical unit as metaphorical.
1.2.2. Theoretical grounds on contrastive linguistics
1.2.2.1. Definitions of contrastive linguistics


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Contrastive linguistics is a branch of linguistics aimed to “compare two or
more languages to establish the similarities and differences, regardless of their
origins and types” (Bùi Mạnh Hùng, 2008). Contrastive linguistics plays an
important role in researching national and cultural characteristics and explains
matters in cognitive linguistics.
1.2.2.2. Aspects and degrees of contrast
Basically, there are 4 aspects of contrast: (1) contrast phonetics; (2) contrast
vocabulary; (3) contrast grammar; (4) contrast pragmatics and two degrees of
contrast: (1) micro and (2) macro (Bùi Mạnh Hùng, 2008).
This thesis chooses to contrast in vocabulary (in metaphorical entailments) at
macro degree (contrast conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads based
on the two cultural – national foundations)
1.2.2.3. Approaches and steps of contrast
Generally, there are two approaches to a linguistic contrast study: (1) two-way

contrast and (2) one-way contrast (Bùi Mạnh Hùng, 2008).
This thesis applies two-way contrast. The subject of contrast is conceptual
metaphors in ads. Contrasted languages are Vietnamese and English. Contrast
criteria include frequencies, mappings and cultural and national characteristics
which affect these metaphors. Steps of contrast include describing conceptual
metaphors in ads in each language, then contrast to identify the similarities and
differences.
1.2.3. Theoretical grounds of Vietnam and English culture
Culture is a broad concept with many aspects including traditions, custom,
lifestyle, behavior, etc. It is also a moving concept as cultural values keep changing
over time, especially in the context of globalization. This thesis uses 4-cultural
dimension model by Hofstede and the views of other scholars (Trần Ngọc Thêm,
Lê Văn Toan, Trần Quốc Vượng and O’Driscoll) as the foundation to explain the
differences between the two cultures.
1.2.4. Theoretical grounds of Advertising
1.2.4.1. Definition of advertising
According to Kotler P. and Amstrong G. (2012): “Advertising is the nonpersonal presentation and promotion of products via mass media with clearlyidentified advertising costs”
1.2.4.2. Features of advertising from linguistic perspectives
Language of advertising is chosen to draw the attention of audience,
encouraging them to remember the delivered messages (Cook, 2006). Language of
advertising has the following features:
In terms of vocabulary, words used in ads are short, lively, flexible, informal;
about sentence types, ads use all types of sentences, to create impressions, they are
usually short, have rhythms and make use of idioms; about figurative language, ads
often use comparison, metaphors, repeated words, hyperbole, contrast, word play


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(Phạm Thị Cẩm Vân, 2003); about sounds, ads often use rhythms, alliteration,
onomatopoeia; about lexical units, the widely-used kinds of words are pronouns,

self-created words, quantifiers, adjectives, verbs; at syntax level, ads use many
daily expressions, imperatives, irrogatives, idioms, ellipsis, parallel, repetition; at
semantic level, word play, metonymy, metaphors, personification, comparison,
hyperbole, antithesis are popular tools (Duboviciene T. and Skorupa P., 2014).
1.2.4.3. Classifications of ads and features
There are many kinds of ads, depending on the classification criteria. In this
thesis, national and international ads, consumers-oriented ads, product ads and
commercial ads of three means of media are chosen as they account for a
considerable proportion in product promotion.
Chapter 1 summary
A review of previous studies reveals an enormous volume of foreign research
with many valuable conclusions about the roles, frequencies, kinds and cultural
effects of metaphors. In Vietnamese, this subject remains new and limited in both
quantity and research content, leaving some research gaps which this thesis aims to
fill in. To lay foundations for the contrast of metaphors in Vietnamese and English
ads, theories of conceptual metaphors, contrast linguistics, culture and advertising are
presented in this Chapter.
Chapter 2: A CONTRAST OF STRUCTURAL METAPHORS IN
VIETNAMESE AND ENGLISH ADVERTISEMENTS
2.1. Overview of structural metaphors in advertisements
The thesis identifies 7 structural metaphors built on 7 source domains (Figure
2.1)
Figure 2.1 shows that
PRODUCTS ARE HUMAN is
the
most
common
while
PRODUCTS ARE WONDERS is
the least popular. Clearly, as

humans are familiar concept, it is
used more frequently than other
domains.
Fig. 2.1: Frequencies of structural
metaphors


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BODY SHAPE

FRIENDS

CHARACTERISTICS
EMOTION

HUMAN

GLADIATORS
SPORTMEN

ABILITIES
ACTIVITIES
BODY ORGANS

VEHICLE

DEPARTURE DESTINATION

ACTIVITIES

MOVEMENT

RELATIONSHIPS

JOURNEY

STRUCTURAL METAPHORS

Figure 2.2 outlines
the
hierarchy
of
identified
structural
metaphors. It can be
seen that HUMAN is
the most hierarchical
with
3
low-level
metaphors and multiple
mappings
while
MEDICINE is the least
hierarchical.

EMOTION
STRENGTH

VALUABLE OBJECT

GIFT

GIVING
EMOTION
TASTE

FIGHTING
WEAPONS
TACTICS
VICTORY
BATTLE

FOOD

INGREDIENTS
PRACTICE

EATING
COMPETE

LIGHT
ENERGY

VICTORY

VITALITY
FUEL
MISTERY

WONDER
DISCOVERY
MEDICINE

Figure 2.2: Hierarchy of
structural metaphors in
Vietnamese and English
advertisements

HEALTH FUNCTION

2.3. Contrasting structural metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads
2.3.1. Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE HUMAN
PRODUCTS ARE Table 2.2: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE HUMAN
HUMAN is the most Source:
 Target: PRODUCT
popular metaphor found HUMAN
in 162 ads with 199 Body shape
 Product’s designs
expressions. Table 2.1 Characteristics
 Product’s features
(thesis report) shows the Emotions
 Emotions created by
quantity
of
this
products
metaphors.
 Product’s functions
Abilities

 Product’s activities
Activities
 Product’s parts
Body organs
Each mapping of the metaphor PRODUCTS ARE HUMAN is described in terms
of frequencies and cognitive model in the thesis report. A comparison of the frequencies
between the two languages shows the similarities in the quantity of ads and
metaphorical expressions, but the numbers of metaphorical entailments and their
frequencies in 5 out of the total 6 metaphors in Vietnam are higher than those in English.
In terms of mappings, there are absolute similarities in both high and low
levels: each mapping used to correspond to the target in Vietnamese is found in
English. Many metaphorical entailments describing shapes, emotions, activities and
abilities are identical between the two languages, illustrating the universal feature
of conceptual metaphors.
In cultural features, firstly, the dominance in the number of Vietnamese
entailments over English shows the diversity in lexical units and the ways of
expressions emphasizing details by Vietnamese people. This difference partly


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stems from the Vietnam’s collectivism where close interactions among people in
the community create Vietnamese people the habits of detailed observations (Trần
Ngọc Thêm) while individualism culture of Britain highly appreciate independence,
so each member only cares about his own business.
Secondly, there is a difference in the typical image of people. With cổ cong ba
ngấn (long slim neck) [V85], the Vietnamese advert illustrates the fragile beauty of
oriental women while sexy in [A87] reflects the open views of Westerners. Or the
images of oai phong, mạnh mẽ (strong and courageous gentlemen) in Vietnamese
ads show the attitudes of a society which highly appreciate men while similar
entailments are not found in English.

Thirdly, the use of body organs in metaphors is different. To express emotions,
Vietnamese people use lòng (intestine) while British use tim (heart) as in the
following ads “Trao tấm lòng, gửi vị ngon” [V14] - “Track life right down to your
heartbeat” [A48]. Likewise, to talk about the central position, Vietnamese people use
lòng (intestine) while British use tim (heart) as in “Biệt thự xanh giữa lòng thành
phố” [V97] - “Luxury in the heart of the city” [A110]. Perhaps the objective and
logical ways of thinking as affected by masculism culture of British people have
created the habits of emphasizing accuracy and specificity (heart is a specific organ)
while feminism causes Vietnamese people to look for neutral expressions (for
Vietnamese, lòng refers to different body organs such as heart, liver, lungs, etc.)
PRODUCTS ARE HUMAN has 3 low-level metaphors as follows:
2.3.1.1. Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE FRIENDS
PRODUCTS
ARE
Table 2.4: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE
FRIENDS is used in 94 ads
 Target:
Source:
(23.50%) to describe the close
FRIENDS
PRODUCTS
ties between products and

Friends’
Products’
customers. The quantity of this
activities
activities
metaphor is presented in Table


Friends’
Relations between
2.3 of the thesis and mappings
relations
products & friends
in Table 2.4.

Friends’
Emotions created
emotions
by products
FRIENDS
Each mapping of the metaphor PRODUCTS ARE FRIENDS is described in
terms of frequencies and cognitive model in the thesis report. A comparison of
frequencies between the two languages shows the similarities in the quantity of ads
metaphorical expressions. The number of metaphorical entailments is quite similar
although a little bit higher in Vietnamese.
In terms of mappings, there are similarities in each group of metaphors. The
uniformity in the concepts of activities, relations and emotions between friends can
be attributed to these similarities.


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About cultural and national features, there are no clear differences between the
two languages. The similarities in entailments demonstrate that regardless of
geographical, linguistic and cultural differences, friendship remains a universal
concept. From any angle, emotions, sharing, supports and assistance between
friends are typical characteristics of friendship.
2.3.1.2. Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE GLADIATORS
This metaphor is

Table 2.6: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE
quite popular with 77 ads
GLADIATORS
(19.25%)
and
95
 Target: PRODUCTS
Source:
expressions as it creates a
GLADIATORS
strong image for products
 Products’ activities
Fighting
and urges customers to
 Products’ functions
Strengths
link it with product
 Products
Weapon
functions. Table 2.5 of the
 Products’ activities
Tactics
thesis presents its quantity
 Products’ superiority
Victory
while Table 2.6 shows its
 Market
Battle
mappings.
Each mapping of the metaphor PRODUCTS ARE FRIENDS is described in

the thesis report. A comparison between the two languages shows the higher
frequencies in Vietnamese, partly resulting from the long-lasting wars in our
history.
A comparison of mappings illustrates the similarities in thought but different in
quantity: there are similarities in 4 mappings (FIGHTING, STRENGTHS,
WEAPONS and VICTORY) while TACTICS only appears in Vietnamese ads and
BATTLE is merely found in English ads. This shows that the ways Vietnamese
and British people choose to highlight the aspects of a metaphor are quite different.
About cultural characteristics, some entailments show differences: in metaphor
VICTORY, Vietnamese people tend to use indirect words (tiêu diệt, hạ gục, khử defeat) while British people employ more direct words (victor / win / victory).
Similarly, in metaphor STRENTH, English entailments are more direct and
stronger (unbeatable / can’t be beat) while Vietnamese ones are more indirect (uy
lực, uy phong – force). These differences partly stem from masculism/feminism of
the two cultures (Hosftede).
2.3.1.3. Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE SPORTMEN
PRODUCTS
ARE Table 2.8: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE
SPORTMEN is found in 53 ads
SPORTMEN
(13.25%) with 66 metaphorical
 Target:
Source:
expressions. The motivation for this
SPORTMEN
PRODUCT
source domain lies in the importance
 Products’
Practicing
and familiarity of this concept in our
activities

modern life. Table 2.7 of the thesis
 Competition
Competition


13
presents the quantity while Table 2.8
illustrates
mappings
of
this
metaphor.

between
products
 Overtaking
Victory
competitors
Detailed mappings of the metaphor PRODUCTS ARE FRIENDS are
described in the thesis. A comparison between the two languages shows a higher
number in English, partly because of the habits of British people in playing sports
while some researchers believe that Vietnamese people, especially the young, tend
to be lazier in physical activities.
About mappings, there are absolute similarities between the two languages in
both mappings and metaphorical entailments.
About cultural characteristics, there appear no remarkable differences in
metaphorical thought between the two languages, perhaps because of the
uniformity of sports – sportsmen are supposed to follow the same principles when
practicing and competing in one sport. Besides, sport is a quite new concept rather
than part of traditional culture, so cultural characteristics are not obvious in the

metaphors of this source domain.
2.3.2. Metaphors PRODUCTS ARE VEHICLES SẢN PHẨM
PRODUCTS
ARE
Table 2.10: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE
VEHICLES is used in 114 ads
VEHICLES
(28.5%) to drive customers’
 Target:
Source:
thought to the movements of
VEHICLE
PRODUCTS
products and innovation of
 Benefits for
Departure
producers. Table 2.9 of the thesis
customers
presents the quantity while Table
Destination  Benefits for
2.10 describes mappings of this
customers
metaphor.
 Products’ activities
Movement
 Product environment
Journey
Detailed mappings of the metaphor PRODUCTS ARE VEHICLES are
described in the thesis. A comparison between the two languages shows the nearly
absolute similarities in the number of ads, metaphorical expressions, entailments

and frequencies of entailments.
About mappings, there are similarities in the set of mappings, each mapping
used to correspond between SD and TD in Vietnamese is found in English ads.
This gain demonstrates the universal features of metaphors.
About cultural characteristics, entailments in both languages are similar in their
meanings, perhaps because vehicles are technical products, the ways people think
about this concept is highly similar; besides, as movements are the basic action of
humans, the ways people in different cultures think about them are not
considerably different.


14
2.3.3. Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE GIFTS
PRODUCTS ARE GIFTS
Table 2.12: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE
appears in 74 ads (18.5%) to
GIFTS
connect customers’ perception
Source: GIFTS  Target:
with the values and emotions
PRODUCTS
that gifts bring to receivers.
Valuable objects  Products
Table 2.11 of the thesis presents
 Buying products
Receiving gifts
the quantity while Table 2.12
 Emotions when
Emotions when
describes the mappings of this

receiving gifts
buying products
metaphor.
Detailed mappings of this metaphor are described in the thesis. A comparison
between the two languages shows the quite similarities in the number of ads,
metaphorical expressions although metaphor of VALUABLE OBJECTS has the
higher number of ads and expressions in Vietnamese while metaphor of
RECEIVING GIFTS has higher number in English.
About mappings, there are similarities in the thoughts and entailments in two
metaphors RECEIVING GIFTS and EMOTIONS WHEN RECEIVING GIFTS
but there are differences in the metaphor of VALUABLE OBJECTS: Vietnamese
advertisers tend to use subjective entailments (tuyệt tác, kiệt tác (masterpiece)
while British advertisers use objective and measurable entailments such as gold and
treasure.
These differences can be attributed to cultural elements. Firstly, that metaphor
VALUABLE OBJECTS has far higher number in Vietnamese partly roots from
the characteristics of Vietnamese society: in a developing country, material values
play an important role and are considered a measurement of success; additionally,
in a collectivism society, that a person receives appreciation from the community
for his success is of great significance (Trần Ngọc Thêm), therefore describing
products’ values is more persuasive. Meanwhile, the metaphor RECEIVING
GIFTS has higher number in English, partly because in British culture, gift giving
is considered a social ritual (O’Driscoll). Secondly, cultural differences create the
differences in the use of metaphorical entailments: Vietnamese people seem to
have subjective thinking affected by emotion, thereby using more images than
precise concepts in their speeches (Trần Ngọc Thêm) while British people tend to
express their ideas more specifically and apparently (Smith J.).
2.3.4. Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE FOOD
Eating is the basic activity of Table 2.14: Mappings of PRODUCTS
humans. Advertisers use this source to

ARE FOOD
urge customers to link product features
 Target:
Source:
with eating, thus creating a close tie
FOOD
PRODUCTS
between desire for food and desire for
 Product features
Flavor
products. This metaphor appears in
 Using products
Eating


15
39 ads: its quantity is presented in
Ingredients  Product
Table 2.13 of the thesis and mappings
materials
in Table 2.14.
Detailed mappings of this metaphor are described in the thesis. A comparison
between the two languages shows a higher number of ads, metaphorical
expressions and entailments in English than in Vietnamese. Notably, among the 3
lower-level metaphors, only 2 are found in Vietnamese: Vietnamese ads do not use
metaphor INGREDIENTS.
About mappings, except for metaphor INGREDIENTS which does not appear
in Vietnamese, the remaining ones show considerable similarities in the mappings
of FLAVORS and EATING with similar entailments, although the number seems
to be higher in English than in Vietnamese.

About cultural characteristics, we assume that the higher frequencies and
diversities of this metaphor in English than in Vietnamese partly come from the
traditional concepts of Vietnamese people that cooking is a household chore and is
not discussed widely in formal circumstances, so Vietnamese ads only mention
FLAVOR and EATING rather than the cooking process.
2.3.5. Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE ENERGY
ENERGY brings the feelings
Table 2.16: Mappings of PRODUCTS
of vitality, activeness, youth and
ARE ENGERGY
power, thus is often used in ads to
 Source:
Source:
help customers perceive product
ENERGY
PRODUCTS
benefits. This metaphor appears in
 Products
Light
34 ads (8.5%) with quantity shown
 Products
Vitality
in Table 2.15 of the thesis and
 Products
Fuel
mappings in Table 2.16.
Detailed mappings of this metaphor are described in the thesis. A comparison
between the two languages shows a far higher number of ads, expressions,
entailments and their uses in English than in Vietnamese.
About mappings, there are similarities in the ways the concept is built, perhaps

because LIGHT, VITALITY and FUEL are somewhat ‘technical’ sources, they
have high level of accuracy, therefore the ways people in different cultures think
about the concept are not really different.
About cultural characteristics, with diversity in the number and frequencies of
entailments, ENERGY, especially FUEL, seems to be a more popular source to
British people, perhaps because the industrial revolution and mining industry have
longer history of development in Western countries, which affects the thought of
people in these societies more profoundly.
2.3.6. Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE MEDICINE
HEALTH is a quite popular source
Table 2.18: Mappings of
in conceptual metaphors owing to its
PRODUCTS ARE MEDICINE


16
importance in life. PRODUCTS ARE
MEDICINE stems from this source, it is
used in 32 ads. Its quantity is presented
in Table 2.17 of the thesis and mappings
in Table 2.18.

 Target:
Source:
MEDICIN
PRODUCTS
E
Functions of  Functions of
medicine
products

Detailed mappings of this metaphor are described in the thesis. A comparison
between the two languages shows the similarities in the number of ads, expressions
and entailments, although there are 3 low-level metaphors in English while there
are only 2 in Vietnamese (Vietnamese ads do not activate metaphor DISEASE
TREATMENT).
About mappings, a comparison of metaphors DISEASE PREVENTION and
HEALTH CARE shows similarities in the conceptualization, but entailments
describing the functions of preventing and treating diseases are more specific in
Vietnamese (for example, tăng sức đề kháng (increase anti-biotic system) and hỗ
trợ miễn dịch (support your immune system).
About mappings, 2 metaphors DISEASE PREVENTION and HEALTH
CARE show similarities in the conceptualization between the two languages,
although Vietnamese entailments describing these functions are more specific (for
example, tăng sức đề kháng (increase anti-bio system) and hỗ trợ miễn dịch
(support immune system)) while English entailments only describe the general
treatment functions of the products (treat).
About cultural characteristics, that Vietnamese entailments seem more specific
partly stems from the fact that Vietnamese people are more attentive to details as
impacted by the feminism culture as stated by Trần Ngọc Thêm.
2.3.7. Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE WONDERS
PRODUCTS ARE WONDRES Table 2.20: Mappings of PRODUCTS
appears in 24 ads (6%) with 33
ARE WONDERS
expressions. Advertisers use this
 Target:
Source:
source to associate customers with
WONDER
PRODUC
hidden values of the products, which

S
TS
stimulates them to get to know about
 Products
Mystery
products. The quantity is presented in
Table 2.19 of the thesis while
 Using
Exploring
mappings in Table 2.20.
mystery
products
Detailed mappings of this metaphor are described in the thesis. A comparison
between the two languages shows the similarities in 4 criteria: number of ads,
metaphorical expressions, entailments and frequencies, although a little higher in
English.
About mappings, there exist nearly absolute similarities in mappings as well as
the content of metaphorical expressions and entailments.


17
About cultural characteristics, the cultural features and national thought do not
have visible impacts on the mappings of this metaphor.
Chapter 2 summary
Structural metaphors are used commonly in advertisements with 7 sources
(HUMANS, VEHICLES, GIFTS, FOOD, ENERGY, MEDICINE, WONDERS)
with different hierarchy. These sources are familiar concepts in humans’ mind, so
they encourage customers to associate distinctive features of these sources with
values that products bring to them.
A comparison of frequency between the two languages indicates a higher

number of ads, metaphorical expressions and entailments in Vietnamese than in
English. Only a few metaphors have higher quantity in English, including
GLADIATORS, SPORTMEN, FOOD and ENERGY.
About mappings, there are similarities when each source used to correspond to
targets has equal mappings in high-level metaphors, which demonstrates the
universality of metaphors as a tool of humans’ thought.
About cultural characteristics, there remain differences in the conceptualization
and entailments between the two languages, which illustrates the variations of
metaphors in accordance with culture and nationality of those creating the
metaphors.
CHAPTER 3: A CONTRAST OF ONTOLOGICAL METAPHORS IN
VIETNAMESE AND ENGLISH ADVERTISEMENTS
3.1. Overview of ontological metaphors in advertisements
With the functions of creating ontological status for abstract concepts to enable
elaborate structures for discourses, ontological metaphors are used extremely
commonly in almost all ads, some ads even contain several metaphors. Ontological
metaphors (excluding personification) appear in 310 ads (77.5%) with 410
metaphorical expressions. There are 30 sub-categories built up in a common
thought: abstract, delineated or vague concepts are given an artificial linear to act as
physical entities to facilitate deeper structures for the concepts. Table 3.1 of the
thesis presents ontological metaphors identified in the research sample.
3.2. Contrasting ontological metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads
In terms of frequencies, there is a slightly higher number of ontological
metaphors in Vietnamese ads. The differences in language are attributed to this
inequality: while Vietnamese is an isolation language while English is an inflection
one. As a result, in some metaphors such as emotion, success, value, etc., when
entailments must be nouns/verbs, the number of ontological metaphors in English
is dramatically less than in Vietnamese.
In terms of mappings, there are similarities in the ontologicalization when
abstract and vague concepts are given physical entities to enable deeper structures.

This illustrates that metaphors are the ways of expressing human thought rather than


18
a linguistic tool, so language differences do not have obvious impacts on the
conceptualization of people in different cultures.
About cultural characteristics, among 30 sub-categories of ontological
metaphors, there are 28 in Vietnamese and 28 in English. A quantitative contrast
shows the similarities in the popularities of 5 metaphors with highest frequencies
including EMOTION, TIME, LIFE, DIFFICULTY and TECHNOLOGY. These
are familiar concepts in human life, so cultural and national impacts are not
considerable in these categories.
However, cultural differences are shown clearly in the discrepancies between
the two languages. Specifically, metaphors POSITION, SUCCESS and VALUE
have higher number in Vietnamese advertisements. We assume that these
discrepancies stem from the differences in the two societies. Vietnam’s culture is
characterized by collectivism where members of the community wish to show off
themselves (Trần Ngọc Thêm), Vietnam’s high PDI index means people in higher
positions are entitled to superior power to others; therefore, using the concepts of
position, success and value are more persuasive, thereby their popularities in
Vietnamese advertisements. By contrast, British society highly appreciates
individualism with low PDI, so these elements are of personal significance
(Hofstede). However, sources of ENERGY, EXPERIENCE and MIND are used
more frequently in English advertisements. These sources are somewhat technical
and logical, partly stemming from nomadic culture (which is later turned into
industrial culture) of Western countries, creating the logical, objective and scientific
way of thinking among Western people (Trần Ngọc Thêm).
Chapter 3 summary
Ontological metaphors are the most common in advertisements.
In terms of frequencies, apart from a small difference in the quantity of

advertisements and metaphorical expressions between the two languages, the
popularities of most ontological concepts are virtually similar.
In terms of mappings, all ontological metaphors are built up under the same
principle: abstract, invisible, non-physical concepts are given ontological status to
enable deeper structures. The similarities in the thought of the two nations once
again demonstrate the universality of metaphors.
About cultural characteristics, the discrepancies in choosing concepts for
ontological metaphors illustrate that the distinctive features of a collectivism
society with high PDI of Vietnam and the individualism society of Britain have
clear impacts on the way metaphors are created by the two peoples.


19
CHAPTER 4: A CONTRAST OF ORIENTATIONAL METAPHORS IN
VIETNAMESE AND ENGLISH ADVERTISEMENTS
4.1. Overview of orientational metaphors in advertisements
Orientational metaphors are the
least popular in the research sample.
Only 119 ads (29.75%) use this kind
UP DOWN
with 192 expressions (Table 4.1 of
the thesis). 5 spatial pairs are used,
HIGH among which UP – DOWN and
LOW
HIGH – LOW are the most
common, SHALLOW – DEEP is
the least popular, CENTRE –
PERIPHERY do not appear in both
IN OUT
languages (Figure 4.1 of the thesis).

FRONT
9 orientational metaphors are
- BACK
identified with hierarchy described
in Figure 4.2. The frequencies of
HAPPY IS UP

POWER IS UP

GOOD IS UP

NOT GOOD IS UP

HEALTH IS UP
LIFE IS UP

SICKNESS IS DOWN

CONSCIOUS IS UP

ORIENTATIONAL METAPHORS

UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN

MORE IS UP

SMALLER IS BETTER

LESS IS UP

DEVELOP IS OUT

FUTURE IS IN FRONT
PAST IS BACK

SHALLOW
- DEEP

CENTRE PERIPHERY

FORCE MOVES DEEP INSIDE

Figure 4.2: Hierarchy of
None

orientational metaphors
ả

ế

ệ

ế

these metaphors are presented in Figure 4.3 of the thesis. Among various
metaphors, POWER and CONSCIOUS are the most popular while MORE has
modest frequency in the sample.
4.2. Contrasting orientational metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads
4.2.1. Metaphors POWER IS UP, NON-POWER IS DOWN
Used in 29 ads (7.25%) and 35 metaphorical expressions, POWER IS UP is

the most popular metaphor, perhaps because in the modern society, power and
status are the goals of many people. Table 4.2 of the thesis presents the quantity of
this metaphor. Only POWER is activated, NON-POWER does not appear in the
ads.
The mappings of this metaphor are described in the full report of the thesis. A
comparison shows a far higher number of ads in Vietnamese.
About mappings, the two languages are similar when both POWER and
STRENGTH are up, demonstrating the uniformity of conceptual metaphors.
About cultural characteristics, the discrepancies in quantity reflect that cultural
and social differences can affect people’s thought. Vietnamese people have high
demand to show their status as in an emerging market, power is measured mainly
via material gains and social status and a person’s success brings pride for his entire
family. By contrast, British capitalism society has experienced a long development
period, material possessions are no longer crucial values to people; in addition, an
individualism society highly appreciating the independence of people means that it
is not the top priority of people to show off their status in the community.


20
4.2.2. Metaphors CONSCIOUS IS UP, UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN
This pair of metaphors appear in 26 ads (6.5%) with 36 metaphorical
expressions (Table 4.3 – full report), among which CONSCIOUS makes up for the
majority, only 2 English ads activate metaphor UNCONSCIOUS via entailment
“fall in love” in [168].
The mappings of these metaphors are described in the full report of the thesis.
A comparison of their frequencies shows that the number of Vietnamese ads
conceptualizing CONSCIOUS doubles that in English but UNCONSCIOUS only
appear in 2 English ads. However, as the number is only 2, we do not conclude that
this discrepancy has statistical significance.
About mappings, there are similarities in the thought of two peoples when both

languages use up direction to describe conscious actions and state while down
direction is used to describe unconscious state.
About cultural characteristics, are these metaphors are established on the biophysical basis of humans, they are not affected by cultural and national thought.
The different frequencies may be attributed to communication habits.
4.2.3. Metaphors GOOD IS UP, BAD IS DOWN
These metaphors are used in 22 ads (5.5%) with 33 metaphorical expressions.
Table 4.4 of the thesis presents their quantity, which shows that all ads activate
GOOD IS UP. Noticeably, there is an ad which goes against the uniform thought
when using up direction for the concept NOT GOOD in the Vietnamese ad “Có thể
bạn không cao nhưng người khác cũng phải ngước nhìn” (You may not be tall but
others have to look up) [V12].
The mappings of these metaphors are described in the full report of the thesis.
A comparison of their frequencies between the two languages shows a far higher
number of Vietnamese ads than English ones.
About spatial concepts, both languages conceptualize GOOD as up. The above
metaphor NOT GOOD IS UP appears in only one ad but is particularly used to
emphasize the typical features of a specific product rather than represent the
common thought of Vietnamese people.
About cultural characteristics, Vietnamese entailments seem more diverse and
picturesque (đỉnh cao, nâng tầm) rather than factual as in English (nâng cao, phát
triển). A culture of high collectivism may contribute to Vietnamese expressions
towards images rather than concepts (Lê Văn Toan).
4.2.4. Metaphors HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN
These metaphors appear in 13 ads (3.25%) with 24 expressions, in which
advertisers highlight the concept HAPPY but hide SAD. Table 4.5 of the thesis
shows the quantity of these metaphors.
The mappings of these metaphors are described in the full report. A
comparison of their frequencies shows a higher number of ads in Vietnamese.

21
About mappings, there are similarities between the two languages when
HAPPY is conceptualized in the up direction.
About cultural characteristics, Vietnamese entailments seem more picturesque
with thăng hoa, nâng cánh while English ones tend more factual with elevate and
uplift. These differences stem partly from languages as Vietnamese are more
expressional, words are diverse and nuanced; partly from culture as in
communication, Vietnamese people tend to beat around the bush while the British
usually go straight to the points (Trần Ngọc Thêm).
4.2.5. Metaphors HEALH AND LIFE ARE UP, SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE
DOWN
These metaphors are found in 12 ads (3.0%) with 14 expressions (Table 4.6 –
thesis). Most ads activate the concepts HEALTH and LIFE, SICKNESS appears in
a few ads while DEATH is not used.
The mappings of these metaphors are described in the full report. A
comparison of their frequencies shows a higher number in Vietnamese.
About mappings, there are similarities in conceptualization when HEALTH
and LIFE are up while SICKNESS is down in both languages. As these concepts
are established on the physiologic structures of human body, the ways people in
different cultures conceptualize them are not different.
About cultural characteristics, apart from similar entailments, Vietnamese ads
show more diversity, colors and image in their words. These discrepancies partly
come from cultural differences: feminine culture oriented towards emotional
communication contributes to highly emotional expressions in Vietnamese (Trần
Ngọc Thêm).
4.2.6. Metaphors MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN
Only 2 ads activate metaphor MORE IS UP while none shows LESS IS
DOWN (Table 4.7 – full report). Notably, a derivative expression activating
metaphor SMALLER IS BETTER is identified with “Think small” in [A66].
The mappings of these metaphors are presented in the thesis. A comparison of

their frequencies shows similarities between the two languages.
About mappings, the 2 identified entailments are totally similar, showing that
MORE IS UP is the same in the two cultures.
About cultural characteristics, we find no differences in thought that stem from
socio-cultural differences between the two countries.
4.2.7. Metaphors FUTURE IS IN FRONT, PAST IS IN THE BACK
These metaphors account for a modest proportion with 11 ads (2.75%) and 19
expressions. Table 4.8 of the thesis shows the quantity of these ads.
Their mappings are presented in the thesis. A comparison shows similarities in
both frequency and mappings of time concepts. As stated by Lakoff and Johnson,
most cultures share the concepts that future is in front, past is in the back.
Metaphors found in the research sample demonstrate the similarities between


22
Vietnamese and British cultures in this aspect despite the differences in national
and social conditions.
4.2.8. Metaphor DEVELOPMENT IS OUTWARD
This metaphor uses horizontal direction. It is found in 14 ads (3.5%). The
outward direction is used to talk about a bigger, brighter and more positive space.
Table 4.9 of the thesis presents the quantity of this metaphor.
A comparison of frequency shows small differences in the quantity of ads and
expressions but big discrepancies in the number of entailments. About mappings,
the conceptualizations of development are similar between two languages.
Metaphorical entailments are also similar though Vietnamese ones seem more
diverse. With similar frequency and mappings, we assume that there are no
differences in cultural and national thoughts in this aspect.
4.2.9. Metaphor FORCE IS DEEP INSIDE
This metaphor is found in 5 ads, or 1.25%, with 9 expressions. Table 4.10 of
the thesis shows the quantity of its ads and expressions.

Besides the differences in frequency, the mappings are definitely similar
between the two languages, illustrating the universality of conceptual metaphors.
Cultural characteristics are not shown clearly in this metaphor.
Chapter 4 summary
Orientational metaphors are the least common in ads. Most spatial directions
appear in the research sample, except for CENTRE – PERIPHERY. Most ads
highlight positive and hide negative aspects to maximize the impacts of ads on
customers.
A comparison of frequency shows a slightly higher number of ads, expressions,
entailments and their uses in Vietnamese than in English.
About mappings, there are high similarities in conceptualization: positive
values (happiness, power, more, good, health, life, consciousness) are up while
negative values (sickness, less) are down under two spatial directions of UP –
DOWN and HIGH – LOW. The remaining spatial directions (FRONT – BACK,
IN – OUT and DEEP – SHALLOW) also show similarities between the two
languages, illustrating the universality of conceptual metaphors.
About cultural characteristics, there still exist some differences in
conceptualization of metaphors, as shown in some cultural conflicts that happen in
one culture but not exist in the other, illustrating the variations of metaphors under
the impacts of national thought.


23
CONCLUSION
With the aims of comparing metaphors in ads and conceptualizations between
the two languages, the thesis has gained some outcomes.
Summary of the main findings of the thesis
1. The thesis has reviewed domestic and foreign studies on metaphors in ads to
identify research gaps; generalized fundamental knowledge of metaphors and
selected the concepts, features, mappings and classifications introduced by Lakoff

& Johnson and Kövecses as grounds for research tasks.
2. With structural metaphors, the thesis has found 7 high-level metaphors
established on 7 sources and various layers of low-level advertisements. The thesis
has compared metaphors and discovered that at high level, Vietnamese and British
people share the same ways of seeing the world, but at low-level metaphors, there
remain some discrepancies that are attributed to cultural, historical and social
differences between the two countries.
3. With ontological metaphors, the thesis has identified 30 kinds with different
frequencies. Some have dramatically high number and similar popularity in both
languages, illustrating metaphor universality. Others show remarkable
discrepancies which have been explained by cultural, social and linguistic
differences.
4. With orientational metaphors, the thesis has established 5 spatial pairs used
to create 9 groups of advertisements. A comparison shows that basically,
Vietnamese and British people have the same thought when positive values are up
while negative ones are down. Only 2 – 3 cultural conflicts have been found due to
intentional choices of ads designers to impress target customers.
The detailed findings of 3 kinds of metaphors are modelized to visualize the
hierarchy and systematics of metaphors in advertisements.
Some conclusions remarks
1. Conceptual metaphors are very popular in ads. By comparison, the number
of ads and expressions is slightly higher in Vietnamese. Among three kinds,
ontological metaphors are the most common, followed by structural and
orientational. These findings support the findings of previous studies.
2. There are great similarities in the metaphor thoughts between the two
languages. At high level, mappings, spatial directions and ontologicalization are
almost identical, illustrating the universality of metaphors as a tool to reflect human
thought.
3. Cultural and national values are still clearly reflected by the differences in
entailments, highlighted/hidden aspects or popularity of some concepts, illustrating

the variations of metaphors under the impacts of the culture where they are formed.
4. The use of metaphors makes ads more impressive and differentiated thanks to
the novelty in language. With advantages in driving and orienting thought, metaphors