Một nghiên cứu khảo sát những yếu tố nội tại và ngoại tại ảnh hưởng đến sự phát triển độ trôi chảy tiếng anh của học sinh lớp 11 tại một trường THPT ở vĩnh phúc

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

----------------------------KHỔNG THỊ THẢO

A SURVEY ON INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS’ ENGLISH
FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT AT GRADE 11 IN AN
UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL IN VINH PHUC
PROVINCE

Một nghiên cứu khảo sát những yếu tố nội tại và ngoại tại ảnh hưởng đến sự phát
triển độ trôi chảy tiếng Anh của học sinh lớp 11 tại một trường THPT ở Vĩnh Phúc

M.A. MINOR THESIS

Field : English teaching Methodology
Code : 8140231.01


Hanoi, 2019


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

----------------------------KHỔNG THỊ THẢO

A SURVEY ON INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL

FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS’ ENGLISH
FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT AT GRADE 11 IN AN
UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL IN VINH PHUC
PROVINCE

Một nghiên cứu khảo sát những yếu tố nội tại và ngoại tại ảnh hưởng đến sự phát
triển độ trôi chảy tiếng Anh của học sinh lớp 11 tại một trường THPT ở Vĩnh Phúc

M.A. MINOR THESIS

Field: English teaching Methodology
Code: 8140231.01
Supervisor: Prof. Hoang Van Van


Hanoi, 2019


DECLARATION
I hereby state that I, Khong Thi Thao, being a candidate for the Degree of
Master of Arts (TEFL) accepted the requirements of the University relating to the
retention and use of M.A Thesis deposited in the library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my thesis deposited in
the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in
accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for the care, loan
or reproduction of the thesis.
Hanoi, January 2019
Signature

Khong Thi Thao

1


ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my
supervisor Prof. Hoang Van Van, for his invaluable instructions, helpful suggestions,
critical comments, various sources of reference and precious corrections on my
writing.
I also want to would like to express my sincere thanks to lecturers of Faculty
of Post Graduate Studies at University of Languages and International studies of
Vietnam Nation University, Hanoi for their wonderful and meaningful lectures and
suggestions which played an important role in my completion of this thesis.
I am very grateful to all teachers and students at Tran Phu Upper Secondary
School who have enthusiastically participated in my research.
Finally, I wish to thank all my beloved family and all my close friends who
always encouraged and supported me in the process of doing this thesis.

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ABSTRACT
This research aims to investigate the internal and external factors that affect
students’ fluency development for grade 11th at Tran Phu Upper Secondary School –
Vinh Phuc province and suggest some solutions to the problems. The data of the
research was collected from both students’ and teachers’ questionnaires and
classroom observation before and after treatment. The findings revealed that both
teachers and students at Tran Phu Upper Secondary School are facing many
problems in improving fluency for students, specifically speaking skill. Through
this research, many factors have been listed such as learning styles, students’ habit

of using mother tongue, students’ low motivation and low English level accounting
for poor vocabulary, structure, and poor pronunciation. Some factors from teachers
are teaching large and mixed level classes, references, resources and time pressure.
From the findings, suggestions are given with hope that they may be a reliable and
useful source of reference for not only teachers but also students at Tran Phu Upper
Secondary School to develop students’ fluency in a cooperative learning
environment.

3


TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION.........................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS...........................................................................................ii
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................iv
LIST OFABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................vii
PARTA: INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................1
PART B: DEVELOPMENT.........................................................................................4
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................4
1.1. Theoretical background of speaking...................................................................4
1.1.1. Speaking..........................................................................................................4
1.1.2. Theories of speaking........................................................................................4
1.1.3. Concepts of speaking fluency..........................................................................5
1.1.4. Concepts of fluency development....................................................................5
1.2. CLT in teaching speaking...................................................................................6
1.2.1 Concept of CLT................................................................................................6
1.2.2. Characteristics of CLT.....................................................................................6

4


1.3. Internal and external factors influencing students’ fluency development...........7
1.3.1. Internal factors.................................................................................................7
1.3.2. External factors..............................................................................................11
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..........................................................14
2.1. Research context...............................................................................................14
2.1.1. Description for facilities at Tran Phu Upper Secondary School.....................14
2.1.2. Description of the teachers at Tran Phu Upper Secondary School.................14
2.1.3. Description of the students at Tran Phu Upper Secondary School.................15
2.1.4. Description of the English textbook..............................................................15
2.2. The study..........................................................................................................16
2.2.1. Kind of the research.......................................................................................16
2.2.2. Participants....................................................................................................17
2.2.3. Data collection instruments...........................................................................18
2.3.4. Data collection procedures.............................................................................18
2.3.5. Data analysis..................................................................................................19

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2.3.6. Data analysis procedure.................................................................................19
CHAPTER 3: DATAANALYSIS.................................................................................20
3.1. Results of the survey questionnaires.................................................................20
3.1.1. Questionnaires for teachers............................................................................20
3.1.2. Questionnaire for students.............................................................................28
3.2. Results from classroom observations................................................................34
CHAPTER 4: MAJOR FINDINGS, DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......36

4.1. Major findings and discussions.........................................................................36
4.1.1. Students’ level of fluency development.........................................................36
4.1.2. Factors influencing students’ fluency development.......................................36
4.2. Recommendations............................................................................................39
4.2.1. For teachers...................................................................................................39
4.2.2. For students...................................................................................................40
4.2.3. Finding motivation for improving fluency and taking risks...........................40
PART C: CONCLUSION..........................................................................................41
REFERENCES.........................................................................................................43
APPENDICES.............................................................................................................I

6


7


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CLT:

Communicative Language Teaching

8


LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Teachers’ experience..................................................................................17
Table 2: Students’ gender.........................................................................................17
Table 3: Teachers’ attitudes toward speaking skill and teaching this skill...............20
Table 4: Teachers’ opinion on students’ participation and interest in speaking lesson.......21

Table 5: Factors influencing students’ English fluency development......................21
Table 6: Teachers’ difficulties in teaching speaking skill.........................................22
Table 7: Teachers’ teaching English method............................................................23
Table 8: Teachers’ using equipment in teaching speaking skill................................24
Table 9: Solution for students’ low motivation in speaking activities......................24
Table 10: Teachers’ improvement for students’ low level of spoken English...........25
Table 11: Teachers’ current teaching techniques and activities................................26
Table 12: Teachers’ solutions to improve students’ English fluency development..........27
Table 13: Students’ attitudes toward speaking skill.................................................28
Table 14: Students’ willing ness in developing English fluency..............................29
Table 15: Students’ evaluation in speaking activities...............................................30
Table 16: Students’ opinion to encourage participation in speaking lesson.............31
Table 17: Internal factors influencing students’ fluency development.....................32
Table 18: Internal factors influencing students’ fluency development.....................33
Table 19: The level of students’ fluency development before and after having native
teacher teaching.......................................................................................................35

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PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study
With the development of English all over the world, to keep up with the
speed of modernization of society we need to learn from other countries as well as
other cultures, so the requirement is that people must use one language to exchange
their thoughts, feelings, experiences, and so on through languages. The most
popular language we use nowadays is English; however, to use English skillfully
learners must master at four skills including speaking, reading, writing and listening
skills. They often find lots of difficulties in using English fluently and effectively, as
well as, taking the time and making the effort to master speaking skills.

Similar to other learners, students at Tran Phu Upper Secondary School are
quite good at grammar, reading and writing skills, but their exposure to English
speaking is very limited. They meet many difficulties to communicate in English,
sometimes they feel scared when they have speaking tests. Several students are so
worried that they even burst into tears or can not say anything or express their ideas.
Therefore, in the hope of helping students improve English speaking skill, we need
to find out the reasons why students face with these problems. That is why I have
chosen the topic entitled A survey on internal and external factors influencing
students’ English fluency development at grade 11 in an upper secondary school in
Vinh Phuc province.
2. Aims of the study
This study is to analyze some factors influencing students’ English speaking
development at Tran Phu Upper Secondary School in Vinh Phuc province. Besides,
it also tries to offer some solutions to improving students’ speaking ability. The
specific objectives of the study include:
1. Investigating the importance of speaking skills in learning foreign language
especially in a high school.
2. Finding out internal and external factors affecting to the students’ fluency
development.

1


3. Offering some solutions to improving students’ fluency development.
3. Research questions
To fulfill the main and objectives, the study raises the following questions for
exploration:
1. How do Tran Phu Upper Secondary School 11 graders perceive speaking
skills?
2. What are the internal and external factors that affect their English fluency

development?
3. What should be done to improve students’ fluency development?
4. Methods of the study
To answer the questions, both quantitative and qualitative methods are used.
The data of this research was collected through the survey questionaire and
classroom obsevation. First, the author carried out the survey questionaires for
students at Tran Phu Upper Secondary School to gather information and evidence
for the study. Second, classroom observation was enployed to make the study more
reliable. Finally, comments, recomendation and conclusion were given based on the
results of the study.
5. Scope of the study
The study is confined to finding internal and external problems/factors
affecting Tran Phu Upper Secondary School 11 graders’ English speaking
development. Specifically, the internal factors include motivation, learning styles,
learners’ level and L1 interference while external factors may be the roles of teacher
and the learning environment. Then author offers some solutions to solving the
problems.
6. Significance of the study
It is expected that this study will uncover some internal and external factors
influencing upper secondary school students’ English speaking ability and will
make useful suggestions on how to improve this most difficult language skill.
7. Design of the thesis

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The study is divided into three parts as follows:
Part A – Introduction – presents rationale, aim, objectives, the research questions,
the scope, significance and design of the study.
Part B – Development – consists of three chapters:

Chapter 1: Literature review – presents the concepts relevant to the speaking
skill and factors influencing students’ fluency in English.
Chapter 2: Research methodology – presents situation analysis, participants
and research questions.
Chapter 3: Data analysis – describes the data of the questionnaires and
classroom observation.
Chapter 4: Finding, discussions and recommendation – presents data analysis
and discusses internal and external factors affecting Tran Phu Upper Secondary
School 11 graders’ English speaking development and suggests solutions to the
problems.
Part C – Conclusion – provides the conclusion of the thesis, points out limitations
and makes recommendations for further study.
.

3


PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
Fluency in speaking English is one of the most important skills in learning as
well as teaching English. Most of the learners desire to master this skill because
they want to communicate with others in the English language fluently. Thus, one
problem that seems to obsess most EFL teachers is what factors influence students’
English fluency development and how to deal with these problems. In what follows,
we will present some major approaches related to the subject of the thesis.
1.1. Theoretical background of speaking
1.1.1. Speaking
It cannot be undeniable that speaking plays a vital role in communication
besides reading, listening and writing skills. In the past, people also knew how to
exchange attitudes, thoughts, perchases, etc. Therefore, using English fluently has

become an important purpose in teaching and learning English from now to then.
People often assess their development in learning English by how well they use
language especially in speaking skill. As a result, speaking is one of the productive
skills in communication.
1.1.2. Theories of speaking
Basically, all of us speak every day to each other, using language but many
of us still do not know exactly what it is. According to Brown (1994) and Bruns and
Joyce (1997), speaking is understood as an interactive process of constructing
meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information.
Obviously, the speaking process consists of participants, their collective experience,
environment factors and the purposes of speaking which is to have deep
relationships and support together.
In addition, Hedge defines speaking as “a skill by which they [people] are
judged while first impressions are being formed.” That is to say, speaking is an
important skill which deserves more attention in both first and second language
because it reflects people's thoughts and personalities.
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According to Byrne’s, speaking skills are one of a two – way process
including oral communication and productive process. Both listener and speaker
must encode the message of each other to convey and interpret in appropriate
language.
Besides that, Bygate (1983) argues: “Speaking skill is the ability in using
oral language to explore ideas, intentions, thoughts and feelings to other people as a
way to make the message clearly delivered and well understood by the hearer”. It
means that speaking is a process of grammatical competence and sociolinguistic
competence.
Thus, speaking is a complex and essential skill of language which is a way
for humans to communicate with others and express their ideas, opinions and

feelings. To be master speaking English, students should make sure of their
collective experience, physical environment as well as purpose of speaking.
1.1.3. Concepts of speaking fluency
The term “speaking fluency” is linked to the meaning of “communication”
(Harmer, 2007, p. 142). For example, in a conversation, a learner can make a
grammatical error, such as Maria live in Cazenga [live vs. lives]), but the learner
can still speak the sentence with some fluency (Crowther et al., 2015). The learner
can speak without searching for words, so that his or her speech is quickly
understood. In fact, speaking fluency has been defined as the “automaticity and
speed of speech production” (Brand & Götz, 2011, p. 256). However, automaticity
and speed of speech production may not always make a speech comprehensible,
comprehensibility being “a measure of listeners’ perceived ease or difficulty of
understanding L2 speech” (Crowther et al., 2015, p. 81).
1.1.4. Concepts of fluency development
Fluency means being able to 14 communicate your ideas without having to
stop and think too much about what you are saying” (British Broadcasting
Corporation, 2003). Additionally, Fluency development is important at all levels of
proficiency, and even beginners need to become fluent with the few items of
language that they know (Nation and Newton, 2009). This aspect is important
5


because students can express themselves following a continuous and rich language
pattern. In the teaching of speaking, to get the most possible fluent speech must be
one of the principal efforts of the English teachers.
1.2. CLT in teaching speaking
1.2.1 Concept of CLT
There are numerous definitions about CLT; but Nunan (1989: 194)’s
definition seems to be widely accepted. According to Nunan, CLT is a system for
the expression of meaning. Oral communication means activities, carrying out

meaningful tasks and using language, which is a real benefit for learners. Objectives
play an important role in the students’ need for functional skills as well as linguistic
objectives. The learners’ role is as a negotiator and integrator. The teachers’ role is
as a facilitator of the communication process. Materials that promote
communicative language use are task-based and authentic. According to Brown
(1994), CLT reflects a social relationship between the teacher and learner. This
learner-centered approach gives students a sense of ownership of their learning and
enhances

their

motivation.

Therefore,

CLT emphasizes

the

process

of

communication.
The definition mentioned above expresses a specific opinion of
understanding and explaining language acquisition. Thus, learners can improve their
language skills through communicative activities.
1.2.2. Characteristics of CLT
Unlike grammar, language is regarded “as a dynamic resource for the
creation of meaning” (Nunan, 1989). He offers five characteristics of CLT:

1) CLT is aimed at emphasizing on learning to communicate through interaction
in the target language.
2) Learning situation is introduced in authentic texts.
3) CLT is also involved in learner-centered and experience based tasks.
4) CLT focuses on functional language usage and learners’ ability to express
themselves.
5) There is a connection between classroom language and outside classroom
language.
6


Moreover, Brown & Nation (1997) states that students should be trained in both
fluency and accuracy including form-focus and meaning-focus speaking activities.
Nunan (2003) confirms that teachers should give students more chances to speak;
students should be guided to express the targeted language in both interactional and
transactional setting.
Besides, according to Le Van Canh (2004) CLT aims at making communicative
competence the goal of language teaching and developing procedures for the
teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of
language and communication.
Richards (2006) suggests six principles of CLT for language teachers:
1) Teachers need to make real communication the focus of language learning.
2) Teachers should provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out
what they know.
3) Teachers ought to be tolerant of learners’ errors as they indicate that the
learner is building up his or her communicative competence.
4) Teachers should provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy
and fluency.
5) Teachers should better link the different skills such as speaking, reading and
listening together, since they usually occur so in the real world.

6) Teachers should let students deduce or discover grammar rules themselves.
When teaching language, teachers should apply new classroom techniques and
activities. Thus, demand of accurate repetition and memorization of sentences and
grammatical patterns, activities are needed.
To sum up, there are various opinions about the characteristics of CLT, but the main
purpose of CLT is to focus on learners. Thus, learners should be taught by cooperative
competence such as pair and group work, fluency-based activities and so on.
1.3. Internal and external factors influencing students’ fluency development
1.3.1. Internal factors
Internal factors are factors that come from inside the individual. Brown
(2007) states that these factors are specified by the individual students like
7


motivation, attitude, personal practice and study habits. Each of these factors is an
individual element of learners’ ability to acquire a foreign language but each
component also interacts with another.
1.3.1.1. Learners’ motivation
Dornyei (1994a)’s framework
The relationship between students’ fluency development and motivation is
deep because students will learn better and develop the ability to use language if
they have motivation to improve their language skill especially speaking skill. In
many studies, researchers focused mainly on factors which affect motivation.
Typical examples are Williams and Burdens’s (1997), Schumann’s neurobiological
model, Tremblay and Gardner’s (1995) or descriptive studies of motivation in
particular socio cultural contexts. However, in this part, I only mention a framework
proposed Dornier’s (1994a) extended framework, which is more suitable for my
study. Moreover, their research was rather detailed in factors affecting students’
fluency development and its structure was quite clear and easy to understand.
The instruction has been recently made by Williams and Burden (1997) as

part of a larger overview of psychology for language teachers. The authors are
among the few L2 motivation researchers who provide an elaborate definition of
motivation (Williams & Burden, 1997: 120): Motivation may be construed as a state
of cognitive and emotional arousal, which leads to a conscious decision to act, and
which gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and/or physical effort in order
to attain a previously set goal (or goals). Having discussed the inherent conflict of
the static and process-oriented conceptualizations of motivation earlier, we can
appreciate the care with which this definition has been formulated in order to
achieve a compromise. This is similar to Dornyei's (1994a) list in that it does not
offer any directional relationships between the listed items, but some aspects of it
(e.g. external, contextual factors) represent the most detailed treatment of the
particular issue in the L2 literature. It is also clear when looking at the framework
that the authors used primarily main stream rather than L2 motivational theories as
their sources, which places their work very much in line with the 'paradigm seeking
spirit' of the reform movements in the 1990s.

8


.
(Dornyei, Components of foreign language learning motivation, 1994a: 280)

The most general level of the construct is the Language Level where the
focus is on orientations and motives related to various aspects of the L2, such as the
culture it conveys, the community in which it is spoken, and the potential usefulness
of proficiency in it. These general motives determine basic learning goals and
explain language choice. In accordance with the Gardnerian approach, this general
motivational dimension can be described by two broad motivational subsystems, an
integrative and an instrumental motivational subsystem, which, as has been argued
before, consist of loosely related, context-dependent motives. The integrative

motivational subsystem is centered on the individual's L2-related affective
predispositions, including social, cultural, and ethno- linguistic components, as well as
a general interest in foreignness and foreign languages. The instrumental motivational
subsystem consists of well-internalized extrinsic motives (identified and integrated
regulation) centered on the individual's future career endeavors (cf., 26).

9


The third level of L2 motivation is the Learning Situation Level, made up of
intrinsic and extrinsic motives and motivational conditions concerning three areas:
(1) Course-specific motivational components are related to the syllabus, the
teaching materials, the teaching method, and the learning tasks. These are best
described by the framework of four motivational conditions proposed by Crookes
and Schmidt: interest, relevance, expectancy, and satisfaction; (2) Teacher-specific
motivational components include the affinitive drive to please the teacher, authority
type, and direct socialization of student motivation (modeling, task presentation,
and feedback); and (3) Group-specific motivational components are made up of four
main components: goal-orientedness, norm and reward system, group cohesion, and
classroom goal structure.
1.3.1.2. Students’ learning style
Learning style belongs to each individual in an educational context to get
new information. According to Keefe (1979), learning style is seen as “cognitive,
affective and physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners
perceive, interact with and respond to the learning environment.
There are four groups following Willing (1987) division based on learners’
behaviors:
- Concrete learners are interested in social aspects of language learning.
- Analytical learners would rather work individually on reading and grammar.
- Communicative learners are willing to communicate with other speakers.

- Authority-oriented learners tend to be independent and prefer to work in
non- communicative classroom.
We can conclude that the teacher should pay attention to all kinds of learners
because most of the students participate passively in the activities.
1.3.1.3. Learners’ level
A Learner Level involves complex affects and cognitions that form fairly
stable personality traits. We can identify two motivational components underlying
the motivational processes at this level, a need for achievement and self-confidence,
the latter encompassing various aspects of language anxiety, perceived L2
competence, attributions about past experiences, and self-efficacy.

10


a. Language use anxiety: Anxiety makes students feel pressure, nervousness
when they learn a second language. It affects to the quality of oral production
leading to learners speaking less fluently than they want (Ellis, 1998: 121).
According to Robby (2010), fear of making a mistake is one of the main
factors that makes students do not want to speak in the classroom. Aftat
(2008) stated that learners feel worried when they receive correction and
negative evaluation. Moreover, learners also are afraid of being laughed at or
mocked by other learners and teachers (Kutus, 2001).
b. Perceived L2 competence: According to Clement, Baker and MacIntyre
(2003), higher perceived L2 competence and low anxiety increase
willingness to communicate. Therefore, past proficiency level is motivation
for learners to speak fluently.
c. Attribution about past experiences: Failures and successes in the past have a
massive effect on the goal and expectancy of language learning in the future.
d. Self-efficacy: it is the individual’s judgment of their ability to perform
specific actions, which can express both past accomplishments and

observation of peers, persuasion, reinforcement and evaluation.
1.3.1.4. Habit of using mother-tongue
Harmer (1991) suggests some reasons why students use mother-tongue in
class. First, at the point when students have gotten information about a subject they
are not linguistically armed for discussing in the outside language. Another reason
is that the utilization of native language is a characteristic thing to do. In addition,
some students may resort to the first language to disclose something to others if
there is no support from instructors to stick to utilizing the target language. Finally,
at the point when teachers every now and again use the students’ first tongue,
students will consequently feel that it is good to utilize it.
1.3.2. External factors
External factors are factors that come from outside the individual. Based on
Browns′ (2007) definition, external factors can be different for each individual, but
their common attribute is that they are based solely on the circumstances outside of
the control and influence of the learner.

11


1.3.2.1. Teachers’ factors

Teachers play an important part in improving students’ fluency development.
According to Harmer (1999: 57-62), the teacher has different roles in teaching
including; controller, organizer, assessor, prompter, participant, resource, tutor and
observer. With each role, the teacher must take responsible for helping students
develop their studying especially in speaking skill.
Besides, Byner (1986: 2) divided the role of the teacher into stages of
teaching speaking accounting for the presentation stage, the practice stage and the
production one. At the first stage, the teacher must prepare the references carefully
and present them clearly for all students to understand with a suitable time. At the

practice stage, student will practice and do as teachers’ guide. At the final stage,
students should apply what they studied in their products and use the language
fluently. It is an opportunity for students to express their ideas and opinions.
Teachers have many different roles, but the most important one is to motivate
students to develop their fluency or arouse their interest in speaking skills.
Another important factor from teachers is their methodology, which refers to
the approach or method and teaching techniques he/she uses in the classroom. There
are many methods that teachers can apply in their teaching; however, the most
suitable one may be Communicative Language Teaching with learner-centered
method with various techniques such as role-play, games, pair work, group work,
interview, discussion, etc.
In short, teachers have an important role in improving students’ speaking and
they must try their best to motivate students to join in their lessons.
1.3.2.2. Classroom factors
Dornyei’s framework shows many new factors affecting students’ speaking which
consists of:
a. Physical conditions. Physical conditions in the classroom consists of
classroom size, chairs, tables, boards which affect learners’ taking part in the
speaking lesson as well as students’ English fluency development. Harmer
(2001) stated that physical conditions had a notable effect on students’

12