Sự tình phát ngôn trong tiếng anh, đối chiếu với tiếng việt tiếng anh

VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

NGUYEN THANH MINH

VERBAL PROCESS IN ENGLISH,
COMPARED WITH VIETNAMESE

Major: Comparative Linguistics
Code: 9.22.20.24

SUMMMARY OF DOCTORAL THESIS

HANOI - 2020


The thesis has been completed at:

GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Supervisors:
1. Dr. Prof. Nguyen Van Hiep
2. Assoc. Prof. Hoang Tuyet Minh

Examiner 1: Assoc. Prof. Lam Quang Dong
Examiner 2: Assoc. Prof. Le Van Thanh
Examiner 3: Assoc. Prof. Vu Thi Thanh Huong

This doctoral thesis will be defended before the Panel of
Examiners, at Graduate Academy of Social Sciences
At ….. on ….. 2020

This doctoral thesis can be found at:
1. Library of Graduate Academy of Scocial Siences.
2. National Library of Vietnam.


INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale:
1.1. The study of processes in English, in general, has been studied by
some functional grammar authors, such as S. Dik (1997), W.L. Chafe
(1981), M.A.K Halliday (1985, 1994), M.A.K Halliday and M.I.M
Matthiessen (2004), C. Cobuild (1990), G. Thompson (1996, 2004) ...
Previous studies have shown a common model of verbal process in
general, such as the number of elements, the position of the elements in
the verbal process. However, verbal process has not yet been paid
attention to in-depth research, so many new issues have been raised but
have not yet been deeply addressed, such as the issues of predicator in
the verbal process, participants and circumstance of the verbal process,
the similarities and the differences between the verbal process in
English and that in Vietnamese. In Vietnam, the study of the verbal
process in Vietnamese was discussed by many authors such as Cao
Xuan Hao (1991), Nguyen Thi Quy (1995), Diep Quang Ban (2012),
Hoang Van Van (2005). In addition, the verbal process in Vietnamese is
also the subject of several theses, typically Le Thi Thom (2012). In this
thesis, the author has provided a general overview of verbal process in
Vietnamese from a semantic - grammatical - pragmatic perspective.
Thus, there has not been any research on verbal process in English,
compared with Vietnamese, in the perspective of functional grammar so
as to find out the similarities and differences of in these two languages.
1.2. Verbal process has an important role and appears much in

communication as well as in some types of documents, verbal process in
English needs to be paid more attention to research, especially in the
trend of globalization. In using and teaching English in schools, teachers
and students still have difficulties in identifying the predicators, semantic
structure of the participants in verbal process. Therefore, the study in
English, compared with Vietnamese is necessary in the procedure of
teaching and learning foreign languages in Vietnam, including the study
of processes from a comparative perspective. For the above reasons, we
choose the tittle "Verbal process in English, compared with Vietnamese"
from the functional grammar perspective as the research object of the
thesis.
2. Purposes and Research Tasks
The purpose of the thesis is to clarify the characteristics of
verbal process in English and Vietnamese to find out the similarities

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and differences of the predicators and participants in the verbal process
in English and in Vietnamese in the systematic functional grammar
perspective.
In order to achieve the above goals, the thesis sets out the
following tasks: Surveying the theory of systematic functional
grammar from the linguists’ viewpoints in the world and in Vietnam
from which to establish a theoretical framework for the study;
Surveying, reckoning, classifying and describing the features of
predicators, the participants of verbal process in English and in
Vietnamese from the systematic functional grammar perspective;
Comparing to find out the similarities and differences of predicators, the
participants of verbal process in English and in Vietnamese from the

systematic functional grammar perspective.
3. Object and Scope of the thesis
The object of the research is the predicator, the participants and
the circumstances in the verbal process in English and in Vietnamese.
The scope of the research is the grammatical, semantic and
pragmatic characteristics of the predicator, the participants and the
circumstances in the verbal process in English, compared with
Vietnamese.
The material of the thesis is collected from 2411 sentences
containing English verbal process from 08 English - American literary
works, including: The thorn birds (Colleen Mccullough); Harry Potter
and the Philosopher’s Stone (J. K. Rowling); Harry Potter Chamber of
and the Secrets (J. K. Rowling); Harry Potter and the Prisoner of
Azkaban (J. K. Rowling); Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (J. K.
Rowling); Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (J. K. Rowling);
Gone with the wind (Margaret Mitchell) and If Tomorrow Comes
(Sidney Sheldon) (1985). The Vietnamese translation of The thorn
birds, which we have chosen, is the translation of "Tiếng chim hót trong
bụi mận gai” by Pham Manh Hung. In the Harry Potter collection, we
selected the translations by Ly Lan. The novel Gone with the wind, we
choose the translation by Duong Tuong. The novel If Tomorrow Comes,
we chose Nguyen Ba Long's translation. The Vietnamese materials are
collected from several works: Cho tôi xin một vé đi tuổi thơ, Cô gái đến
từ hôm qua (Nguyễn Nhật Ánh); Tuyển tập Nam Cao; Tuyển tập truyện
ngắn Nguyễn Công Hoan; Tuyển tập truyện ngắn Chu Lai; Tuyển tập
truyện ngắn Vũ Trọng Phụng; Truyện ngắn nữ đặc sắc Việt Nam từ
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1986 đến nay and Ăn mày dĩ vãng (Chu Lai).

4. The Thesis’s Research Methodology
- Descriptive method: This method is used when describing the
grammatical, semantic and pragmatic characteristics of the predicators,
the participants and the circumstances in verbal process in English and
in Vietnamese.
- Comparative method: This method is used to compare and
find out the similarities and differences between the verbal process in
English and in Vietnamese and thereby show the typical features of
verbal process in these two languages.
Besides, the thesis also uses the following tactics:
- The tactics of analyzing the components of meaning: This
method is used to analyze the components of meaning in verbal process
in English and the participants, especially analyzing the characteristics
of speaking verbs with the role of predicator in verbal process in
English, compared with Vietnamese.
- The tactics of statistics, classification: This method is used to
reckon types of predicators, participants and classify these types in the
verbal process in English and in Vietnamese.
5. New Scientific Contributions of the Thesis
The thesis has pointed out the grammatical, semantic and
pragmatic characteristics of the predicators, the participants and the
circumstances in verbal process in
English, in contrast with
Vietnamese. These research results can contribute to teaching English in
schools and learning more about British culture in communication.
6. Theoretical and Practical Meaning of the Thesis
Theoriotical meaning: The thesis clarifies the characteristics of
verbal process in English and in Vietnamese in terms of grammar,
semantics and pragmatics. On that basis, it clarifies the similarities and
differences in verbal process in English and in Vietnamese in the abovementioned aspects.

Practical meaning: The thesis’s research results can be applied
in teaching verbal process in English and in Vietnamese, help teachers
with a basis to teach the grammatical structure and expressive meaning
structure characteristics of the English utterances and their equivalents
in Vietnamese.
7. Organisation of the thesis
In addition to the Introduction and Conclusion, appendices and
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references, the thesis consists of 4 chapters: Chapter 1: Literature
review and theoretical grounds of verbal process; Chapter 2:
Characteristics of predicator in verbal process in English, compared
with Vietnamese; Chapter 3: Characteristics of the participants in verbal
process in English, compared with Vietnamese.
CHAPTER 1
LITERATURE REVIEW
AND THEORETICAL GROUNDS OF VERBAL PROCESS
1.1. Research situation of verbal process:
1.1.1. Research situation of verbal process in the world
Functional grammar (FG) is a new approach of linguistics in the
late twentieth century. FG has studied the rules governing language
activities on form and content aspects in functional relationships
through observation of language usage. Processes, in general, are one of
FG's research focuses. Typical authors are: M.A.K. Halliday (1985,
1994); S.C Dik, Simon (1989, 1997, 2005); A. Siewierska (1991); Alice
Caffarel (2006), T. Givón (1984, 1990), J.R. Martin & et al (1985,
1997), S.C Dik (1997, 2005) ... In the perspective of systematic
functional grammar, MAK Halliday (1985), (1994), (2004) divided the
world processes into three main domains: the material world, the

spiritual world and the world of abstract relationship. Corresponding to
them are six types of processes: material process, behavoiral process,
mental process, relational process, existential process and verbal
process.
1.1.2. Domestic research situation of verbal process
In Vietnamese linguistics, functional grammar was studied in the
works by authors Cao Xuan Hao (1991, 2004); Nguyen Thi Quy (1995);
Diep Quang Ban (2012), Hoang Van Van (2005) ... . More specifically,
the study of verbal process in Vietnamese can include a number of
theses, dissertations, typically, Verbal Process in Vietnamese (Le Thi
Thom (2012)). The thesis has provided a general picture of verbal
process in Vietnamese from the semantic - grammartical - pragmatic
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perspective. This is the basis for us to compare with verbal process in
English. However, there has not been a comprehensive study in terms of
functional grammar about verbal process in English, as well as a
comparison of verbal process between English and Vietnamese to find
out similarities and differences of verbal proccess in two languages.
This is the main task that we propose in this thesis.
1.2. Theoretical ground related to the thesis
In this section, we present some theoretical bases related to the
thesis: 1/ Functional grammar with the issues of three aspects of
sentences; 2/ Overview of verbal process; 3/ Overview of comparative
linguistics.
In term of FG, three aspects of a sentence are considered as
semantics, grammar and pragmatics. Although they are clearly
separated from each other, they have a dialectical and interactive
relationship with each other. Therefore, from the functional grammar

viewpoint, linguistic phenomena must be studied in these three aspects.
The thesis identifies that verbal process in English consists of
predicators and four participants: Sayer, Receiver, Target and Verbiage.
These elements can incorporate and appear fully in one statement, can
also be omitted in specific contexts. In the structure of meaning,
predicator is the element that creates the feature of verbal proccess,
expresses the content in communication. Participants in verbal proccess
may or may not appear. Sayer is an entity that is capable of speaking,
usually a human being. Receiver is the participant receiving the speech.
Target is the one that is affected by the action. Verbiage is the content
of the statement. The predicator in the verbal process is able to combine
words of speaking mode, especially words that refer to sounds, noise.

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CHAPTER 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF PREDICATORS IN ENGLISH
VERBAL PROCESS, COMPARED WITH VIETNAMESE
2.1. An overview of predicators in English verbal process
2.1.1. Characteristics of English predicators
Speaking verbs have the following characteristics: Firstly,
speaking verbs can combine easily with words of speaking mode.
Secondly, English speaking verbs often come with Sayer and Receiver/
Target; It is distinguished by Verbiage, with a comma (,) and enclosed
in quotation marks ("") or with a colon (:). Thirdly, English speaking
verb is one of the 5 components in the structure of verbal process.
Fourthly, depending on the conditions of use, speaking verbs can be
used in two functions: description and speech.
2.1.2. Classification of predicator in English verbal process

The first group: The predicators of verbal process is denoted by
official speaking verbs. In this group, we divide official speaking verbs
into 5 groups: predicator in English verbal process represented by
speaking verbs of representatives; predicator in verbal process
represented by speaking verbs of directives; predicator in verbal process
represented by speaking verbs of commissives; predicator in verbal
process represented by speaking verbs of declarations; predicator in
verbal process represented by speaking verbs of expressives
The second group: The predicator of verbal process is denoted
by unofficial speaking verbs. In this group, we surveyed specific
subgroups: predicator of English verbal process denoted by words
indicating the speaking mode; predicator of English verbal process
denoted by physical, psychological – action verbs with words;
predicator of English verbal process denoted by animal’s sound.
2.2. Characteristics of predicator in Verbal process in English
Table 2.1: Classification of predicator in English verbal
process
Predicators in verbal process
The
predicators
of verbal
process
denoted by
official
speaking

Official speaking
verbs
of
representatives

Official speaking
verbs of directives
Official speaking

Speaking verb representatives

Occurences

Percentage
(%)

1296

53.7

450

18.6

66

2.7

inform, tell, remind, report, say …

Order;
command;
Implore,
command; direct, order; Request
say….

Swear, assure, assert, pledge,

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verbs
of
commissives
Official speaking
verbs
of
declarations
Official speaking
verbs
of
exxpressives

verbs

The
predicators
of verbal
process
denoted by
unofficial speaking
verbs

The predicators of
verbal
process

denoted by words
of speaking mode
The predicators of
verbal
process
denoted by verbs
of
physical,
psychological –
action with words.
The predicators of
verbal
process
denoted by verbs
of animal’s sound

promise, refuse, say …
pronounce,
accuse,
announce say …

proclaim,

console, argue, criticize, mock,
abuse, nag, shout, scold, scream,
sound, praise, squeak, complain,
reprimand, extol, say …
Whisper, grumble, soft, mutter,
incessant, drawl …

Think, sigh, laugh, shrug, stare,
beam, stroke, hesitate, clap,
surmise, nod, eye…

Bark, bleat, cackle, chirp, cluck,
coo, growl, hiss, purr, roar, snarl
…

Total

25

1.0

152

6.3

232

9.6

108

4.4

82

3.7

2411

100.0

2.2.1. Predicator in English verbal process
2.2.1.1. Predicator in English verbal process denoted by official
speaking verbs
1/ Predicator in English verbal process represented by speaking verbs
of representatives
As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have noted
1296/2411 times that the predicator in English verbal process is
represented by speaking verbs of representatives, accounting for 53.7%.
In English, with the characteristics of performatives, speaking verbs
must include the following words: say, told, inform, tell, remind, report,
... (verbs with repetitive content/ property). These are verbs that are
themselves more inclined to representieves.
In terms of grammatical characteristics, it can be seen that
speaking verbs of representatives in general, speaking verbs in verbal
process in particular, have the following characteristics:
In terms of position: The most common position of the
predicator is after Sayer and before Receiver /Target. In many cases,
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speaking verbs in representatives remain at the end of the sentence. The
Receiver/ Targer is often missing in this case.
Functionally: In terms of syntax, the predicate is the main
element in a sentence, so it specifies the syntax position and syntax
function of the other elements in the sentence. The element that is most
closely related to the predicate (which is done by speaking verbs) is the

subject (usually by the Sayer). The element governed by predicate is
complement (usually by Receiver/ Target and Verbiage). In addition,
there may also appear other components due to the provisions of the
context of the situation which is the object and the adverb (usually by the
circumstance).
In terms of the semantic characteristics: One of the
characteristics that distinguishes verbal process from other processes is
the nature of different relationships in the verbal process. Verbal
process as said above, includes Sayer, Verbiage, Receiver, Target and
the predicator. The participants in the verbal process are related to each
other. For the speaking verbs in representavies, in terms of the meaning
structure, the predicators in verbal process with the representative
meaning usually have the following structures:
1/ Sayer thinks that the verbiage that he/she knows is true.
2/ Sayer thinks that Receiver/ Target did not know / did not
know enough about the verbiage.
3/ Sayer thinks that the verbiage is beneficial.
4/ Sayer thinks that TNT / ĐNT wants to know the content of NT
5/ Sayer says the verbiage to Receiver/ Target.
One of the important characteristics of verbal process in
general, and English verbal process in particular, is the feature of
closely co-locating between verbal process and circumstance.
I'll tell him about the baby. (If Tomorrow Comes, p.61)
I
tell
him
about the baby
Sayer
Process: vebal
Receiver

Circumstance
In the above example, the verbiage about the baby is also the
circumstance. Thus, the circumstance is related to verbal process, which
is the equivalent component of Sayer. In English, the circumstances are
usually expressed by prepositions such as about, concerning, with
reference to …..
An important feature of verbal process that is different from
other processes, is its projection potentiality. Like mental process,
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verbal process also has the potentiality to evolve into complex
sequences through projection ability. However, the mental process
projects the ideas and the thoughts, verbal process projects the words. A
statement includes a projection of verbal process and the projection may
belong to any processes.
I'm--- I'm Tracy Whitney
Mental process
Madame went out this
morning
Material process
Amy

She
said
Sayer
Verbal process
Pickens, the said
butler
Sayer

Verbal process
said
I love you, Tracy. Will you
be my mother
Sayer
Verbal
Mental process
process
2/ Predicator in verbal process represented by speaking verbs of
directives
As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics
of 450/2411 times that predicator in verbal process is represented by
speaking verbs of directives, accounting for 18.6%. In English, the
predicator in this group includes the following words: implore;
command; direct, order, ...
In terms of grammatical characteristics, predicator in verbal
process represented by speaking verbs of directives have the following
features:
In terms of position: The most common position of the
predicator is after Sayer (as the subject) and before Receiver/ Target (as
the object). In the case of missing Receiver/ Target, speaking verb of
directives stands at the end of the sentence.
In terms of function: The predicator of verbal process acts as a
predicate in the sentence, so it specifies the syntax position and the
syntactic function of the other elements in the sentence such as the
subject (usually undertaken by Sayer), complements (usually by
Receiver/ Target and Verbiage).
In terms of semantic characteristics, the predicator in verbal
process represented by speaking verb of directives in English usually
has the following meaning structures:

1/ Sayer thinks that he can say Verbiage to Receiver/ Target.
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2/ Sayer thinks that Receiver/ Target needs/ wants to know
Verbiage.
3/ Sayer says Receiver wants Receiver/ Target to perform a
Verbiage.
4/ Sayer thinks that Receiver/ Target will implement what Saye
says.
3/ Predicator in verbal process represented by speaking verbs of
commissives
As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics
of 66/2411 occurrences that predicator in verbal process is represented
by the speaking verbs of commissives, accounting for 2.7%. Speaking
verbs of commissives in English are verbs such as swear, commitment,
assert, pledge, promise, ...
In terms of grammatical characteristics, speaking verbs of
commissives have the following characteristics:
In terms of position: like other speaking verbs in verbal process,
the most common position of commissives is after Sayer (as the subject)
and before Receiver/ Target (as complements).
In terms of function: The predicator acts as a predicate in the
sentence, so it specifies the syntax position and the syntactic function of
the other elements in the sentence such as the subject (usually
undertaken by Sayer), complements (usually by Receiver/ Target and
Verbiage).
In terms of semantic characteristics, the predicator in verbal
process of commissives usually has the following structures:
1 / Sayer thinks that Receiver/ Target is thinking about

Verbiage
2 / Sayer says that Receiver/ Target is not sure about Verbiage
3/ Sayer thinks that he/she need/ must make Receiver/ Target
believe in Verbiage
4/ Sayer asserts Verbiage with Receiver/ Target
4/ Predicator in verbal process represented by speaking verbs of
declarations
As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics
of 25/2411 occurrences that predicator in verbal process is represented
by the speaking verbs of declarations, accounting for 1.0%. Speaking
verbs of declarations in English are verbs: pronounce, accuse, proclaim,
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announce, ...
In terms of grammatical characteristics, speaking verbs of
declarations in English have the following characteristics:
In terms of position: speaking verbs of declarations in English
can stand at the following positions: at the end of the sentence; between
sentences; after Sayer and before Receiver/ Target.
The position after Sayer and before Receiver/ Target is the most
common position for a predicator in the verbal process.
In terms of semantic characteristics: in the speaking verb of
declarations, about the meaning structure, the predicator in verbal
process usually have the following meaning structures:
1/ Sayer thinks that Receiver/ Target wants Sayer to say a
Verbiage
2/ Sayer tells Receiver/ Target about Verbiage
3/ Sayer wants Receiver/ Target to think about Verbiage
4/ Sayer says that after the Verbiage is told, the content of

Verbiage is done
5/ Predicator in verbal process represented by speaking verbs of
expressives
As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics of
152/2411 times English predicator in verbal process is represented by the
speaking verbs of expressives, accounting for 6.3%. In English, the
speaking verbs of expressives are console, argue, criticize, mock, abuse,
nag, shout, scold, scream, sound, praise, squeak, complain, reprimand,
extol ...
In terms of grammatical characteristics, it can be seen that
speaking verbs of expressives have the following characteristics:
In terms of position: Unlike verbs from other groups, speaking
verbs of expressives do not need Receiver/ Target. Therefore, speaking
verbs of expressives only need to stand before or after Sayer.
In terms of function: The predicator makes the predicate in the
sentence. The predicate is capable of defining the syntax function and
syntactic function of the other elements in the sentence. Therefore, the
predicate has a close relationship with the subject and is related to other
components such as complements and adverbs.
In terms of semantic characteristics: speaking verbs of expressives,
about the meaning structure, usually have the following structures:
1/ Sayer has feelings about Verbiage
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2/ Sayer wants to express their feelings
3/ Sayer expresses the feeling to Receiver/ Target.
2.2.1.2. English predicator in verbal process represented by unofficial
speaking verbs
1/ English predicator in verbal process denoted by words of speaking mode

As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics
of 232/2411 occurrences English predicator in verbal process is denoted
by words of speaking mode, accounting for 9.6%.
2/ English predicator in verbal process denoted by the verb of physical,
psychological action with words.
As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics of
108/2411 times that English predicator in verbal process is denoted by the
verb of physical, psychological action with words, accounting for 4.4% .
Verbs of physical, psychological action with words are words
of human activity. But not all verbs of physical, psychological action
are also capable of being used as the predicator in verbal process. To
become the predicator in verbal process, physical or psychological
verbs have conditions, properties and characteristics close to speaking
verbs. Basically, verbs of physical, psychological action have the
following characteristics:
In our opinion, the group of physical action verbs can be
divided into the following sub-groups: 1/ The verbs describing the
action leading to physical changes; 2/ The verbs of the body movement
coming with words: sigh, laugh, stroke, beam , urmise ...
3 / English predicator in verbal process denoted by verbs of animal’s sound
As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have recorded
82/2411 occurrences that English predicator in verbal process is
denoted by verbs of animal’s sound, accounting for 3.7%.
In fact, verbs of animal’s sound can be categorized into four
subtypes: verbs describing insect sound, bird sound, animal sound, and
fish sound. In these four categories, the sounds of birds and animals can
be used to convey the speech of people.
In terms of transliteration mechanism, the sound of birds in
reality is usually high, light, with rhym and melody. These positive
traits are used to describe the small, upbeat, expressive speech of Sayer.

The sound of birds in English has words such as coo, gurg ... Unlike the
sound of birds that is usually soft and frank; the sounds that animals
from the zoo's family can produce are heavier, stronger and more
12


intense. Therefore, if the sound of a bird is often used to express a
positive human affection, the sound of an animal expresses the negative
sentiment of humans, primarily of Sayer. Therefore, these typical
speaking actions often show negative politeness, and Sayer is not
respected.
2.2.2. Predicator in verbal process in Vietnamese
We, in this part, would like to present the properties of the
predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese which is expressed by
official speaking verbs (predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese
expressed by speaking verbs of representatives; predicator of the verbal
process in Vietnamese expressed by speaking verbs of directives;
predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese expressed by speaking verbs
of commissives; predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese expressed
by speaking verbs of declarations; predicator of the verbal process in
Vietnamese expressed by speaking verbs of expressives) and predicator of
the verbal process in Vietnamese which is expressed by unofficial speaking
verbs (predicator of the verbal process; predicator in the verbal process in
Vietnamese expressed by physical and psychological action with words;
predicator in the verbal process in Vietnamese expressed by animals’
sound)
2.2.3. Comparing the predicator in verbal process in English and in
Vietnamese
2.2.3.1. Similarities
There are many things in common between the predicator of

verbal process in English and in Vietnamese. Basically, the quantity and
names of groups and sub-groups of speaking verbs in English are similar
to those in Vietnamese. English and Vietnamese both have five official
speaking verb groups and the sub-groups are also alike.
According to a survey, the position of speaking verbs in verbal
process is normally after Sayer and before Receiver/target. However,
speaking verbs of expressives and commissives often do not go along
with Receiver. Therefore, the position of speaking verbs in this case is at
the end of the sentence or after Sayer. One of the important
characteristic of verbal process in general is closely co-locating between
verbal process and circumstance. This characteristic appears in both
verbal process in English and in Vietnamese. Another indispensable
characteristics that used to distinguish verbal process from other
processes is the projection potential. A statement can include a
13


projection of the verbal process and the projection that may belong to
any processes. Projection in verbal process may be of extraction or
notification. Regarding to survey, there are verbs that can be projected
both above kinds, and there are verbs that can be projected one of the
above kinds.
In terms of position, speaking verbs are often followed by sayer
and preceded by Receiver/Target, or after Sayer and before that in
English and rằng in Vietnamese.
In terms of function, predicator in both English and Vietnamese
play the role of predicate which has close relationship with subject and
complement.
In terms of meaning, verbal process in English and in
Vietnamese includes of sayer, verbiage, Receiver/target and predicator.

Participants in verbal process are in a relationship.
2.2.3.2. Differences
Verbal process with predicator which are official speaking verbs
in English accounts for less percentage than that in Vietnamese (82.3%
in English, 83.6% in Vietnamese). On the contrary, the percentage of
verbal process with predicator which are unofficial speech act verbs in
English (17.7%) is higher than that in Vietnamese (16.4%). This shows
that English people use a wider variety of unofficial lexis than
Vietnamese people. At the same time, Vietnamese people has tendency
to use more official speech act verbs than English people.
Regarding to grammar, both English and Vietnamese speaking
verbs can combine with elements preceding and following them.
Nevertheless, Vietnamese speaking verbs can combine with elements
before and after them to form a verb phrase, while English speaking verbs
can only combine with elements following them to form a verb phrase.
In combination with Sayer, predicator in Vietnamese can only
be preceded by Sayer, never followed by Sayer. However, predicator in
English can go before or after Sayer.
Predicator in English can be followed by Sayer, especially in
case of having no accompanied Recepient/Target (said Harry, said
Hermione, said Ron, etc.) When verbs as predicators are accompanied
by words to particularize verbs, they can go after or before sayer
(Hagrid called back happily; said Ron quietly, etc.) Besides, predicators
in English can go after Sayer (Uncle Vernon said hoarsely; she said;
Sirius said, etc.) or stand between sayer and Recepient/target (We've
14


asked Charles; he told Tracy; the policeman told her, etc.).
Predicators in Vietnamese can only be preceded by Sayer in

case of with or without Receiver (Tôi nói, tôi nói với cô ấy, etc.). There
is no way that predicators in Vietnamese go after Sayer.
Regarding to expression form, verbiage in English is
distinguished from predicator by a comma. While in Vietnamese,
verbiage is differentiated from other elements by colon. Therefore, the
position of speaking verbs in English can be right after verbiage while
this case does not appear in Vietnamese.
2.3. Sub-conclusion
Through research, surveys of verbal process in English, we
draw some following conclusions:
For predicator in verbal process denoted by official speaking
verbs, the highest proportion is the official speaking verbs of
representatives. For each verbal group, there is a different basic content,
so it is also necessary to use different speaking verb. The basic content
that speaking verbs of representatives must perform is to inform
insights about things that have been, or will happen in reality. Verbs of
this covenant group have the same meaning as a commitment to do the
promised things, affirm that they will do something according to the
agreed and committed contents. The speaking verbs of declarations is
usually performed in a formal ceremony. In addition to verbal process
with official speaking verbs, there are predicators which are unofficial
speaking verb. Although they are not official speaking verbs in verbal
process but they are used with the meaning of speaking, words of
speaking mode, physical action, and verbs of animal’s sound.
Official speaking verbs and unofficial speaking verbs surveyed
are typical, only to be surveyed in a limited range of literary works,
because it is difficult to fully list and describe fully, in fact, all of these
speaking verbs, especially unofficial speaking verbs. The study of
unofficial speaking verbs also shows that Vietnamese and English are
very delicate, productive and flexible in communication. Depending on

the context and mood, they choose suitable verbal verbs.

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CHAPTER 3
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPANTS IN ENGLISH
VERBAL PROCESS, COMPARED WITH VIETNAMESE
3.1. Overview of participants in the structure of English verbal
process
In the full form, sentences with English verbal process are
structured:
Sayer - Predicator - Receiver (Target) - Verbiage or Verbiage Sayer - Predicator - Target
However, there may be the following shortened forms:
Sayer + Predicator; Verbiage + Predicator + Receiver/ Target;
Sayer + Predicator + Verbiage; Predicator +/- Receiver/ Target
+/- Verbiage
3.2. Characteristics of participants in English and Vietnamese
verbal processes
3.2.1. Characteristics of participants in English verbal process
Obligatory participants:
Firstly, in terms of meaning, verbiage in verbal process may
belong to all different processes in experience world. The basic feature
of English verbal process is the verbiage which covers all different
verbal process. The content of verbiage in verbal process may mention
all process kinds in experience world. Other processes may be
mentioned and expressed in verbal process as verbiage. Basically,
verbal process is a double process including verbal process and
somewhat X process (of verbiage). It is only verbal process that has this
feature.

Secondly, in terms of grammar: regarding to word form,
verbiage in English verbal process may be expressed by words, phrases,
sentences, paragraphs. Regarding to the role of grammar in sentences,
speeches always have “thing that is spoken” which is call verbiage.
Verbiage always goes along with speech content which is predicator,
“thing that predicator wants to express”. Therefore, in terms of
grammar, verbiage adds meaning to predicator and plays the role of
complement in a sentence.
Thirdly, in terms of pragmatics (regarding to the function of
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expressing speech act), verbiage may express these following speech
acts: expressives, declarations, requests, promises, vows, etc.
Fourthly, in terms of position, the normal position of verbiage
in English is before sayer or at the beginning of a sentence
Sayer: Regarding to meaning, sayer in verbal process can be
divided into two main groups: 1) Words used to name directly/indirectly
and to address; 2) Words used as metaphorical conversion meaning.
Regarding to structure, verbiage can be words or phrases. In terms of
position, verbiage can stand at the beginning, in the middle or at the end
in structure process. In terms of grammar, verbiage often plays the role of
the subject in a sentence or clause. Regarding to category, verbiage is
people.
Receiver and Target: In terms of meaning, Receiver and target
are usually human.
In terms of quantity, sayer is mainly a person while Receiver
and target are various in quantity. Receiver/Target can be not only a
person but also many people. In terms of position, Receiver and target
appear flexibly in process structure. This is different from other

participants which have independent and obvious positions in verbal
process.
3.2.2. Characteristics of participants in Vietnamese verbal process
We, in this part, would like to present the characteristics of
verbiage, sayer, Receiver/target in Vietnamese verbal process.
3.3. Comparing participants of English verbal process and
Vietnamese verbal process
3.3.1. Similarities
Verbal processes in English and in Vietnamese both have
participants that are sayer, Receiver/ target, verbiage. Additionally, both
verbal processes have other extended participants.
Verbiage in English and Vietnamese verbal process may belong
to all different process in experience world, which means the content of
verbiage in verbal process may mention all process in the experience
world. Verbal process in English and in Vietnamese are double process
including verbal process and X process. This X process belongs to
verbiage expressed in verbal process. As a result, verbiage may be
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material, relative, mental or verbal process. Verbiage may be expressed
by words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs; may express many different
speech acts like expressives, declarations, requests, promises, vows, etc.
In terms of position, verbiage in both verbal process may stand at many
different positions in a sentence: at the beginning, in the middle or at the
end.
Sayers in both English and Vietnamese verbal process are
structured as words or phrases. In terms of word form, sayer in these
two verbal processes is often a pronoun or a noun. Besides, sayer may
stand at many positions in the sentence expressing verbal process, and

play the role of the subject in that sentence. In terms of meaning, sayer
in English and Vietnamese verbal process may be words used to name
directly/indirectly and to address or words used as metaphorical
conversion meaning.
Receiver and target appear flexibly in English and Vietnamese
verbal process; can be absent or present in verbal process; can be
expressed by words or phrases. In English and Vietnamese verbal
process, Receiver and target are various in quantity. It can be a person
or many people.
In terms of function, circumstances in English and Vietnamese
verbal process are the same. They both show time, place, reason,
method, etc. The position of circumstance in English and Vietnamese
can be at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence.
Basically, English and Vietnamese have similarities and
differences in the relationship between the structure predicator –
participant and subject – predicate.
In English and Vietnamese, sayer in verbal process is equal to the
subject. Predicator of the process in verbal process is equal to the
predicate in a sentence. Complement is equal to Receiver, target or
verbiage.
3.3.2. Differences
Depending on communicative purpose, target and verbiage in
English and Vietnamese can stand at any positions in a sentence, at the
beginning, in the middle or at the end. However, verbiage in
Vietnamese often stands at the end of a sentence while verbiage in
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English often stands at the beginning of a sentence. Verbiage in English
verbal process is distinguished from other elements in the sentence by

comma or that. Meanwhile, verbiage in Vietnamese verbal process is
differentiated from other elements in the sentence by colon or rằng/là.
Receiver/target in English and Vietnamese are normally the
same. However, in English, passive voice structure used Receiver as
subject and dummy subject are utilized popularly, while Vietnamese
rarely has this equivalent phenomenon, especially in speaking verbs.
Verbs in English has a tight rule of functions of monovalent predicate
framework. Therefore, monovalent structures such as “he told...” are not
considered as being standard. In Vietnamese, participants appear
flexibly depending on the context.
However, in English verbal process, sayer and predicator in the
verbal process can exchange their positions and stand after verbiage.
This is not the case of Vietnamese verbal process. It means that in
Vietnamese verbal process, sayer and predicator of the verbal process
cannot exchange their positions and usually stand before verbiage. It
can be seen that the position of elements in English verbal process are
more flexible than those in Vietnamese. Especially, sayer and predicator
of verbal process in English have flexible exchanging as mentioned
above.
Circumstances in verbal process in Vietnamese are adverbial
clauses while circumstances in English are additional background
information which may be preposition phrases, adverbs, structures Ving or to + verb, and adverbial clauses, complements, supplements.
3.4. Sub-conclusion
Through surveys, the research on participants in English verbal
process, compared with Vietnamese, we can see:
Along with the sayer, there are also participants in verbal
process. These include verbiage, receiver, target and sayer. Sayer is an
indispensable component in verbal process. The other participants may
coexist or be absent in the English verbal process.
Belonging to obligatory participants, the verbiage is the content

of the speech and can also be the name of the speech. Verbiage is an
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additional element in the sentence, adding meaning to the predicator. In
terms of semantics, verbiage belongs to all the processes in the material
life such as material, mental, relative, behavior ... In terms of
pragmatics, verbiage can express many different actions. Sayer in
verbal process can be human as well as non-human. Regarding the
position in verbal process, sayer can have a diverse position, may have
the first position, may be after the verbiage, or stand between the
verbiages. Receiver and target in verbal process are the receivers of the
speech. Receiver, target can stand after the predicator, before the
verbiage, can also stand before the sayer.
Unlike the obligatory participants, the circumstance in verbal
process is the optional element and not subject to the predicator.
Circumstances can be of time, position, cause, condition, etc.
Circumstance can also be prepositional phrase, adverb and other types.
Like other types of circumstance, the position of the circumstance is
various, possibly before sayer, possibly before predicator, or after
receiver/ target or after verbiage.
The research on English verbal process also shows that the
elements in the meaning structure of the verbal process have the
corresponding grammatical components in the sentence. Sayer and
receiver in speech can correspond to the subject in the sentence or
correspond to the object in the sentence. The predicator in speech can
correspond to the predicate of the sentence. The verbiage corresponds to
the object of the sentence. The target in verbal process corresponds to
the object that the speech towards. Circumstances in verbal process
corresponds to the adverb or preposition in the sentence

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CONCLUSIONS
The research and survey of verbal process in English, compared
with Vietnamese, draw out the following conclusions:
1. The three aspects of sentences are the semantics, grammar
and pragmatics of sentences that have a dialectical relationship, interact
with each other and have a clear distinction with each other. Therefore,
in functional grammar perspective, when studying linguistic
phenomena, it is necessary to consider all three aspects of the sentence.
The theory of functional grammar has shown the superiority when it is
used in research of verbal process in English, compared with
Vietnamese. Hence, verbal process in English is studied on the overall
aspects of both grammar, semantic, pragmatic and grammatical aspects.
2. The results of the study have shown that the position of
speaking verbs in verbal process is very flexible, maybe after Sayer and
before Receiver/ Target; can stand before verbiage or at the end of the
sentence. An important feature of verbal process in general, verbal
process in English and in Vietnamese in particular, is the feature of
closely co-locating between verbal process and the circumstance. In
addition, the unique feature of verbal process is its projection
potentiality. Projection in a verbal process may belong to one of the two
forms: excerpts and notification. However, while there are speaking
verbs that can project both forms, the others can project in one of the
two forms. The study has also shown that verbal process is a special
process because verbal process has the ability to include other processes
in its verbiage. The content of verbiage can contain all the other
processes such as material, relative, existential ... and potentially

include verbal process inside. Therefore, the verbal process, in terms of
structure, is formed as one process and one with another process.
3. English verbal process usually has 5 components: predicator,
Sayer, Recepient, Target and verbiage. These components can be
combined and appear fully in a statement, or incompletely in specific
contexts. However, the predicator and Sayer are the two components
that appear in most of the verbal process in English, especially the
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verbal process cannot dispense with verbiage. In the structure of
meaning, predicator of the verbal process is a component that makes
features of verbal process. If Sayer is an entity that is capable of making
a speech, usually a conscious participant, the Recepient is a participant
that receives the speech, the receiver of a speech. The verbiage is the
content of the statement. Overall, verbiage is obligatory component in a
verbal process. Sayer and Recepient/ Target may or may not be
available.
4. Predicator of Vietnamese verbal process includes 2 groups:
predicator of the verbal process denoted by official speaking verbs and
predicator of the verbal process is denoted by unofficial speaking verbs.
Unofficial speaking verbs often appear only in daily life, in arts and
literature, and rarely in scientific and administrative documents. Official
speaking verbs can appear in many different types and styles. However,
the group of speaking verbs expressing the official ones also appear
only in daily situations, art and literature, but not in administrative
documents and scientific documents.
For each speaking verb group, there is a different basic content.
The basic content that speaking verbs of representatives must perform is
to announce their understanding of what has happened or will happen in

the reality. Speaking verbs of commissives have the same meaning as a
commitment to do exactly what it has promised, confirm that it will do
something according to the agreed content. Speak verbs are usually
made in a formal ceremony. In English, speaking verbs of commissives
is used to express the feelings of Sayer to Recepients/ Target. In
addition to verbal process with official speaking verbs, there are some
verbal processes whose predicators are the unofficial speaking verbs.
Those are words that are not unofficial speaking verbs but they are are
used with speaking meaning.
English predicator in verbal process denoted by official
speaking verbs accounts for a larger proportion than that denoted by
unofficial speaking verbs. Among English predicator in verbal process
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denoted by official speaking verbs, the highest proportion is speaking
verbs of representatives. The next is official speaking verbs of
expressive, then speaking verbs of commissives, and then speaking
verbs of declarations, finally, the official speaking verbs of directives.
Among English predicators in verbal process denoted by
unofficial speaking verbs, the unofficial speaking verbs of speaking
mode accounts for the highest proportion of speech; next is English
speaking verbs presented by the animal's sound; Finally, English
speaking verbs denoted by physical and psychological action with
words. Thus, in addition to the speaking verbs used as the predicator in
verbal process, there are words from other groups used with the
meaning of the speaking. This confirms once more again the flexibility
in using the English and Vietnamese language.
5. Participants in verbal process includes verbiage, Sayer,
Receiver and Target. Verbiage is the subject of what is said. It is

possible that the content of the statement may also be the name of the
statement. Sayer can be a person as well as an object which emit
verbiage. Receiver/ Target in the verbal process are speech receivers.
In terms of structure, verbiage can be words, phrases, paragraphs,
sentences, additional components in a sentence, adding the meaning to
predicator of the verbal process. Sayer, Receiver/ Target can be a word, a
phrase, a proper noun, or personal pronoun or noun phrase. Verbiage is
the special component in verbal process because the content of the
verbiage can cover all the issues, it means that it can contain other
processes.
In terms of position, obligatory participants have various
positions. Sayer can stand at the first position, may be after the verbiage
or between the verbiages. Receiver/ Target can stand after predicator
and before verbiage, also can be before Sayer. The participants in verbal
process are closely related. Depending on the communication position,
Sayers will select appropriate predicators in the verbiage content for
Receiver/ Target. In addition, verbiage not only matches with reality,
23